ED 105- Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

CHAPTER 1 - METACOGNITION
OVERVIEW

Metacognition is such a long word. What does it mean? You will find this out in this module and
understand later how to apply this in acquiring learning and developing as a person.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you must have:

• Explained metacognition;
• Determined if you are novice or an expert learner; and
• Applied the metacognition strategies in your own quest for learning.

Metacognition
INDICATIVE CONTENT Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning
Novice and Expert Learners

POINTS OF DISCUSSION

The most important goal of education is to teach students how to learn on their own. It is a vital
that students acquire the skills of how to learn; and that these skills enable them to learn not just while
they are in school but for a life time. This entails a deeper awareness of how one process information,
the ability to evaluate his own thinking and to think of ways to make his own learning process more
effective. All these involve metacognition.

The term “metacognition” was coined by John Flavell. According Flavell (1979, 1987),
metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation.
Metacognition, simply put, is “thinking about thinking” or “learning how to learn”. It refers to higher
order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the cognitive processes engaged in
learning. Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes; knowledge
can be used to control cognitive processes. Flavell further divides metacognitive knowledge into three
categories: knowledge of person variables, task variables and strategy variables.

Person Variable. This includes how one views himself as a learner and thinker. Knowledge of person
variables refers to knowledge about how human being learn and process information, as well as individual
knowledge of one’s own learning processes. For example, you may be aware that your study more
effectively if you study very early in the morning than late in the evening, and that you work better in
quiet library rather than at home where there are lot of things that make it hard for you to focus and
concentrate.

Task Variables. Knowledge of task variable includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as
the type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual. It is about knowing what exactly
needs to be accomplished, gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind of effort it will demand from you.
For example, you may be aware that it will take more time for you to read and comprehend a book
educational philosophy than it would for you to read and comprehend a novel.

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Strategy Variables. Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness of the strategy you are using
to learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is effective. If you think your strategy is not working,
then you may think of various strategies and try out one to see if it will help you learn better. Term like
meta-attention and meta-memory are related to strategy variables. Meta-attention is the awareness
of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention focused on the topic or task at hand. Meta-
memory is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you.

These three variables all interact as you learn and apply metacognition. Omrod, includes the following in
the practice of metacognition:

• Knowing the limit of one’s own learning and memory capacities

• Knowing the learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within a certain amount of time
• Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not
• Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful
• Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new material
• Monitoring one’ own knowledge and comprehension. In other words, knowing when
information has been successfully learned and when it’s not
• Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information.
• Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in a purposeful manner to ensure
that a goal is met. For example, a student may use knowledge in planning how to do
homework; “I know that I (person variable) have more difficulty with my science
assignments than English and find Araling Panlipunan easier (task variable), so I will do
my homework in science first, then language arts, then Araling Panlipunan. (Strategy
variable).” If one is only aware about one’s cognitive strengths or weaknesses and the
nature of the task but does not use this to guide or oversee hi/her own learning, then no
metacognition has been applied.

Huitt believes that metacognition includes the ability to ask and answer the following types of
questions:

• What do I know about the subject, topic, issue?

• Do I know what do I need to know?
• Do I know where I can go to get some information, knowledge?
• How much time will I need to learn this?
• What are some strategies and tactics that I can use to learn this?
• Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw?
• How will I know if I am learning at an appropriate rate?
• How can I spot an error if I make one?
• How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my expectations/satisfaction?

Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning

The challenge then to future teacher teachers like you is to integrate more activities that would build
your students’ capacity to reflect own their own characteristics as learners (self-knowledge), the task
they are to do (task knowledge) and the strategies that they can use to learn (strategic knowledge).
Remember, metacognition is like any another thing you will teach. Metacognition involves knowledge
and skills which you and your students can learn and master.

Here are some examples of teaching strategies to develop metacognition: (Work on applying these
strategies now in your role as student. I will surely be a rewarding learning experience for you).

1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking (Example: have student monitor a peer’s
leaning/thinking/behaving in dyad)
2. Teach students study or learning strategies
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TQLR- This can be taught to younger students (primary grades). It is metacognitive strategy
before listening to a story or presentation.

T is for Tune in. It is first important for the learner himself to be aware that he is paying
attention, and that he is ready to learn.
Q is for Question. The learner is given questions or he think of questions about what he
will soon learn.

L is for Listen. The learner then intentionally exerts effort to listen. He becomes aware if
he is momentarily detracted and goes back to listen again.

R is for Remember. The leaner uses ways or strategies to remember what was learned

PQ4R- This is usually for older students in the intermediate levels and onwards. This
strategy is used in study a unit or chapter.

P – Preview. Scan the whole chapter before delving on each paragraph. Heck out the
objectives. Look for outlines or advance organizers that will give you an idea about the
important topics and ideas in the chapter. Read the summary of the chapter first. (But
please don’t stop at the summary alone. No. No. No. This is not a good idea at all. Read
the whole chapter!)

Q- Question. Read the guide questions provided, or think or your own questions about
the topic.

R- Read. Check out sub heading as you read. Pay attention on words that are printed in
bold or italicized. Find out the meaning of words that are not clear to you. Use a marker
or colored pencil to highlight important words or phrases.
(Do not highlight the whole paragraph!)
R- Recite. Work on answering the questions who had earlier.
R- Review. Pinpoint topics you may need to go back and read in order to understand
better.
R- Reflect. Think about what you read. Is everything clear to you? What are the main
points you learned? How is this relevant or useful to you?

3. Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based on what they
have read
4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures (Important to have relevant
knowledge structures well learned)
5. Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about what’s going on around
them (Have you asked a good question today?)
6. Help students to know when to ask for help (must be able to self-monitor; require students to
show how they have attempted to deal with the problem of their own)
7. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to

Novice and Expert Learners

In the last twenty years, cognitive psychologists have studied the distinctions among learners in the
manner they absorb or process information. They were able to differentiate expert learners from novice
learners. A very important factor that separated these two types of learners mentioned is metacognition.
Expert learners employed metacognitive strategies in learning. They were more aware of their learning
process as they read, studied and did problem solving. Expert learners monitored their learning and
consequently adjusted their strategies to make learning more effective.

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The table below shows the difference between a novice learner and an expert learner.

Differences between Novice and Expert Learners

Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Expert Learners

Knowledge in • Have limited knowledge • Have deeper knowledge in different
different subjects’ in the different subject subject areas because they look for
areas areas interrelationships in the thing, they
learn
Problem solving • Satisfied a just • First try to understand the problem,
scratching the surface; look for boundaries, and create a
hurriedly gives a mental picture of the problem
solution to the problem
Learning/thinking • Employ rigid strategies • Design new strategies that would
Strategies that may not be be appropriate to the task at and
appropriate to the task
at hand
Selectivity in • Attempt to process all • Select important information to
Processing information they receive process; able to breakdown
information to manageable chunks
Production of output • Do not examine the • Check their errors and redirect their
quality of their work, nor efforts to maintain quality output
stop to make revisions

EXERCISES

Directions: Do the following:

1. How can you develop your metacognitive skills? (10 points)
2. Interview 3 different children- one age 4 – 6, one age 7-9, one age 10 or older. (30 points)
These will be semi-structured clinical interviews. Record the questions you ask and the child’s answer.
You do not have to ask the questions exactly as they are posed below, but the question should be very
similar. Follow up with additional questions when children seem like they have more they can tell you.
Remember to record any follow up questions you ask. You do NOT have to rewrite the notes you take
while conducting the interviews, but you do need to hand them in.

Develop the list of 10 UNRELATED but common words. Take a familiar story (like a fairy tale of a fable)
and rewrite it so it is OUT OF ORDER (it may help to actually write out the story so that you do tell it
out of order).

For a child in kindergarten or younger, follow this procedure.

Tell child that you are going to say a list of 10 words, and you want the child to remember the
words and you’ll ask the child to repeat the list in a little while. Remind the child to listen closely, and
then say the list slowly (about one word every second or two).

Ask the child the following series of questions:

How many words do you think you will remember? What do you need to do to remember the
words? are you good at remembering?
Do some filler questions (what are your favorite things, what do you like to do… to fill up about 5
minutes between giving the list and now).
Ask the child to list all the words you asked them to remember. (record their list)
Ask the child what did they to the help them remember? Did it work?
Tell the child you are also going to tell them a story and that you want them to listen carefully
and retell the story JUST LIKE YOU TOLD IT. Tell the story you rewrote.
Bring a children’s book of appropriate age. Using the book, ask children questions like, “where is
the title of the book,” “where does it tell who wrote the book”, “where’s the beginning and where is the
end of the book”. {These are essentially filler questions}.
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Ask the child to retell the story, reminding them they should retell it in the order you told it.
Thank the child for helping you.

For a child in first age or older, do the following:

Tell the child that you are going to say a list of 10 words, and you want the child to remember the words
and you’ll ask the child to repeat the list in the little while. Remind the child to listen closely, and then
say the list slowly (about one word every second or two).
Ask the child the following series of questions:
How many words do you think you will remember? What do you need to do to remember the words? Are
you good at remembering? What kinds of things do you do to help you remember things? Does your
teacher give your ideas to help you remember things? What different ideas has your teacher given you?
Do you remember some specifics examples of things you have learned in school to help you remember
things? Do you use them? Do you think they are helpful?
Ask the child to list all the words you asked them to remember. (record their list)
Ask the child what they did to help them to remember. Did it work?
Tell the child you are also going to tell them a story and that you want them listen carefully and retell
the story JUST LIKE YOU TOLD IT. Tell the story you rewrote.
Ask the following series of questions: Do you like to read, why or why not? Is there something that
could change at school that might make you like reading more (even more)? What kinds of things do
you read at school? Do you get to choose some of the things you read at school? Do you read outside
of school- if so, what do you like to read? Why do you prefer to read those kinds of things/books? If
you don’t read outside of school, why?
Do you think reading is important? Many people think that reading well helps you do better in
school – do you? Why or why not?
What kinds of things do you do when reading to make sure you understand what you are
reading? Has your teacher helped you learn ways to help you read better? To help you understand and
remember what you read?
Ask the child to retell the story, reminding them they should retell it in the order you told it.
Thank the child for helping you.

EVALUATION

1. Based on the principles of Metacognition, prepare your own metacognitive game plan on how you
can apply metacognition to improve your study skills.
2. Make your own output: song, chat, poster, question list on any of the seven strategies discussed in
the book. Tell about its purpose, and describe that chant, song,and poem.

Purpose:
Description of your output:
Explanation

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CHAPTER 2 - LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES (LCP)

OVERVIEW

You as the learner are the center of instruction. The world of instruction revolves around you.
This module is focused on the fourteen (14) principles that will develop your teaching skills and
prowess to become a productive teacher.

LEARNING
OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you must have:

• Explained the 14 principles;
• Advocated for the use of the 14 principles in the teaching- learning process; and
• Identified ways on how you can apply the 14 principles in instruction as a future teacher.

INDICATIVE
CONTENT

• Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

• Motivational and Affective Factors
• Developmental and Social Factors
• Individual Differences Factors

POINTS OF DISCUSSION

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by the American Psychological
Association. The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner and the learning process.
The 14 principles have the following aspects:
• They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the
learner rather that conditioned habits or psychological factors. However, the principles also attempt
to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.
• The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world learning
situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should be
viewed in isolation.
• The 14 principles re divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive, (2)
motivational and affective, (3) developmental and social, and (4) individual difference
factor influencing learners and learning.
• Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners – from children, to teachers, to
administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our educational system.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process
of constructing meaning from information and experience.
• There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation in motor learning;
and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive skills and learning strategies.
• Learning in school emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can use to construct
meaning from information, experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs.
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• Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume personal responsibility
for contributing to their own learning.
2. Goal of the learning process
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
• The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-directed.
• To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning
strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life span, students must generate
and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, student’s short-term goals and learning may be
sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, revolving
inconsistencies, and deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach
longer-term goals.
• Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with both
personal and educational aspirations and interests.
3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful
ways.
• Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information and
experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a variety of
forms, such as adding to, modifying, or organizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links are
made or develop may vary in different subject areas, and among students with varying talents,
interests, and abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the learner’s prior
knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used most
effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations.
• Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies
that have been shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as concept mapping
and thematic organization or categorizing.
4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
• Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem
solving, and concept learning.
• They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach learning and
performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel situations.
• They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods
they use to see which work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by
observing or interacting with appropriate models.
• Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in developing, applying,
and assessing their strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking.
• Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor
their progress toward these goals.
• In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not
making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative methods to
reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal).
• Instructional methods that focus om helping learners develop these higher order
(metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning.
6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and
instructional practices.
• Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both the
learner and the learning environment.
• Cultural or group influences on student can impact many educationally relevant variables,
such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking.

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• Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners’ level of prior
knowledge, cognitive abilities and their learning strategies.
• The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, can
also have significant impacts on student learning.

Motivation and Affected Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influence on learning

What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation to
learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interest and
goals, and habits of thinking.
• The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure
can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information processing.
• Students’ beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked
influence on motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also influence both the quality of
thinking and information processing as well as an individual’s motivation to learn.
• Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning
and performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by focusing the
learner’s attention on a particular task. However, intense negative emotions (e.g., worrying
about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels)
generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to low performance.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interest, and providing for personal choice and control.
• Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the
learner’s intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basis needs to
be competent and to exercise personal control.
• Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learning perceive as interesting and
personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the learner’s
abilities, and which they believe they can succeed.
• Intrinsic motivation also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world situations
and meet needs for choice and control.
• Educators can encourage and support learner’s natural curiosity and motivation to learn
by attending to individual differences in learners’ perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty,
relevance, and personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided
practice. Without learner’s motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is
unlikely without coercion.
• Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex
knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort,
along with persistence over time.
• Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance
learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension and
understanding.
• Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that enhance
positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that increase learner’s
perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.

Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for
learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
• Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is
presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.

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• Because individual development varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical
domains, achievement in different instructional domains may also vary.
• Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness-such as reading readiness, for
example-may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of
performance.
• The cognitive, emotional, and social development of individual learners and how they
interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture, and community factors.
• Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the quality of language
interactions and two-way communications between adults and children can influence these
developmental areas.
• Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among children with and
without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can facilitate the creation of optimal
learning contexts.
11. Social influences on learning
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication
with others.
• Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on instructional task.
• Learning setting that allow for social interactions, and that respect diversity, encourage
flexible thinking and social competence.
• In interactive and collaborate instructional context, individuals have an opportunity for
perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social, and
moral development, as well as self-esteem.
• Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring can increase learners’
sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate for learning.
• Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation
strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs about
competence in a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and
undue pressure to perform well.
• Positive learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier levels of
thinking, feeling and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively
participate in the learning process, and create a learning community.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning

Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are
function of prior experience and heredity.
• Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
• In addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own
preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However, these
preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their learning goals.
• Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify
them, if necessary.
• The interaction between learner differences and curricular and environmental conditions
is another key factor affecting learning outcomes.
• Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also need attend
to learner perceptions of the degree to which these differences are accepted and adapted to by
varying instructional methods and materials.
13.Learning and diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.
• The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all
learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can influence
learning. Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities
for designing and implementing appropriate learning environments.
• When learning perceive that their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures,
and experiences are valued, respected, and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, level
of motivation and achievement are enhanced.

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14.Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well
as learning progress – including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment – are
integral parts of the learning process.
• Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the
learning process.
• Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards appropriately high
goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as current
knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree
of difficulty.
• Ongoing assessment of the learner’s understanding of the curricular material can provide valuable
feedback to both learners and teachers about progress toward the learning goals.
• Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes assessment provides one type of
information about achievement levels both within and across individuals that can inform various
types of programmatic decisions.
• Performance assessments can provide other sources of information about the attainment of
learning outcome.
• Self-assessment of learning progress can also improve student’s self-appraisal skills and enhance
motivation and self-directed learning.
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five areas.
1. The knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning.
The learner’s previous knowledge will influence new learning specifically on how the represents new
information, makes associations and filters new experiences.
2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their
thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more effectively (metacognition).
3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within), reasons for wanting
to learn, 1. personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning
process.
4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey for each person
because each learner has own unique combination of genetic and environmental factors that
influence him.
5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an individual.
Facilitating learning should be firmly anchored on the 14-learner centered psychological principles.
The 14 principles espouse that everyone in the learning community is a learner, not just the student.
The clip art above expresses this view that to teach allows you to learn and that when you have
learned well, you can teach well. There is mutuality in learning. Students learn from teacher.
Students learn from one another. And most important for you to remember, teachers learn from
students.

Learner-Centered Instruction

Applying the 14 principles, Eggen and Chauchak gave us three characteristics of learner-
centered instruction:
1. Learners are the center of the learning process. The criticisms of direct instruction have led
educators to put more emphasis on the role of the student in the learning process. Many opted
for a more student-centered environment as opposed to the traditional teacher-centered set-up.
Learners are given more choices. Learning activities are designed with the needs, interests, and
development levels of the learners in foremost consideration.
2. Teacher guides students’ construction of understanding. The 14 principles were put together
because of the growing implications of research in cognitive psychology. Teachers in learner-
centered classroom provide a lot of opportunity for the learners to actively think, figure out things
and learn on their own. The teacher serves more as a facilitator, a “guide on the side” rather than
a “stage on stage.”
3. Teachers teach for understanding. Students are placed at the center of the learning process. The
teachers help them to take responsibility of their learning. As a result, students, through their
own active search and experimentation, experience a movement, and finally to understanding.

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EXERCISES

1.Read again on Learner-Centered Classrooms and make a poster about it. (20 points)

EVALUATION

Directions: Identify what type of principle is mentioned in each number, and then share
your learning in each principle.

1.Learning process. The learning of complex subject matter Type of My

is most effective when it is an intentional process of principle learnings/insights
constructing meaning from information and experience. on how I will
2. Goals of the learning process. The apply what I
successful learner, over time and with learned
support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations
of knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge. The successful
learner can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways.
4. Strategic thinking. The successful learner
can create and use a repertoire of thinking
and reasoning strategies to achieve complex
learning goals.
5. Thinking about thinking. Higher order
strategies for selecting and monitoring
mental operations facilitate creative and
critical thinking.

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1. Nature of l Type of My learnings/insights
6. Context of learning. Learning is influenced principle on how I will apply
by environmental factors, including culture, what I learned
technology, and instructional practices.
7. Motivational and emotional influences on
learning. What is how much is learned is
influenced by the learner’s motivation.
Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by
the individual’s emotional states, beliefs,
interest and goals, and habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn. The learner’s
creatively, higher order thinking, and natural
curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn.
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of
optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to
personal interest, and providing for personal
choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort. Acquisition of
complex knowledge and skills requires
extended learner’s effort and guided practice.
Without learners’ motivation to learn, the
willingness to exert this effort is unlikely
without coercion.
10. Developmental influences on learning. As
individual develop, there are different
opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential
development within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is
taken into account.
11. Social influences on learning. Learning is
influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations and communication with others.
12. Individual differences in learning. Learners
have different strategies, approaches, and
capabilities for learning that are a function of
prior experience and heredity.
13. Learning and diversity. Leaning is most
effective when differences in learners’
linguistic, culture, and social backgrounds are
taken into account.
14. Standards and assessment. Setting
appropriately high and challenging standard
and assessing the learner as well as learning
progress – including diagnostic, process, and
outcome assessment – are integral parts of the
learning process.
-

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CHAPTER 3- REVI EW THEORIES RELATED TO LEARNER’S
DEVELOPMENT

OVERVIEW

The educational trend brought out by a number of ground-breaking researches tells that one can
be an effective facilitator of leaning if one has a good working knowledge of the learners’ development.
Previously in your Child and adolescent Development course, the foundation theories related to the
learners; development was discussed. This module aims to help you think about and review these
theories that you have taken up and connects them to learning.

LEARNING
OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you must have:

• Explained the salient concepts and principles of the major development theories;
• Demonstrated appreciation of how these theories provide a framework for understanding
learners; and
• Applied these theories to teaching-learning situations.

INDICATIVE
CONTENT

• Review of Theories for Learner’s Development

POINTS OF DISCUSSION

Theories and Theorists

The ideas of the theorists, Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner remain to be
foundational in the teacher’s understanding of the learners’ development. Let us recall highlights of their
theories. Freud said, “The mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its bulk above water.”
This is of course the very famous analogy that Freud referred to when he explained the subconscious
mind. He believed that much of what the person is really about is not what we see in the outside and
what is conscious, but what is there hidden in the subconscious mind. As teacher, it is important that we
remember not be too quick in making conclusions about our students’ intentions for their actions. Always
consider that there are many factors that may influence one’s behavior.

Freud also emphasized the three components that make up one’s personality, the id, ego and the
superego. The id is pleasure-centered; the ego, reality-centered and the superego, which is related to
the ego ideal or conscience.

Freud believed that an individual goes through five psychosexual stages of development. This includes
the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital stages. Each stage demands satisfaction of needs, and
failure to do so results in fixations.

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Erikson said, “Healthy children will not fear life their elders have integrity enough not to fear death.” He
believed in the impact of the significant others in the development of one’s view of himself, life and of
the world. He presented a very comprehensive framework of eight psycho-sexual stages of
developmental. It is Erikson who described the crisis (expressed in opposite polarities) that a person
goes through; the mal-adaptations and malignancies that result from failure to effectively resolve the
crisis; and the virtue that emerges when balance and resolution of the crisis is attained.

Piaget said, “The principle goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women who are
capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have done.”

Piaget’s theory centered on the stages of the cognitive development. He described four stages of
cognitive development, namely the sensory-motor, pre-operational, concrete-operational, and
formal operational stages. Each has characteristics ways of thinking and perceiving that shows how
one’s cognitive abilities develop.

Kohlberg said, “Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that
have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society.” Kohlberg proposed three level of
moral development (pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional) which are further
subdivided into the stages. Influenced by Piaget, Kohlberg believed that one’s cognitive development
influenced the development of one’s moral reasoning.

Vygotsky said, “The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s development in the child but on
tomorrow’s.” Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction in learning and development. Scaffolding
is the systematic manner of providing assistance to the learner that helps the learner to effectively
acquire a skill. He believed that guidance from a more knowledgeable other (MKO) would lead a learner
to a higher level of performance that if he were alone. The higher-level performance then eventually
becomes the learner’s actual performance when he works independently in the future. His concept of
zone of proximal development (ZPD) illustrates this.

Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological System theory presents child development
within the context of relationship system that comprise the child’s environment. The model is composed
of microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and the chronosystem. Each layer is further
made up of different structures. The term “bioecological” points out that a child’s own biological make-
up impacts on his/her development. The child’s growing and developing body and the interplay between
his/her immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his/her
development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child’s
development then, we must look not only at the child and his/her immediate environment, but also at
the layer environment with which the child interacts.

EXERCISES

Directions. Do the following tasks. (10 points each)

A. Freud’s Components of the Personality

Review the three components and write important concepts about them in the spaces provided.
Id Ego Superego

B. Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Stages of Development

Write the description, erogenous zone and fixation of each of the stages below.
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ORAL STAGE

ANAL STAGE
PHALLIC STAGE
LATENCY STAGE
GENITAL STAGE

C. Erikson’s Psycho-social Stages of Development

Review the psycho-social stages and fill out the matrix below.
Stage Crisis Significant Person Mal-adaptation Malignancy (includes Virtue
(include descriptions) descriptions) (include
descriptions)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

D. Piaget’s Cognitive Stages of Development

Sensory Motor Stage: Age Range:

Characteristics:
Key Teaching Strategies:

Concrete Operational Stage: Age Range:

Characteristics:
Key Teaching Strategies:
Formal Operational Stage: Age Range:
Characteristics:
Key Teaching Strategies:

Pre-operational Stage: Age Range:

Characteristics:
Key Teaching Strategies:

E. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Review the moral stages and identify and describe each using the graphic organizer below.
PRE- STAGE 1
CONVENTIONAL STAGE 2

CONVENTIONAL STAGE 3
STAGE 4
POST- STAGE 5
CONVENTIONAL STAGE 6

F. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

Define or describe the words below.

More Knowledgeable Other Zone of Proximal Scaffolding

(MKO) Development (ZPD)

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F. Interpret Vygotsky’s views about the teaching and learning process by drawing a diagram showing
the relationships of MKO, ZPD and scaffolding.

G. Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Theory

Describe each of the systems in the theory

Macrosystem

Exosystem/Mesosytem

Microsystem/Chronosystem

The Individual

Evaluation

A. Identify one concept from the theories reviewed and describe how this can be applied in teaching
and learning.

Theory/Concept Application

B. Who said the following statements? Refer your answers to the theorists you had studied.

1. The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s development in the child but on tomorrow’s.
2. Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have the integrity enough not to fear death.
3. Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been
critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society.
4. The principal goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women who are capable of
doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have done.
5. The mind is like an iceberg; it floats with one-seventh of its bulk above water.
6. We as a nation need to be reeducated about necessary and sufficient conditions for making human
beings human. We need to be reeducated not as parents but as workers, neighbors, and friends and as
members of the organizations and boards especially the informal networks that control our social
institutions and thereby determine the conditions of life for our families and their children

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CHAPTER 4- STUDENT DIVERSITY

OVERVIEW

You have often heard someone say, “Everyone is unique.” Though, it sounds really like a cliché one
cannot ignore the truth in it. As a facilitator of learning, the teacher is tasked to consider the individual
differences among the students in planning for effective instruction

LEARNING
OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you must have:

• identify the different factors that bring about diversity in the classroom;
• demonstrate a positive attitude towards diversity as an enriching element in the learning
environment; and
• come up with teaching strategies that consider student diversity.

INDICATIVE
CONTENT

• Individual Differences
• Factors that Bring about Student Diversity
• How Student Diversity Enriches the Learning Environment

POINTS OF DISCUSSION

Factors that Bring about Student Diversity

In all learning environments, individuals interact with others who are in some ways different
from them. Recall how these differences were shown in your class tally-gender, and racial, ethnic or
cultural background (nationality, province, language). This diversity also comes from other factors like
the following:
1. Socioeconomic status- The millionaire’s lifestyle differs from that of the middle income or lower
income group.
2. Thinking/learning style- Some of you learn by seeing something; other by just listening, and
still others by manipulation something.
3. Exceptionalities- In class there maybe one who has difficulty in spoken language comprehension
or in seeing, hearing, etc.

How Student Diversity Enriches the Learning Environment

A teacher may be “challenged” to handle a class with student so diverse. There may be students
having different cultural background, different language abilities, different attitudes and aptitudes and
behaviors. Some teachers might see this diversity as a difficult predicament, really a hassle! Yet a
more reflective teacher may see a diverse classroom as an exciting place to learn not just for her
students, but for herself, as well. A wise teacher may choose to respect and celebrate diversity! Read
on to discover the benefits and learning opportunities that student diversity can bring to your
classroom.

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1. Students’ self-awareness is enhanced by diversity. Exposing students to others with diverse
backgrounds and experiences also helps to serves to help students focus on their awareness and
themselves. When say how others are different, students are given reference points or comparative
perspective which sharpen assessment of their own attitudes, values, and behaviors.
2. Student diversity contribute the cognitive development. The opportunity to gain access to
perspective of peers and to learn from other students, rather that the instructor only, may be
especially important for promoting the cognitive development of learners. Supreme Court Justice,
William J. Brennan “The classroom is peculiarly the ‘marketplace of idea.’ The depth and breadth of
student learning are enhanced by exposure to others from diverse backgrounds. Student diversity in
the classroom brings about different points of view and varied approaches to the learning process.
As the German philosopher, Nietzsche, said over 100 years ago: “The more affects we allow to speak
about one thing, the more eyes, different eyes we can use to observe one thing, the more complete
will our concept of this thing, our objectivity, be.”
3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible member of society. Suzanne
Morse stresses one competency that has strong implications for instructional strategies that capitalize
on diversity. “The capacity to imagine situations or problem from all perspectives and to appreciate
all aspects of diversity, the classroom becomes a ‘public place’ where community can be practiced.
4. Students diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is integrated into the classroom
teaching and learning process, it can become a vehicle for promoting harmonious race relations.
Through student-centered teaching strategies, diverse students can be encouraged to interact and
collaborate with one another, on learning tasks that emphasize unity of effort while capitalizing on
their diversity of backgrounds.

Some Tips on Student Diversity

1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences. Students will be made
to realize that they have something in common with the rest. They also differ in several ways.
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’ multicultural
and cross-cultural awareness.
• You can encourage or even initiate co-curricular experiences that are aimed at promoting diversity
awareness. These activities could be held to coincide with already-scheduled national weeks or months
which are designated for appreciation of diverse groups, Disability Awareness Week, Linggo ng Wika,
Indigenous People’s Week, etc.
• Let students interview other students on campus who are from diverse backgrounds (foreign
students or students from other ethnic/racial groups). These students of different racial and ethnic origin
serve as source of first-hand information on topics related to their culture. This can also provide
opportunity for interaction among student who may otherwise never come in contact with each other.
• Invite students to Internet discussion groups or e-mail; have students “visit” foreign countries
and “talk” to native of those countries.
• Ask students if they have ever been the personal target of prejudice or discrimination, and have
them share these experiences with other members of the class.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group
differences.
Clyde Kluckholn, an early American anthropologist who spend a lifetime studying human diversity across
different cultures, concluded from his extensive research that, “Every human is, at the same time, like
all other humans, like some humans, and like no other human” (cited in Whong, 1991). His observation
suggests a paradox in the human experience, namely: We are all the same in different ways. It may be
important to point out to students the biological reality that we, human beings, share approximately
95% of our genes in common, and that less than 5% of our genes account for the physical differences
that exist among us. When focusing on human differences, these commonalities should not be
overlooked, otherwise, our repeated attempts to promote student diversity may inadvertently promote
student divisiveness. One way to minimize this risk, and promote unity along with diversity, is to stress
the universality” of the learning experience by raising students’ consciousness of common themes that
bind all groups of people- in addition to highlighting the variations on those themes.
• Periodically place students in homogeneous groups on the basis of shared demographic
characteristics (e,g., same-gender groups or same-race/ethnicity groups), and have them share their
personal views or experiences with respect to course issues. Then form a panel comprised of
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representative from each group who report their group’s ideas. You can serve as moderator and identify
the key differences and recurrent themes that emerge across different groups, or student who are not
on the panel can be assigned this task.
• Try to form groups of students who are different with respect to one demographic characteristic
but similar with respect to another (e.g., similar gender but different with respect to race/ethnicity, or
similar in age but different gender). This practice can serve to increase student awareness that humans
who are members of different groups can, at the same time, be members of the same group- and share
similar experiences, needs, or concerns.
• After students have completed self-assessment s-instruments (e.g., learning style inventories or
personality profile), have them line up or move to a corner of the room according to their individual
scores or overall profile. This practice can visibly demonstrate to students how members of different
student populations can be quite similar with respect to their learning styles or personality profiles, i.e.,
students can see how individual similarities can often overshadow group differences.
4. Communicate high expectations students from all subgroups.
• Make a conscious attempt call on, or draw in students from diverse groups by using effective
questioning techniques that reliably elicit student involvement. In addition to consciously calling on
them in class, other strategies for “drawing in” and involving students include: (a) assigning them the
role of reporter in small-group discussions, i.e., the one who report backs the group’s ideas to the class,
and (b) having them engaged in paired discussions with another classmate with the stipulation that each
partner must take turns assuming the role of both listener and speaker, and (c) scheduling instructor-
student conferences with them outside the classroom.
• Learn the names of your students, specially the foreign names that you may have difficulty
pronouncing. This will enable you to establish early, personal rapport with them which can later serve
as a social/emotional foundation or springboard for encouraging them to participate.
5. Use varies instructional method to accommodate student diversity in learning styles.
• Diversify the sensory/perceptual modalities through which you deliver and present information
(e.g., orally, in print, diagrammatic and pictorial representations, or “hands on” experiences).
• Diversify the instructional formats or procedures you use in class:
➢ Use formats that are student-centered (e.g., class discussions, small group work) and teacher-
centered (e.g., lectures demonstrations).
➢ Use formats that are unstructured (e.g., trial-and-error discovery learning) and structured (e.g.,
step-by-step instructions).
➢ Use procedures that involve both independent learning (e.g., independently completed projects;
individual presentations) interdependent learning (e.g., collaborative learning in pairs or small groups).
6. Vary the examples you use to illustrates concepts in order to provide multiple
contexts that are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds.
Specific strategies for providing multiple examples and varied contexts that are relevant to their
varied backgrounds include the following:
• Have students’ complete personal information cards during the first week of class and use this
information to select examples or illustrations that are relevant to their personal interests and life
experiences.
• Use ideas, comments, and questions that students raise in class, or which they choose to write
about to help you think of examples and illustrations to use.
• Ask students to provide their own examples of concepts, based on experiences drawn from their
personal lives.
• Have students apply concepts by placing them in a situation or context that is relevant to their
lives (e.g., “How would you show respect to all persons in your home?”).
7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing them
personal choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what they we learn
and how they will learn it.
Giving the learner more decision-making opportunity with respect to learning tasks: (a) promotes
positive student attitudes toward the subject matter, (b) fosters more positive interactions among
students, and (c) results in students working more consistently with lesser teacher intervention.
Also, when individuals are allowed to exert some control over a task, they tend to experience less
anxiety or stress while performing that task.
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.
You can accommodate student diversity not only by varying what you do with your teaching, but also
by varying what you ask students to do to demonstrate learning. In addition to the traditional paper-
and-pencil tests and written assignments, students can demonstrate their learning in a variety of

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other of performance formats, such as: (a) individually-delivered oral reports, (b) panel
presentations, (c) group subjects, (d) visual presentations (e.g., concept maps, slide presentations,
power-point presentations, collages, exhibits), or (d) dramatic vignettes-presented live or on
videotape. One potential benefit of allowing students to choose how they demonstrate their learning
is that the variety of options exercised may be a powerful way to promote student awareness of the
diversity of human learning styles. You will have more of assessment in your courses on Assessment
of Learning.
9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds. You
can form groups of students with different learning styles, different cultural
background, etc.
Small peer-learning groups may be effective for promoting student progress to a more advanced
stage of cognitive development. Peer-learning groups may promote this cognitive advancement
because: (a) the instructor is removed from center stage, thereby reducing the likelihood that
the teacher is perceived as the ultimate or absolute authority; and (b) students are exposed to
the perspectives of other students, thus increasing their appreciation of multiple viewpoints and
different approaches to learning.

EXERCISES

1. Think of a slogan and poster that celebrates diversity in the classroom. ( 25 points)

EVALUATION

1. Describe/present the concept on individual differences by means of the following: (You may
choose one only.) 30 points.
song jingle power point presentation
poem slide presentation

CHAPTER 5 - LEARNING/THINKING STYLES AND MULTIPLE

INTELLIGENCES
OVERVIEW

One factor that brings about student diversity is thinking/learning styles. Individuals think and
learn distinct ways. In any group of learners there will always be different learning characteristics,
particularly in the learner’ manner of processing information. Some would absorb the lesson better when
they work with their hands than when they lust listen. Others would prefer to watch a video about a
topic. Students likewise have preferred ways of expressing their thoughts, feeling and ideas. Some would
prefer to write; others would draw or even dance and sing. These preferences involve thinking/learning
styles and multiple intelligences.

LEARNING
OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you must have:

• Described the different learning/thinking styles and multiple intelligences;
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• Pinpointed you own learning/thinking style/s and multiple intelligences; and
• Planned learning activities that match learners’ learning/thinking style and multiple
intelligences.

POINTS OF DISCUSSIONS

The inventory you just answered reflects whether you are a visual, auditory or kinesthetic learner.
This is only but one way of describing the variations of learning and teaching styles. A. Hilliard describes
“learning style” as the sum of the patterns of how individuals develop habitual ways of responding to
experience. Howard Gardner identified nine kinds of intelligences that individuals may have.

Learning/Thinking Styles

Learning/Thinking styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes information. They
describe a person’s typical mode of thinking remembering or problem. Furthermore, styles are usually
considered to be bipolar dimensions. For instance, your particular learning/thinking style simply denotes
a tendency to behave in a certain manner. Your style is a usually described as a personality dimension
which influences your attitudes values, and social interaction.
There are several perspectives about learning-thinking styles. We shall focus on sensory preferences
and the global-analytic continuum.

Sensory Preferences. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of sensory input and
maintain a dominance in one of the following types:

Visual Learners. These learners must see their teacher’s actions and facial
expressions to fully understand the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting in front so no one
would block their view. They may think in pictures and learn best from visual aids including: diagrams,
illustrated text books, overhead transparences, videos, flipcharts and hand-outs. During a lecture or
classroom discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the information.

Ri Charde further breaks down visual learners into:

Visual-iconic. Those who prefer this form of input are more interested in visual imagery such as
film, graphic displays, or pictures in order to solidity learning. They usually have good “picture memory”
a.k.a. iconic imagery and attend to pictorial detail. They would like to read a map better that to read a
book.

Visual-symbolic. Those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable with abstract symbolism
such as mathematical formulae or the written word. They would prefer to read a book than a map and
would like to read about things than hear about them. They tend to be good abstract thinkers who do
not require practical means for learning.
Auditory Learners. They learn best to through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through
and listening to what others have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of speech
through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed and other nuances. Written information may have little
until it is heard. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder. They
can attend aurally to details, translate the spoken words easily into the written word, and are not easily
distracted in their listening ability.
Auditory learners also fail into two categories:

The “Listeners”. This is the common type. ‘Listeners,’ most likely do well in school. Out of
school too, they remember things said to them and make the information their own. They may even
carry on mental conversations and figure out how to extend what they learned by reviewing in their
heads what they heard other say.
The “Talkers”. They are the ones who prefer to talk and discuss. They often find themselves
talking to those around them. In a class setting when the instructor is not asking questions, auditory-

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verbal processors (talkers) tend to whisper comments to themselves. They are not trying to be
disrupted and may not even realize they need to talk.

Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners. Tactile/Kinesthetic person benefit much from a hands-on

approach actively exploring the physical word around them. They may find it hard to sit still for long
periods. They may not benefit so much from the discussion or the written materials, and may become
distracted by their need for activity and exploration. Those preferring this form of input move toward
active, sensory-motor learning. They tend to prefer “learning by doing,” preferring he use of
psychomotor skills to, say, abstract thinking skills. They tend to have good motor memory and motor
coordination.

Global-Analytic Continuum

Analytic, Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear, step-by-step processes of learning. They tend
to see finite elements of patterns rather than the whole; they are the “tree seers.” They are more
comfortable in a world of details and hierarchies of information.

Global. Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought and tend to see the whole pattern rather
than particles elements. They are the “forest seers” who give attention only to the overall structure and
sometimes ignore details.
Several theorists have tied the global-analytic continuum the left-brain/right-brain continuum. In
accord with Roger Sperry’s model, the left-brain dominant individual is portrayed as the linear (analytic),
verbal, mathematical thinker while the right-brain person is one who viewed as global, non-linear, and
holistic in thought preferences.
Both sides of the brain can reason, but through different strategies. In an individual, one side
may be more dominant that the other. The left brain is regarded as analytic in approach while the right
is described as holistic or global. A successive processor (left brain) prefer to learn in a step-by-step
sequential format, beginning with details leading to a conceptual understanding of a skill. A simultaneous
processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with the general concept and then going on to specifics.
See the comparison below:

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Processes information linearly 4. Processes information in varied order
5. Responds to logic 5. Respond to emotion
6. Plans ahead 6. Impulsive
7. Recalls people’s names 7. Recalls people’s faces
8. Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking
9. Punctual 9.Less punctual
10. Prefers formal study design 10.refers sound/music backgrounds while
studying
11. Prefers bring lights while studying 11.Prefers frequent mobility while
studying

Multiple Intelligences

The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by Howard Gardner in Frames of Mind
(1983). Gardner defines intelligence as “an ability or set of abilities that allows a person to solve a
problem or fashion a product that is valued one or more cultures”. Gardner believes that different
intelligences may be independent abilities- a person can be low in one domain area but high in another.
All of us possess the intelligences but in varying degrees of strength.
His most current research indicates that there are nine distinct forms of intelligence. These are
the tails leading to children’s learning that teachers should address in their classroom all the time. They
are:
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Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)- learning visually and organizing ideas spatially.
Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them. The ability to “see” things in one’s mind in
planning to create a product or solve a problem.
Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) – learning through the spoken and written word. this
intelligence is always valued in the traditional classroom and in traditional assessments of intelligence
and achievement.

Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart)- learning through reasoning and

problem solving. Also highly valued in the traditional classroom, where students are asked to adapt to
logically sequenced delivery of instruction.

Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart)- learning through interaction with one’s environment. This
intelligence is not the domain of “overly active” learners. It promotes understanding through concrete
experience.
Musical (Music Smart)- learning through patterns, rhythms and music. This includes not only
auditory learning, but the identification of patterns through all the senses.
Intrapersonal (Self Smart)- learning through feelings, values and attitudes. This is a
decidedly affective component of learning through which students place value on what they learn and
take ownership for their learning.
Interpersonal (People Smart)- learning through interaction with others. Not the domain of
children who are simply “talkative” or “over social”. This intelligence promotes collaboration and
working cooperatively with others.
Naturalist (Nature Smart)- learning through classification, categories and hierarchies. The
naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle differences in meaning. It is not simply the study of nature; it
can be used in all areas of study.
Existential (Spirit Smart)- learning by seeing the “big picture”: “Why are we here?” “What is
my role in the world?” This intelligence seeks connections to real world understanding and application
of new learning.
It is important for teacher to use their knowledge about thinking/learning style and multiple
intelligences in planning activities to help their students to learn effectively.
While researches on these typologies continue, it is clear that the teachers can no longer just
text the text book and it is sensible practice to teach each child according to his/her thinking/learning
styles and multiple intelligence

Teaching Strategies guided by Thinking/Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligence

1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling factual
information to drawing implications and making value judgments.
2. Provide a general overview of materials to be learned, i.e., structured overviews,
advance organizers, etc., so that students’ past experiences will be associated with the
new ideas.
3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate using both the
right-and left=brain hemispheres.
4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing, or reading experienced.
5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set induction, etc.
6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information. (Write directions
on the board and give them orally).
7. Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning (writing
summaries, creating opinion surveys, etc.).
8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising (“The example you’ve provided is an
excellent one to point to the concept of…”) (From Cornett, C.E (1983). What you should
know about teaching and learning style. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational
Foundation).

EXERCISES
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1. Make a compilation of teaching strategies based on the different thinking/learning styles

and multiple intelligences. (20 points)

EVALUATION

1. Choose a topic from your field of specialization.

2. Think of a least ten (10) learning activities relevant to the topic you picked.
3. Indicate the thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligences that each learning activity can
address. Remember, a learning activity may address both thinking/learning style and multiple
intelligence.

CHAPTER 6 - LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

OVERVIEW

One of the significant factors that highlight individual differences and diversity in learning is
the presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with exceptionalities as persons
who are different in some way from the “normal” or “average”. The term “exceptional learners”
includes those with special needs related to cognitive abilities, behavior, social functioning, physical
and sensory impairments, emotional disturbances, and giftedness. Most of these learners require
a lot of understanding and patience as well as special education and related services if they are to
reach their full potential of development.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you must have:

• Described the basic categories of exceptional learners.

• Defined and distinguished the terms disability and handicap; and
• Demonstrated “people first” language when referring to exceptional learners and advocate for
its use.
.
INDICATIVE CONTENT

• Dealing with learners with exceptionalities

POINTS OF DISCUSSION

From the movie you watch you saw the challenges that confront a person with special needs. The
person’s adjustment entails the support of the people around him. As a future teacher, you would
probably encounter learners with special needs, more so if special education is your major. It is
therefore necessary that you have both the right information and proper attitude in dealing with

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special learners. This will help you perform your task to facilitate learning. Let us begin by
differentiating the words disability and handicap.

Disability. A disability is a measurable impairment or limitation that “interferes with a person’s

ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may refer to a physical, sensory, or mental
condition” (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). The word disability has become the more accepted term,
having replaced the word handicap in federal laws in the US, one of which is the

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA is the law that provides
comprehensive service and support for exceptional learners. Our very own 1987 Philippine Constitution,
Article XIV, Sec. 2, uses the word “disabled” in paragraph (5) “Provide adult citizens, the disabled and
out-of-school youth with training…

Handicap. The word handicap does not have the same meaning as disability. A handicap is a
disadvantage that occurs as result of a disability or impairment. The degree of disadvantage (or the
extent of the handicap) is often dependent on the adjustment made by both the person and his
environment. Therefore, the extent to which a disability handicaps and individual can vary greatly. Two
persons may have the same disability but not the same degree of being handicapped. For example,
they both have a hearing impairment; one knows sign language and can read lips while the other cannot.
The first individual would not have as much handicap as the second one. Another example, two persons
who move around on a wheel chair, the one studying in a school campus with wheelchair accessibility
in all areas would be less handicapped that one in a school without wheel chair accessibility.

Categories of Exceptionalities. There are different ways of presenting categories of exceptionalities.

Special education practitioners would have varying terms and categories. For this short introduction of
categories, we are basing it on the categories found in Omrod’s Educational Psychology. (2000)

Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

Learning Disabilities. Learning disabilities involve difficulties in specific cognitive processes like
perception, language, memory, or metacognition that are not due to their disabilities like mental
retardation, emotional or behavioural disorders, or sensory impairments. Examples of learning
disabilities include dyslexia (reading) dyscalculia (number operations) dysgraphia (writing).
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. ADHD is manifested in either or both of these: (1)
difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and (2) recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior.
Speech and Communication Disorders. There is difficulty in spoken language including voice
disorders, inability to produce the sounds correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language
comprehension that significantly hamper classroom performance.
Social/Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties
Autism. Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and
communication, repetitive behavior and limited interest. Individuals with autism usually have an intense
need for routine and a predictable environment.
Mental retardation. Mental retardation refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits
in adapted behavior. There is difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in conducting themselves
appropriately in social situations.
Emotional/Conduct Disorders. This involves the presence of emotional states like depression
and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they notably disturb learning and performance
in school.

Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

Physical and health impairments. This involves physical or medical conditions (usually long-
term) including one or more of these: (1) limited energy and strength, (2) reduced mental alertness,
and/or (3) little muscle control.

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Severe and Multiple Disabilities. This refers to the presence of two or more different types of
disability, at times at a profound level. The combination of disabilities makes it necessary to make specific
adaptations and have more specialized education programs.

Sensory Impairments

Visual Impairments. These are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes or optic
nerves that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.
Hearing Impairments. This involves malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that hinder
perception of sound within the frequency range of normal speech.

Giftedness. This involves a significantly high level of cognitive development. There is unusually
high ability or aptitude in one or more of these aspects: intellectual ability, aptitude in academic subjects,
creativity, visual or performing arts or leadership.

People-First Language

What is People-First Language? Just as the term would imply, this language trend involves putting
the person first, not the disability (e.g., a person with a disability, not a disabled person). Thus, people-
first language tells us what conditions people have, not what they are (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996).
This is similar to saying “person with AIDS, rather than “AIDS victim”. Other suggestions for referring to
those with disabilities include:
• Avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to the mental retarded);
• Emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair is preferable to confined
to a wheelchair);
• Avoiding euphemisms (such as physically challenged) which regarded as condescending and
avoid the real issues that result from a disability; and
• Avoiding implying illness or suffering (had polio is preferable to is a polio victim, and has
multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple sclerosis) (Department of Physical Medicine
and Rehabilitation, 2000; Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996).
Using people-first language and applying the guidelines about will remind you to have a more
respectful and accepting attitude toward learners with exceptionalities. The presence of impairments
requires them to exert more effort to do things that others like us find quite easy. They are learners
who may turn to you for assistance. Beginning with the right attitude, one of comparison neither of
pity nor ridicule) will make you a more effective teacher, one with the hand and the heart who can
facilitate their learning and adjustment.

EXERCISE

Directions: Make a collection of teaching guidelines or tips on how to work with students with
exceptionalities. Follow the categories shown in this module. Present your guidelines/tips in bulleted
form. (25 points)

EVALUATION

Directions: Revise the following sentences to adhere to the people-first language and the other
guidelines given in this module. (2 points each number)

1. Teacher thought of many strategies to teach the mentally challenged.

2. Their brother is mentally retarded.
3. Their organization is for the autistic.
4. He is a polio victim who currently suffers from post-polio syndrome.
5. There was a blind girl in my psychology class.
6. I attended a seminar about learning disabled children.
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7. That classroom was designed for the deaf and blind.
8. I like to read books about the handicapped.
9. When she was suffering from a spinal cord injury, in a car accident, she became a paraplegic and
was confined to a wheelchair.
10. He is behaving like that because he is abnormal.

CHAPTER 7 BEHAVIORISM: PAVLOV, THORNDIKE, WATSON, SKINNER

OVERVIEW

The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. It
emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and
punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind, and the possibility of thought processes
occurring in the mind. Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from
Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you must have:

• Explained the basic principle of behaviorism;
• Made a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning; and
• Determined how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively.

INDICATIVE CONTENT

• Educational Theories/Psychologies

POINTS OF DISCUSSION

Ivan Pavlov. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist is well known for his work in classical
conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a
bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog’s salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he
stumbled upon classical conditioning.
Pavlov’s Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response
from the dog. Placing food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog-initiated salivation (conditioned
response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food.
After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned
response). This is classical conditioning. See illustration below:

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Classical Conditioning

Pavlov also had the following findings:

Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will
salivate the other similar sounds.
Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response
to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an elapsed time, but
will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern
which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.
Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food,
another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung.
Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

Edward L. Thorndike. Edward Thorndike’ Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R
framework of the behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a text book entitled,
Educational Psychology. He was the first one to use this term. He explained that learning is the result of
associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or “habits” become strengthened
or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The model for S-R theory was trial and
error learning in which certain responses came to be repeated that others because of rewards. The main
principle of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained
without considering any unobservable internal states.

Thorndike’s theory on connectionism stated that learning has taken place when a strong
connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three primary
laws:

Law of Effect. The law of effect stated that a connection between a stimulus and response is
strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the stimulus and
the response is weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this “law” when
he found that negative reward, (punishment) did not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some
seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.

Law of Exercise. Tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond is practices the stronger it
will become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated with this. However, like the law of effect,
the law of exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not
necessarily enhance performance.

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Law of Readiness. This states that, the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the
stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to a stimulus and is not
made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person. Example, if the teacher says, “Okay we will now
watch the movie (stimulus) you’ve been waiting for.” And suddenly the power goes off, the students will
feel frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but were prevented from doing so.
Likewise, if the person is not at all ready to respond to a stimulus and is asked to respond, that also
becomes annoying. For instance, the teacher calls a student to stand up and recite, and then the teacher
asks the question expects the student to respond right away when he is still not ready. This will be
annoying to the student. That is why teachers should remember to say the question first, and wait for a
few seconds before calling on anyone to answer.

Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (law of effect/exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action
sequence (law o readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

John Watson. John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas.
He too was initially involved in animal studies, then later became involved in human behavior research.
He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and
rage. All other behavior is learned through stimulus-response associations through conditioning. He
believed in the power of conditioning so much that he said if he is given a dozen healthy infants he can
make them into anything you want them to be, basically through making stimulus- healthy infants he
can make them into anything you want them to be, basically through making stimulus-response
connections through conditioning.

Experiment of Albert. Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert, a
young child and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat; but Watson made a sudden
loud noise each time Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon
became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Later, the child’s response was generalized to other small
animals. Now, he was so afraid of small animals. Watson then “extinguished” or made the child “unlearn”
fear by showing the rat without the loud noise.
Surely, Watson’s research methods would be questioned today; nevertheless, his work dis clearly
shows the role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may
help us understand the fears, phobias and prejudices the people develop.

Burrhus Frederick Skinner. Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-
response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory zeroed in only on changes in observable behavior,
including any likelihood of any processes taking place in the mind. Skinner’s 1948 book, Walden Two, is
about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote, Science and Human Behavior,
(1953) in which he pointed on how the principle of operant conditioning function in social institutions
such as government, law, religion, economics and education.

Skinner’s work differs from that of the three behaviorists before him, in that he studied operant
behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment). Thus, is theory come to be known
as Operant Conditioning.
Operant conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt behavior.
Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the
environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a
math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the
individual is conditioned to respond.

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens
the desired response. There is a positive reinforcer and a negative reinforce.
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response. An example
of positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises to extra time in the play area to children who
behave well during the lesson. Another is mother who promises a new cell phone for her son who gets
good grades. Still other examples include verbal praises, star stamps, and stickers.

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A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when
it is withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment; in fact, it is a reward. For instance,
a teacher announces that a student, who gets an average grade 1.5 for the two-grading period, will be
no longer taking the final examination. The negative reinforcer is “removing” the final exam, which we
realize in a form in a form of reward for working hard and getting an average grade of 1.5.
A negative reinforcer is different from a punishment because a punishment is a consequence
intended to result in reduced responses. An example would be a student who always comes late is not
allowed to join a group work that has already begun (punishment) and therefore loses points for that
activity. The punishment was done to reduce the response of repeatedly coming to class late.
Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement: Responses that are not reinforced
are not likely to be repeated. For example, ignoring a student’s misbehavior may extinguish that
behavior.
Shaping of behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out the pressing
a lever will produce food. To accomplish such behavior successive approximations of the behavior are
rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. To begin
shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the lever, then for moving
toward the level, for brushing against the lever, and finally for pressing the lever.
Behavioral chaining come about when a series of steps are needed to be learned. The animal
would master each step-in sequence until the entire sequence is learned. This can be applied to a child
being taught to tie a shoe lace. The child can be given reinforcement (reward) until the entire process of
tying the shoe lace id learned.

Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished,

reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact it can be maintained more successfully through what
Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedule includes interval
includes and ratio schedules.

Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has
passed since the last reinforcement. Example, the bird in a cage is given food (reinforcer) every 10
minutes, regardless of how many times it presses the bar.

Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval schedules, but the amount of time
that must pass between reinforcement varies. Example, the bird may receive food (reinforce) different
intervals, not every ten minutes.

Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement
may recur. Example, the bird will be given food (reinforcer) every time it presses the bar 5 times.

Variable Ratio. The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement
varies. Example, the bird is given food (reinforcer) after it presses the bar 3 times, then after 10 times,
then after 4 times. So the bird will not able to predict how many times it needs to press the bar before
it gets food again.

Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more persistent
rates of response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement will come although they
that they will eventually succeed. An example of this is why people continue to buy lotto tickets even
when an almost negligible percentage of people actually win. While it is true that very rarely is there a
big winner, but once in a while somebody hits the jackpot (reinforcement). People cannot predict when
the jackpot can be gotten (variable interval), so they continue to buy tickets (repetition of response).

Implications of Operant Conditioning. The implications are given for programmed instruction.
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus)- answer (response) frames which expose
the student to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate feedback.
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence, a
positive reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal
praise, prizes and good grades.

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Principles Derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly

effective.
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced
(“shaping”).
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli (“stimulus generalization”) producing
secondary conditioning.

EXERCISE

Directions: Read again about classical and operant conditioning. Find out about their similarities and
differences. Prepare a concept map or graphic organizer to highlight these similarities and differences.
((20 points)

EVALUATION

A. Directions: Choose a place where you can observe adult-child interactions- such as inside the house,
market, mall, in church at the playground, etc. Spend more time observing such adult-child
interactions. Focus your attention on the stimulus-response-consequence patterns you observe.
Describe the consequences you observe. (It is better to write or scribble the details on the spot or
as soon as you finish your observation).
a. Answer these questions. (5 points each)
1. What kinds of stimuli for children’s and adult behavior did you observe?
2. What kinds of behaviors on the part of children elicit reinforcement and punishment consequences
from the adult?
3. What kinds of behaviors of adults are reinforced or punished by the children?
4. What kinds of reinforcements and punishments seem to be the most “successful”?

Directions (2): Given the experience, what are your thoughts about operant conditioning? Do think
children reinforce and punish adults as adults reinforce and punish them? How might the two be
interdependent? Thorndike’s Connectionism
a. Choose a topic you want to teach.
b. Think of ways you can apply the three primary laws while you teach the topic.

Primary law How I would apply the Primary law

Law of Readiness

Law of Effect. Indicate specifically how

you will use positive/negative
reinforcements (reward)
Law of Exercise

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CHAPTER 8- INFORMATION PROCESSING

OVERVIEW

Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge

enters and is stored and retrieved from our memory. It is one of the most significant cognitive theories
in the last century and it has strong implications on the teaching-learning process.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you must have:

• Describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving knowledge; and
• Cite educational implications of the theory on information processing.

INDICATIVE CONTENT

• Information Processing Theory and Its Stages

• The Role of Attention

POINTS OF DISCUSSION

Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy. The terms used in the
information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In fact, those who program and design
computers aim to make computers solve problems through processes similar to that of the human mind.
Read on to know more about IPT.
Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is learned.
They consider learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior (as behaviorist theorists
thought). They look unto how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve information. They believe that
how a person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives shapes what he/she will learn. All these
notions comprise what is called the information processing theory.
IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment through the
senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information will continue to pass
through the sensory register, then the short-term memory. Certain factors would also determine whether
the information will be retrieved or “remembered” when the learner needs it. Let us go into the details.

We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive.
“Types” of Knowledge
• General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or only in me.
• Declarative – This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are. They
may be in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address, a nursery rhyme,
the definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush.
• Procedural- This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include making a lesson plan,
baking a cake, or getting the least common denominator.
• Episodic- This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation.
• Conditional- This is about “Knowing when and why” to apply declarative or procedural strategies.

Stages in the Information Processing Theory

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short term memory and
the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression of external

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information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept,
script, frame, mental model, etc.).
These three primary stages in IPT are:
• Encoding- Information is sensed, perceived, and attended to.
• Storage- The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time, depending upon
the processes following encoding.
• Retrieval- The information is brought back at the appropriate time, and reactivated for use on a
current task, the true measure of effective memory
What made IPT plausible was the notion that cognitive processes could be described in a stage-like
model. The stages to processing follow a trial along which information is taken into the memory system,
and brought back (recalled) when needed. Most theories of information processing revolve around three
main stages in the memory process:

Sensory Register
The first step in the IP model, holds all sensory information for a very brief time.
• Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount the information but it is more than what our minds
can hold or perceive.
• Duration- The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief- in the order of
1 to 3 seconds.
• There is difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is more persistent that visual.

The Role of Attention

• To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give attention to it. Such that,
we can only perceive and remember later those things that pass through our attention “gage:
• Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested in the material; when
there is conscious control over attention, or when information involves novelty, surprise, salience,
and distinctiveness.
• Before information is perceived, it is known as “precategorical” information. This means that until
that point, the learner has not established a determination of the categorical membership of the
information. To this point, the information is coming in as uninterpreted patterns of stimuli. Once
it is perceived, we can categorize, judge, interpret, and place meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to
perceive. We have no means by which to recognize that the stimulus was ever encountered.
•
Short Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)
• Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 “chunks” of information, sometimes described as 7 + /-
2. It is called working memory because it is where new information is temporarily placed while it
is mentally processed. STM maintain information for a limited time, until the learner has adequate
resources to process the information, or until the information is forgotten.
• Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.
• To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance rehearsal. It is
using repetition to keep the information active in STM, like when you repeat a phone number just
given over and over.

Long Term Memory (LTM)

The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds the stored
information until needed again.
• Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.
• Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite
Executive Control Processes

The executive control processes involve the executive processor or what is referred to as
metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the system, help the learner
make informed decisions about how to categorize, rehearsals, and organization.

Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.

• There two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

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• Decay- Information is not attended to, and eventually ‘fades’ away. Very prevalent in Working
Memory.
• Interference- New or old information ‘blocks’ access to the information in question.
Methods of Increasing Retrieval of Information
• Rehearsal- This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
• Meaningful Learning- This making connection between new information and prior knowledge.
• Organization- It is making connections among variation pieces of information. Info that is organized
efficiently should be recalled.
• Elaboration- This is adding additional ideas to know information based on what one already knows. It
connecting new info with the old, to gain meaning.
• Visual Imagery- This means forming a “picture” of the information.
• Generation- Things we ‘produce’ are easier to remember than things we ‘hear’.
• Context- Remembering the situation helps recover information.
• Personalization- It is making the information relevant to the individual.

Other Memory Methods

• Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) – You will remember the beginning and end of ‘list’ most
readily.
• Part Learning- Break up the ‘list’ or ‘chunk’ information to increase memorization.
• Distributed Practices- Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at once (Masses
Practice).
• Mnemonics Aids- These are memory techniques that learners may employ to help them retain and
retrieve information more effectively. This includes the loci techniques, acronyms, sentence
construction, peg-word and association techniques, among others.

EXERCISE

Directions: Do the following: (1o pints each number)

1. Read more on specific mnemonic techniques and write about how you can use it to make
information processing more effective in yourself and your future students.
2. Does forgetting go with advancing in age? What do experts say?

EVALUATION

Directions: Cite a teaching implication of the information process given in the table below. One is done for you

Process Teaching Implication/s

1. Information is received through the senses. 1.1. Be sure that the learners’ senses
are functioning well.
1.2.
2. If information is not relevant, it decays. 2.1.
2.2.
3. If information goes to the short-term memory 3.1.
and if given attention and is found to be relevant, 3.2.
it is sent to the Long Term Memory. 4.1.
4.If information is not properly encoded, 4.2.
forgetting occurs. 5.1.
5.There are methods to increase retrieval of 5.2.
information when needed

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CHAPTER 9- BRUNER’S CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY

OVERVIEW

Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism. A major theme in the theory of Bruner
is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their
current/past knowledge.
Jerome Bruner Born New York City, October 1, 1915 and received his A.B. degree from Duke
University in 1937 and his Ph.D. in 1947 from Harvard. He was on the faculty in the Department of
Psychology at Harvard University from 1952-1972. He was also at Oxford from 1972-1980 and later
joined the New York University of Law. In 1960 Bruner published The Process of Education, a landmark
book which led to much experimentation and a broad range of educational programs in the 1960’s.
Howard Gardner and other young researches worked under Bruner and were much-influenced by his
work. In the early 70’s Bruner left Harvard to teach at University of Oxford for several years. He returned
to Harvard in 1979.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you must have:

• Described the development of the child’s ability to represent knowledge;
• Explained how the spiral curriculum works;
• Demonstrated appreciation of discovery learning as a teaching strategy, and
• Identified the three stages that represent knowledge in Bruner’s theory

• Bruner’s Theory
INDICATIVE CONTENT

• Bruner’s Theory
• Spiral curriculum

POINTS OF DISCUSSION

In the activity you just had, you would have surely seen that a single topic can be taught in
preschool/elementary, then again in high school, and still again in college! Take for instance, in
learning about Jose Rizal, in elementary we may have his picture in a postcard, know that he is
our national hero, born on June 19, 1861 in Calamba Laguna, and maybe even, have a field trip
there. In high school, we may study his two novels in more details. In college, we would go deeper
into analyzing Rizal’s works and may look into the personal and social factors that influenced him
in his life and work and write a term paper on it. This repeated topic on Rizal is a way of applying
the principles in Bruner’s Theory. He gave us important concepts in development of
representations, the spiral curriculum and discovery learning. These concepts are all in line
with the constructivist approach.

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Bruner’s Main Concepts (Representation)

Bruner suggested the ability to represent knowledge in three stages. These three stages also
become the three ways to represent knowledge.

1. Enactive representation- At the earliest ages, children learn about the world through actions on
physical objects and the outcomes of these actions. Children represent objects in terms of their
immediate sensation of them. They are represented in the muscles and involve motor responses,
or ways to manipulate the environment (i.e., riding bicycle and tying a knot, tasting the apple).
2. Iconic representation- This second stage is when learning can be obtained through using models
and pictures. The learner can now use mental images to stand for certain objects or events. Iconic
representation allows one to recognize objects when they are changed in minor ways (e.g.
mountains with and without snow on the top).
3. Symbolic representation- In this third stage, the learner has developed the ability to think in
abstract terms. This uses symbol system to encode knowledge. The most common symbol
systems are language and mathematical notation.

Bruner advised that teachers utilize and bring together concrete, pictorial then symbolic activities to
facilitate learning. Before children can comprehend abstract mathematical operations, teacher can
first have the numbers represented inactively (with blocks) and then, iconically (in pictures). Children
can later on handle number concepts without concrete objects and only with numbers and number
signs (symbolic).

Spiral curriculum

Bruner stressed that teaching should always need to boosting cognitive development. Students will
not understand the concept if teachers plant to teach it using only the teacher’s level of
understanding. Instruction needs to be anchored on the learners’ capabilities. The task of the
instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner’s current
state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student
continually builds upon what they have already learned.

In spiral curriculum, teacher must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content in different
ways depending on student’s development levels. This is why certain topic are initially presented in
grade school in a manner appropriate of grade schoolers, and then the same topics is tackled in high
school, but on a much deeper level. Sometimes a topic can be revisited within the same semester or
school year. For instance, the 14 learner-centered principles were introduced to you in a Module 2,
and will again be tackled in module 26. This time the 14 principles were be taken up as a means to
integrate and summarize all you learning in this course/subject. Manu other concepts and principles
discussed in this book are also taken up in your other subjects like Child and Adolescent Development
and Principles of Teaching to name a few. This is part of spiral learning. It helps you get a clearer
understanding, thus more effective learning.

In the k-12 curriculum, the spiral progression is a mandate. Section 5 (g), Curriculum Development
of RA.10533, states “The curriculum shall use the spiral progression approach to ensure mastery of
knowledge and skill after each level. As applied in Math, this would mean that the teachers teach
Algebra, Geometry, Statistics and Trigonometry concepts from Kinder to Grade 10. In the science
class, Biology, Chemistry, and Physics concepts are taught from grade 3 (were science as a subject
starts) to Grade 10 considering the developmental stages of students. In the spiral progression
approach, the teaching of concepts increases in depth and breadth across the Grade levels. Statistics
concepts in Kindergarten are much simpler compared to the statistics concepts in Grade 10.
Geometry concepts in Kindergarten are much simpler than those taught in Grade 10. This is in
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contrast to the disciplinal approach of Math and Science teaching in the 2002 Basic Education
Curriculum (BEC). This means that in the 2002 BEC, Algebra is taught in the First and Second Year;
Geometry in the Third Year; Statistics and probability, and Trigonometry in the Fourth Year. In the
Science, Integrated Science is taught in the First Year; Biology in the Second Year; Chemistry in the
Third Year and Physics in the Fourth Year.

In the spiral progression approach, concepts are revisited again and again as you go up the Grades.
This supports mastery of concepts.

Below are the Principles of instruction stated by Bruner:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing
and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral
organization)
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond
the information given).

Watch these videos at youtube “Jerome Bruner spoke at the Universidad Autonoma de Madrid May
27, 2006. Part 1 http:www.youtube.com (If you have internet access)

Discovering learning

Discovery learning refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself. Teacher plans and arranges activities in
such a way that students search, manipulate, explore, and investigate. Students learn knew
knowledge relevant to the domain and such general problem-solving skills as formulating rules, testing
and gathering information. Most discovery does not happen by chance. Students require background
preparation. Once students possess prerequisite knowledge, careful structuring of material allows
them to discover important principles.

Classroom Example:
Learning becomes more meaningful when students explore their learning environment rather than
listen passively to teachers.
• In elementary school- Teachers might use guided discovery to help children learn animal groups
(e.g. mammals, birds, reptiles). Rather than provide students with the basic animal groups and
examples for each, the teacher could ask students to provide the names of types of animals. Then
the students and teacher could classify the animals by examining their similarities and differences.
Category labels can be assigned once classifications are made. This approach is guided by the teacher
to ensure that classifications are proper, but students are active contributors as they discover the
similarities and differences among animals.
• In high school- A chemistry teacher might use “mystery” liquids and have students discover the
elements in each. The students could proceed through a series of experiments designed to the
experimental process, students learn about the reaction of various substances to certain chemicals
and also how to determine the contents of their mystery substance.
(Retrieve from http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Bruner.htm)

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Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects:

1. Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of “readiness for learning”. Bruner believed that
any subject could be taught any stage of development in a way that fits the child’s cognitive abilities.
This feature specifically states the experiences which move the learner toward a love of learning in
general, or of learning something in particular. Motivational, cultural, and personal factors contribute
to this. Bruner emphasized social factors and early teacher’s and parents’ influence on this. He
believed that learning and problem solving emerged out of exploration. Part of the task of a teacher
is to maintain and direct a child’s spontaneous exploration.
2. Structure of knowledge. The way in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can
be most readily grasped by the learner. Bruner emphasized the role of structure in learning and how
it may be made central in teaching. Structure refers to relationships among factual elements and
techniques. This will depend on different factors, and there will be many ways to structure a body of
knowledge and many preferences among learners. Bruner offered considerable detail about
structuring knowledge.
• Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more comprehensible. Bruner
viewed categorization as a fundamental process in the structuring of knowledge. Details are
better retained when place within the context of an ordered and structured pattern.
• To generate knowledge which is transferable to other contexts, fundamental principles or
patterns are best suited.

3. The discrepancy between beginning and advanced knowledge in a subject area is diminished
when instruction centers on a structure and principles of orientation. This means that a body of
knowledge must be in a form simple enough for the learner to understand and it must be in a form
recognizable to the student’s experience.
4. Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, the lesson can be
presented in increasing difficulty. Sequencing or lack of it, can make learning easier or more difficult.
Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over, building upon them and
elaborating to the level of full understanding and mastery.
5. Reinforcement. Rewards and punishment should be selected and paced appropriately. He
investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter is the best
stimulus for selecting. Bruner did not like external competitive goals such as grades or class ranking.

Categorization

Bruner gave much attention to categorization of information in the construction of internal

cognitive maps. He believed that perception, conceptualization, learning, decision making, and making
inferences all involved categorization. Categories are “rules” that specify four things about objects. The
four things are given below:

1. Critical attributes- required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a category. (Example, for
an object to be included in the category “car” it must have an engine, 4 wheels, and be a possible
means of transportation.
2. The second rule prescribes how the criterial attributes are combined.
3. The third rule assigns weight to various properties. (Example, it could be a car even if a tire was
missing, and if it was used for hauling cargo it would be shifted to a different category of “truck”
or perhaps “van”.)
4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes. Some attributes can vary widely, such as
color. Others are fixed. For example, a vehicle without and engine is not a car. Likewise, a vehicle
with only two wheels would not be included in “car”.

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There are several kinds of categories:

1. Identify categories- categories include objects based on their attributes or features.

2. Equivalent categories- provide rules for combining categories. Equivalent can be determined
by affective criteria, which render objects equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria,
based on related functions (for example, “car”, “truck”, “van” could all be combined in an
inclusive category called “motor vehicle”), or by formal criteria, for example by science, law, or
cultural agreement. For example, an apple is still an apple whether it is green, ripe, dried, etc.
(identity). It is food (functional), and it is a member of a botanical classification group (formal).
3. Coding systems are categories that serve to recognize sensory input. They are major
organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning. Going beyond immediate sensory data
involves making inferences on the basis of related categories. Related categories form a “coding
system.” These are hierarchical arrangements of related categories.

The principle of Bruner launched the notion that people interpret the world mostly in terms of
similarities and differences. This is valuable contribution to how individuals construct their own
models or view of the world.

EXERCISE

Directions: Read again on discovery learning. How it is used in preschool, elementary and high
school levels? (10 points)

EVALUATION

Directions: Do the following:

1. Choose a topic related to your field of specialization.

2. Write a simple plan on how to teach this topic using Bruner’s principles.
Topic
Grade/Year Level of Learner
How will you present the topic on the
Enactive Level?
Iconic Level?
Symbolic Level?
3. How will you apply the spiral curriculum approach in this topic?
4. Describe how you can use discovery learning for this topic.

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CHAPTER 10- CONSTRUCTIVISM: KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION/CONCEPT
LEARNING

OVERVIEW

This module discusses constructivism which was mentioned in the previous modules of Piaget and
Bruner. It is the distillation of most of the principles of cognitive psychologists.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you must have:

• Explained the role of constructivist in facilitating learning; and
• Described strategies to promote knowledge construction; and
• Described strategies to facilitate concept learning.

INDICATIVE CONTENT

• Knowledge construction/concept: A constructivist theory

POINTS OF DISCUSSION
So far, you have studied about both the behavioristic and cognitive views of learning. Behaviorism
focused on the external, observable behavior. Learning is explained as a connection between the
stimulus and the response. Reinforcement is the key to learning. Behaviorist saw learning as a change
in behavior brought about by experience with the little acknowledgement of the mental or internal
aspects of learning. On the other hand, the cognitive view focuses on the internal processes. Learning
is an active process. Learners initiate experience, search for information to solve problems, and
recognize what they already know to come up with new insights.
In the quotation above, “filling up the pail” is more linked to rote learning and behaviorism. It
connotes that teaching is dominated by the teacher and the learners are passive receivers of knowledge.
“Lighting the fire” is related to the cognitive perspective and constructivism. It signifies that teaching
involves giving opportunities for learners to explore and discover. Learners construct their own meaning.
Learners generate insights and are “enlightened”.
Most associated with cognitive psychology than behaviorism, constructivism in Module 14 on
Bruner’s theory. Just as there are different views within psychology, constructivism also has different
“versions”.

Two Views of Constructivism

Individual Constructivism. This also called cognitive constructivism. It emphasizes individual,

internal construction of knowledge. It is largely based on Piaget’s theory. Proponents of this type
choose child-centered in discover learning. They believe the learners should be allowed to discover
principles through their own exploration rather than direct instruction by the teacher.

Social constructivism. This view emphasizes the “Knowledge exists in a social context and is initially
shared with others instead of being represented solely in the mind of an individual”. It is based on
Vygotsky’s theory. Here, construction of knowledge is shared by two or more people. According to social
constructivists, the opportunity to interact and share among learners’ help to shape and refine their
ideas. Knowledge construction becomes social, not individual.

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Characteristics of Constructivism

Whether one takes the individual or social new of constructivism, there are four characteristics
that these two views have. According to Eggen and Kauchak, these are:
1. Learners construct understanding. As discussed earlier, constructivists do not view learners
as just empty vessels waiting to be filled up. They see learners as active thinkers who interpret
new information based on what they already know. They construct knowledge in a way that makes
sense to them.
2. New learning depends on current understanding. Background information is very important.
It is through the present views or scheme that the learner has the new information will be
interpreted.
3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction. Constructivists believe in creating a “community
of learners” within classrooms. Learning communities help learners take responsibility for their
own learning. Learners have a lot of opportunities to cooperate and collaborate to solve problems
and discover things. Teachers play the role of facilitator rather than an expert who has all the
knowledge.
4. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks. An authentic task is one that
involves a learning activity that involves constructing knowledge and understanding that is so
skin to the knowledge and understanding needed when applied in the real world. Example, a
writing activity where six-year olds prepare a checklist of things they need to do in school is a
more an authentic activity than for them to be working only on tracing worksheets with dotted
lines.

Organizing Knowledge

Concepts. A concept is a way of grouping or categorizing objects or events in our mind. A

concept of teach, includes a group of tasks such as model, discuss, illustrate, explain, assists, etc. In
your life as a student you would learn thousands of concepts, some simple ones, others more complicated
that may take you learn them more gradually. The concepts you learn are also revised as you learn more
and experience more.
Concepts as Feature Lists. Learning a concept involves learning specific features that
characterize positive instance of the concept. Include here are defining features and correlational feature.
A defining feature is a characteristic present in ALL instances. Example, triangle has three sides. Having
three sides is a defining feature of a triangle because ALL triangles should have three sides. If one doesn’t
then it is not a triangle. A correlation feature is one that is present in many positive instances but no
essential for concept membership. For example, a mother is loving. Being loving is a feature commonly
present in the concept mother. But a mother may not be loving. So “being loving” is only a correlation
feature, not a defining one.
Concepts as Prototypes. A prototype is an idea or a visual image of a type a “typically
example”. It is usually formed based on the positive instances that learners encounter most often.
Example, close your eyes now and for a moment think of a cat. Picture in mind what it looks like. You
probably thought of an image of the common cat we see, rather than some rare breed or species. Once
learners have their own concept prototypes, the new examples that they see are checked against this
existing prototype.
Concepts as Exemplars. Exemplars represent a variety of examples. It allows learners to
know that an example under the concept may have variability. Example, a learner’s concept of
vegetable may include a wide variety of different examples like cauliflower, kangkong, cabbage, string
beans, squash, corn, potatoes. When he encounters a new type of vegetable like “bitsuelas”, he would
search from the exemplars he knows and looks for one that is most similar, like string beans.

Making Concept –Learning Effective. As a future teacher, you can help students learn concepts by
doing the following:
• Provide a clear definition of the concept
• Make the defining features very concrete and prominent
• Give a variety of positive instances
• Give negative instances
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• Cite a “best example” or prototype
• Provide opportunity for learners to identify positive and negative instances
• Ask learners to think of their own example of the concept
• Point out how concepts can be related to each other

Schemas and scripts. A schema is an organized body of knowledge about something. It is like a file of
information you hold in your mind about something. Like schema of what a teacher is. A script is a
schema that includes a series of predictable events about a specific activity. Examples would include
knowing the series of steps done when we visit a doctor, or what transpires at the beginning of the class
when the teacher arrives.
Your role as a teacher is to bring learners to construct their own knowledge such that they have
a well-organized set of concepts. Aim to make clear those concepts that are still vague for them, and to
pave the way for them to overcome misconceptions. It is important that you acquire skills on how to
facilitate concept formation and development. Constructivism can be an excellent guide for you.

Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Learning

• Aim to make learners understand a few key ideas in an-depth manner, rather than taking up
so many topics superficially.
• Give varies examples.
• Provide opportunities for experimentation.
• Provide lots of opportunities for quality interaction.
• Have lots of hands-on activities.
• Relate your topic to real life situations.
• Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.

EXERCISE

Directions: Study about constructivism and its application in teaching, give at least five
characteristics of a constructivist teacher. You may express your answer by writing a poem, or a
drawing or a clip art/photo essay. (10 points)

EVALUATION

Directions: Do the following: (25 points)

1. Think of a topic related to your field specialization.

2. Indicate how you can apply constructivism for your students to construct their own understanding of
the topic. The first one is partially done for you.

Constructivist Implications What will do to teach the topic

• Have few key ideas. I will emphasize the following key ideas:
• Give varied examples.
• Provide opportunities for
experimentation.
• Provide lots of opportunities for
quality interaction.
• Have lots of hand-on activities.
• Relate your topic to real life
situations.
• Do not depend on the explanation
method all the time.

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CHAPTER 11- TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Teachers want their students to apply the knowledge and skills they learn in
OVERVIEW class to other situations. When one recognizes a situation as something
similar in way to what he has experienced before, his tendency is to use the
knowledge and skills he has learned to this new situation. This is what transfer
of learning is about.

At the end of this module, you must have:

LEARNING
OUTCOMES • Explained how transfer of learning occurs;
• Identified the factors that affect transfer of learning; and
• Applied principles of transfer in facilitating transfer of learning.

• Transfer of Learning
INDICATIVE
• Types of Transfer
CONTENT

POINTS OF DISCUSSION

Transfer of learning happens when learning in one context or with one set of materials affects
performance in another context or with other related materials. Simply put, it is applying to another
situation what was previously learned. For example, learning to use roller skates later helps a person
to learn more quickly to ice skate. Learning to get along with classmates in preschool helps the child
adjust and related well with classmates in the “big” school, or even playing highly competitive on-line
computer games might even make a one better strategic thinker in politics or business. Transfer is a
very significant concept in education aim to achieve transfer.

Frequently, the circumstance of learning (classrooms, workbooks, tests, drills) differs

significantly from the situations when what is learned is to applied (in the home, on the job, within
complex tasks). As a result, the educational goals are not met until transfer occurs. This makes
transfer a very important of instruction. It may be true that in most cases the goal of transfer of
learning from classroom to real life situation is not achieved. So it is vital that as a future teacher you
have a clear understanding of how best to teach your learners so that transfer of learning is facilitated.
After all, what good is there is providing your learners with tons of knowledge and a multitude of skills
if they cannot apply them when they need to.

Types of Transfer

Positive transfer. Positive transfer occurs when learning is one context improves performance
in some other context. For instance, a speaker of Spanish would find it easier to learn Mexican language
than Japanese.

Negative transfer. Negative transfer occurs when learning is one context impacts negatively on
performance in another. For example, Learners commonly assimilate a new language’s phonetics to
crude approximations in their native tongue and use word orders carried over from their native tongue.
Example, learning Cebuano as a child, the learner now frequently interchanges the /e/ and /i/ sound
when speaking in English. With experience however, learners correct the effects of negative transfer.

Near transfer. Near transfer refers to transfer between very similar contexts. This referred to a
specific transfer, for example, when students answer types of algebra word problem in an exam which
are similar to what they had in their seatworks. Or when a student is learning to use a new cell phone
that is somehow similar or she had before.

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Far transfer. Far transfer refers to transfer between contexts that, on appearance, seem remote
and alien to one another. This is also called general transfer. For example, Stephen Covey applied the
lesson of the Aesop’s fable of “The Goose That Lays the Golden Eggs” to managing corporations. He said
we should take care of the goose rather than kill it. To successful in business, we should take cares of
our workers not burden them.

Conditions and Principles of Transfer

These principles are based on the factors that affect transfer of learning. These factors are similar
to what Perkins termed as “conditions of transfer”. Below you will find the factors with the consequent
principles and educational implications.

Conditions/Factors
affecting transfer of Principle of transfer Implication
learning
Similarity between two The more similar the two Involve students in
learning situations situations are, the greater learning situations and
the chances that learning tasks that are similar as
from one situation will be possible to the situations
transferred to the other where they would apply
situation. the tasks.
Degree of Meaningful learning leads Remember to provide
meaningfulness/relevance to greater transfer than opportunities for learners
of learning rote learning to link new material to
what they learned in the
past.
Length of instructional time The longer the time spent To ensure transfer, teach a
in instruction, the greater few topics in depth rather
the probability of transfer many topics tackled in a
shallow manner.
Variety of learning Exposure to many and Illustrate new concepts and
experiences varied examples and principles with a variety of
opportunities for practice examples. Plan activities
to encourage transfer that allow your learners to
practice their newly
learned skills.
Context for learner’s Transfer of learning is most Relate topic in one subject
experiences likely to happen when to topics in other subjects
learners discover that what or disciplines. Relate it also
they learned is applicable to real life situations
to various contexts.
Focus on principles rather Principles transfer is easier Zero in one principle
than tasks than facts related to each topic
together with strategies
based on those principles
Emphasis on metacognition Student reflection improves Encourage students to take
transfer of learning responsibility for their own
learning, and to reflect on
what they learned.

1. “mile-wide-inch-deep” curriculum. What are some

EXERCISE advantages/disadvantages of this?

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2. One multidisciplinary approach is Content-Based Instruction (CBI). Another is the thematic
approach. Read about these and see how they can help the transfer of learning
EVALUATION more effective.
1. Choose a topic related to your field of specialization.
2. Extend the table above by thinking of specific learning activities that would apply
the principle of transfer.

Topic ______________________________________________________

Implication Specific Learning

Activity/Strategy
Involve students in learning situations and tasks that are similar as
possible to the situations where they would apply the tasks.
Remember to provide opportunities for learners to link new material to
what they learned in the past.
To ensure transfer, teach a few topics in depth rather than many
topics tackled in a shallow manner.
Illustrates new concepts and principles with a variety of examples.
Plan activities that allow your learners to practice their newly learned
skills.
Relate topic in one subject to topics in other subjects or disciplines.
Relate it also to real life situations.
Zero in on principles related to each topic together with strategies
based on those principles.
Encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning and to
reflect on what they learned.

CHAPTER 12- BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES-

REVISED

Imagine that you are already working as a teacher. How would you feel if
OVERVIEW
you enter your classroom without specific lesson objectives? How would
you proceed without clear and specific targets? Being sure about your objectives
will help you to facilitate learning effectively. With appropriately, clear and specific objectives,
you do not need to guess nor grope in the dark on what to accomplish.

This module will present the original and the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives. Although the revised taxonomy came out years ago, it is important to still present both the
old and the revised to have a complete understanding and better appreciation of the taxonomy’s use in
education.

At the end of this module, you must have:

LEARNING • Explained the how the revised taxonomy is used in instruction;
OUTCOMES • Formulated of objectives reflecting the different levels of the
revised taxonomy; and
• Explored the use of technology apps in applying the revised taxonomy.

INDICATIVE
• Bloom’s Taxonomy
CONTENT

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POINTS OF DISCUSSION

Old Taxonomy

In 1956, the Taxonomy of Educational objectives: The classification of Educational Goals

Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain was published. Initially, the purpose was simply to have a framework to
classify test questions that faculty member shared. However, eventually it became so relevant and useful
in education. Since then and up to the present, it is being used in planning the curriculum, planning
learning activities and assessment. Bloom and his colleagues published Handbook II, The Affective
Domain in 1964. Eventually other experts published taxonomy for the psychomotor domain in 1966,
1970 and 1972. This module will focus more on the cognitive domain.

Bloom’s taxonomy was a model that described the different level of objectives that target the
what skills and competencies, the teachers aim to develop in the learners. The taxonomy in the cognitive
domain contains the levels from knowledge to evaluation. The six-level progress from simple to more
complex levels of thinking, the last three being referred to as “higher-order thinking skills” or HOTS! So
you’ve got to have the “hots” to teach well. We always hear seasoned teachers reminding us to focus on
the HOTS and not just to stop at the usual, memorizing and enumerating.
To facilitate learning, we begin teaching with facts, stating memorized rules, principles or
definitions (knowledge), which must lead to understanding concepts, rules and principles
(comprehension). But we should not end here.
A proof of the comprehension of the concepts and principles in using them in real life situations
(application). For an in-depth understanding and mastery of these applied concepts, rules and
principles, these are broken down into parts (analysis). Students may compare, contrast, classify,
further investigate, etc. These actions now reflect a higher level of thinking.
A still higher level of thinking is when students put together elements of what has been learned
in a new way (synthesis). They come up with a holistic, complete, more integrated, or even a new view
or perspective of what was learned.
With a full gasp of what was learned, the students can now assess or judge, based on a set of
standards, on what they have learned (evaluation).
The cognitive domain levels or thinking levels also have sub categories except for that of
application. The next table shows the original taxonomy with its levels, subcategories and sample verbs.

The Original Bloom’s Taxonomy:

Cognitive Domain Levels and their Subcategories

Sample Verbs
1. Knowledge Define, describe, draw,
1.1 Knowledge of specifics identify, label, locate,
1.1.1 Terminology memorize, name, recite,
1.1.2 Specific facts recognize, select, state, write
1.2 Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with the
specifics
1.2.1 Conventions
1.2.2 Trends and sequences
1.2.3 Classifications and categories
1.2.4 Criteria
1.2.5 Methodology

1.3 Knowledge of universals and abstractions in the field

1.3.1 principles and generalizations
1.3.2 theories and structures
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2. Comprehension Paraphrase, summarize,
2.1 Translation restate, retell, illustrate
2.2 Interpretation
2.3 Extrapolation
3. Application Apply, change, Prepare,
produce
4. Analysis Analyze, subdivided, take
4.1 Elements apart, investigate, compare,
4.2 Relationships contrast, infer
4.3 Organizational principles
5. Synthesis Combine, organize, design,
5.1 Production of unique communication formulate
5.2 Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations
5.3 Derivation of a set of abstract relations
6. Evaluation Assess, appraise, critique,
6.1 in terms of internal evidence judge, recommend
6.2 in terms of external evidence

Here are some examples of educational objectives using the taxonomy:

At the end of the unit, the students will be able to:
- enumerate the characters in “The World is an Apple” (knowledge)
- summarize the story (comprehension)
- apply the rules of subject-verb agreement when writing a summary of the story (application)
- compare and contrast the qualities of the characters in the story (analysis)
- write a song expressing the message or lesson of the story (synthesis)
- write a critique of the author’s writing style (evaluation)

Revised Taxonomy

After 45 years since the publication of Bloom’s taxonomy, a group led by Lorin Anderson (Bloom’s former
student) and David Krathwohl led a new group of experts to work together. The result was what is now
called the revised taxonomy.
Below are the salient differences between the old and the revised taxonomies (Below are the
salient differences between the old and the revised taxonomies (You may refer to the Figure 1 while you
are reading this.):
1. Level of categories of thinking in the old taxonomy was nouns, while in the revised taxonomy they are
verbs. The use of action words instead of nouns was done to highlight that thinking is an active process.
For example, evaluate instead of evaluation, or analyze instead of analysis.
2. While the revised taxonomy remains to be in hierarchical levels of increasing complexity, it is intended
to be more flexible, in that it allows the categories to overlap. For example, some action words in
understand level, like explain, may appear to be more complex than the action word, show in the apply
level. However, when we look into the six levels from remember to create, we will still find that, over-all
the taxonomy proceeds in a hierarchical order.
3. The knowledge level was changed to remember. The change was made because, knowledge does not
refer to a refer to a cognitive or thinking level. Knowledge is the object of the thinking. Remember is a
more appropriate word for the first thinking level which involves recalling and retrieving knowledge.
4. The comprehension level was changed to understand. Teachers are likely to use the word understand
when referring to their work rather than comprehension.
5. Synthesis was changed to create and was placed as the highest level.
6. The cognitive domain now includes two dimensions, the cognitive dimension and the knowledge
dimension. The knowledge dimension of the revised taxonomy was based on the subcategories of
knowledge in the old taxonomy. The Revised Taxonomy with Two Dimensions of the Cognitive Domain
(Krathwohl, 2002)
7. The revised taxonomy highlights two dimensions, the cognitive and the knowledge dimensions. The
cognitive dimension includes the hierarchical or ordered levels of thinking. The thinking levels move from
the simplest to the most complex. The levels are, remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate and
create.

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The knowledge dimension includes the four knowledge categories, factual, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive. The knowledge that teachers aim to teach and students aim to learn can be about facts,
concepts procedures and metacognitive knowledge.

When you formulate learning objectives, you consider what level of thinking (cognitive) you want your
The Knowledge Dimension
A. Factual
The basic elements the students must know knowledge of:
a. Terminology
b. Specific details and elements

B. Conceptual
The interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that enable them
to function together.
Knowledge of:
a. Classification and categories
b. Principles and generalizations
c. Theories, models, and structures

C. Procedural Knowledge
How to do something; methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills, algorithms,
techniques, and methods. Knowledge of:
a. Subject-specific skills and algorithms
b. Subject-specific techniques and methods
c. Criteria for determining when to use appropriate procedures

D. Metacognitive Knowledge
Knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness and knowledge of one’s own
cognition
a. Strategic knowledge
b. Knowledge about cognitive tasks, including contextual and conditional knowledge
c. Self-knowledge
students to achieve, and also what type of knowledge it is you want to teach.

When we write a learning objective, the level of thinking is represented by the verb, while the knowledge
dimension is represented by the noun. In the example,

At the end of the lesson, the learner will be able to:

explain the photosynthesis process,
explain is the action word which will fall under the second cognitive dimension level,
understand, and photosynthesis is the noun that will fall under procedural knowledge

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Below is the table that shows how the cognitive and knowledge dimensions’ pair to form various kinds of
learning objectives and activities. An example for each pairing is given. Study each one to learn more.

Practical Guide in Using the Revised Taxonomy

When you are ready to plan units, lessons or activities, Bloom’s taxonomy will be very useful in
helping you formulate your learning objectives. Below is a collection of action words in possible
activities or work which you can use for young plan.

The Cognitive Dimension

1. Remembering
Retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory
1.1 recognizing
1.2 recalling

2. Understanding
Determining the meaning of instructional messages, including oral, written, and graphic
communication
2.1 interpreting 2.5 inferring
2.2 exemplifying 2.6 comparing
2.3 classifying 2.7 explaining
2.4 summarizing

3. Apply
Carrying out your using a procedure in a given situation
3.1 executing
3.2 implementing
4. Analysis- Breaking material into its constituents’ parts and detecting how the parts relate to
one another and to an overall structure or purpose
4.1 differentiating
4.2 organizing
4.3 attributing

5. Evaluate- Making judgments based on criteria and standards

5.1 checking
5.2 critiquing
6. Create- Putting elements together to form a novel, coherent whole or make an original product
6.1 generating
6.2 planning
6.3 producing
Cognitive Dimension Sample Action Words Suggested Activities, outputs
Levels or outcomes
Remember Recall Describe Recitation, worksheets,
(recalling information) Name Locate definitions, fact charts, lists
List Write
State Find
Tell Understand
Reproduce Define
Understand Explain Describe Story problems
(explaining information and Translate Define Drawing
concepts) Interpret Report Show and tell
Discuss Predict Summary

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Paraphrasing
Apply Use Practice Presentation, role-playing,
(using information in a new Solve Execute simulation, collection, model,
way) Implement Demonstrate scrapbook, product
Construct Dramatize
Analyze Compare Contrast Chart, plan, questionnaire,
(distinguishing different Distinguish Separate spreadsheet, summary, survey
parts of a whole) Investigate Differentiate
Infer Sequence
Evaluate Assess Appraise Opinion, judgement,
(defending a concept or Debate Check recommendation, report, self-
idea) Defend Decide evaluation, position paper,
Dispute Justify critique
Judge Rate
Create Change Invent Framework, model, story,
(creating something new) Design Devise multimedia presentation, poem,
Formulate Generate haiku, song, essay
Improve Compose
Plan Combine
Propose

Uses of the Revised Taxonomy

The revised taxonomy provides a framework that helps educators in the following ways:
1. It provides educators with a common set of terms and level about learning planning across
subject matter and grade levels.
2. It helps in the drafting of learning standards cross level.
3. It serves as a guide in evaluating the school’s curriculum objectives, activities and assessment.
4. It guides the teacher in formulating learning objectives that tap higher-order thinking skills.

1. Make a Venn diagram to show the similarities and differences

EXERCISE
between the original and the revised taxonomy.

EVALUATION 1. Think of a topic you are really interested to teach. Let’s say that you
are tasked to formulate learning objectives for a unit on this topic.

Topic: _______________________________ Year/Level _______________

A. Write at least 10 objectives:

Objective Objectives
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
B. Analyze the objectives you formulated. Write the numeral corresponding to your objectives in the
appropriate blank space in the matrix below.

Knowledge Dimension
Cognitive Factual Conceptual Procedural Metacognitive
Dimension
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1. Remember
2. Understand
3. Apply
4. Analyze
5. Evaluate
6. Create

C. Up to what cognitive level where you able to formulate objectives?

D. Which knowledge dimension where you able to include?
E. Try adding five more appropriate objectives to target the spaces which were left bank.
F. Explore one app for each category or level of thinking and share about how you can use each in the
teaching-learning process.
Application How it can be used in teaching and learning
Level: Create
App:
Level: Evaluate
App:
Level: Analyze
App:
Level: Apply
App:
Level: Understand
App:
Level: Remember
App:

CHAPTER 13- PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY

Problem solving and creativity go hand in hand. You need to be creative in order
to solve a problem. It is unfortunate, that these seem not adequately taught
OVERVIEW
in the classroom.
Edward Paul Torrance known around the world as the “Father of creativity”
for his nearly 60 years of research that became the framework for the field of gifted
education. He was professor emeritus of educational psychology invented the benchmark method for
quantifying creativity and arguably created the platform for all research on the subject since. The
Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking” help shatter the theory that IQ test alone were sufficient to gauge
real intelligence. The test solidified what heretofore was only conceptual-namely that creative levels can
be scaled and then increased through practice.

At the end of this module, you must have:

LEARNING • Explained the four criteria of creatively by Torrance;
OUTCOMES • Practiced creative thinking; and
• Applied problem-solving skills

POINTS OF DISCUSSION

Torrance Framework for Creative Thinking

A common framework or creative thinking processes is described by Torrance (1979). Each

aspect is defined below, along with ways to facilitate the respective aspect by using key words
and application activities.

Fluency. Fluency refers to the production of a great number of ideas or alternate solutions to a
problem. Fluency implies understanding, not just remembering information that is learned.

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Key words. Compare, convert, count, define, describe, explain, identify, label, list, match,
name, outline, paraphrase, predict, summarize.

Application activities . Trace a picture and label the parts.

Outline an article you find on your topic.
How many uses can you think of for a clothes hanger?
List 15 things that are commonly red or contain red.
Example: Apple, blood, brick, caboose, cherry, Christmas, stocking, exit sign, fire alarm, flag,
heart, red nose reindeer, rose, tomato, wagon.

Flexibility. Flexibility refers to the production of ideas that show a variety of possibilities or
realms of thought. It involves the ability to see things from different points of view, to use many
different approaches or strategies.

Key words. Change, demonstrate, distinguish, employ, extrapolate, interpolate, interpret,

predict.

Application ideas . What would happen if … there were no automobiles?

How would a … dog look to a flea? Module Title: Facilitating Learner-Centered Education

How is ______ like ______?

How would you feel if … you were invisible for a day?
How would you group the ideas about “red” into categories?
Example: Fruits, safety features, vehicles.
Once categories are identified, fluency may be further demonstrated by generating more ideas
about the idea red within categories. Even a modest attempt could result in the following lists,
recognizing that the creative thinking process may shift the mind in a spiral way between all
four aspects of creativity.

Red fruit Red safety features Red vehicles

apple exit-sign caboose
cherry fire alarm fire truck
raspberry stop sign tricycle
tomatoe tail lights wagon

Elaboration is the process of enhancing ideas by providing more details. Additional detail an
clarity improves interest in, and understanding of, the topic.
Key words. Appraise, critique, determine, evaluate, grade, judge, measure, select, test.
Application ideas. Tell your neighbor about your last family trip using as many details as
possible.
What can you add to ______to improve its quality or performance?
Describe all the possible characteristics of the red quality in a wagon.
Example: Shade, finish, texture, uniformity.
Originality. Originality involves the production of ideas that are unique or unusual. It involves
synthesis or putting information about a topic back together in a new way.

Key words. Compose, create, design, generate, integrate, modify, rearrange, reconstruct,
reorganize, revise.

Application ideas. Find an original use for ________.

What would be the strangest way to get out of bed?

Design a new ________ that is better than one you have.
Write an unusual life for the ideas about red.
Example: Revolutionary “Red” Representation.
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An overview of the four aspects of creativity appears in a PowerPoint presentation
that may be downloaded from the following link: Creativity.ppt
An adaption of the creativity aspects to the construct “jumping” appears in a
Word document that may be downloaded from the following link: Jumping.doc

Creative Problem Solving – CPS

Osborn’s Checklist the origin of Classical Brainstorming is the root of creative problem solving
(CPS). There are a variety of general structures: ‘define problem, generate possible, solution, select,
and implement the best’ which can be found extensively, in several different academic traditions.
In its most extended and formalized form it has the six stages shown below, each with a
divergent and a convergent phase. However, more recent publications seem more interest in focusing
on procedure and technique issues, with less weight on the full elaboration of this structure.
The following, based on Van Gundy (1988’s) description, is very brief skeleton of a very rich
process, showing it in its full ‘6 x 2 stages’ form:
1. Stage 1: Mess finding: Sensitize yourself (scan, search) for issues (concerns, challenges,
opportunities, etc.) that need to be tackled.
Divergent techniques include “wouldn’t It Be Nice If…’ (WIBNI) and ‘Wouldn’t It Be Awful if…’
(WIBAI)- brainstorming to identify desirable outcomes, and obstacles to be overcome.
Convergent techniques include the identification of hotspot (Highlighting), expressed as a list of
IWWM’s (‘In what ways Might…’), and selection in terms of ownership criteria (e.g. urgency,
familiarity, stability).
2. Stage 2: Data finding: Gather information about the problem.
Divergent techniques include Five W’s and H (Who, Why, What, When, Where and How)
and listing of wants, sources and data: List all your information ‘wants’ as a series of
question; for each, list possible sources of answers; then follow these up and for each
source, list what you found.
Convergent techniques again include: identifying hotspots (Highlighting), Mind-mapping
to sort and classify the information gathered; and also restating the problem in the light
of your richer understanding of it.
3. Stage 3: Problem finding: convert of fuzzy statement of the problem into a broad statement more
suitable for idea finding.
Divergent techniques include highlighting again, reformulation of problem-statements to
meet the criteria that they contain only one problem and no criteria, and election of the most
promising statement (but NB that the mental ‘stretching’ that the activity gives to the
participants can be as important as the actual statement chosen).
4. Stage 4: Idea finding: generate as many ideas as possible
Divergent using any of a very wide range of idea-generating techniques. The general rules of
Classical Brainstorming (such as deferring judgement) are likely to underpin all of these.
• Convergence can again involve hotspots or mind-mapping, the combining of different
ideas, and the shortlisting of the most promising handful, perhaps with some thought for
the more obvious evaluation criteria, but not over-restrictively.
5. Stage 5: Solution finding: Generate and select obvious evaluation criteria (using an
expansion/contraction cycle) and develop (which may include combining) the short-listed ideas
from Idea Finding as much as you can in the light of these criteria. Then opt for the best of these
improved ideas (e.g. using Comparison tables).
6. Stage 6: Acceptance finding: How can the suggestion you have just selected be made up to
standard and put into practice? Shun negativity, and continue to apply referred judgement-
problems are exposed to be solved, not to dishearten progress. Action plans are better developed
in small groups of 2 – 3 rather than in a large group (unless you particularly want commitment by
the whole group). Particularly for ‘people’ problems it is often worth developing several alternative
action plans.

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Possible techniques include – Five W’s and H, Implementation Checklist, Consensus Mapping,
Potential-Problem Analysis (PPA). Retrieved from
http://www.mycoted.com/Creative_Problem_Solving_-CPS

1. Make a collection of puzzles, riddles, and other materials that promote

EXERCISE creativity and problem solving.
2.
3. Read more on convergent and divergent thinking by Guilford.
4.
EVALUATION 1. Choose a topic from your field of specialization. Think of an activity
to introduce the topic which will provide an opportunity for your learners
to practice creative thinking and problem-solving skills.
• Formulate questions under the four aspects of creative thinking – fluency, flexibility, elaboration
and originality.
• Do creative problem solving by applying Van Gundy’s ‘6 x 2 stages’ form or Bradford’s IDEAL
Model

CHAPTER 14- THEORIES ON FACTORS AFFECTING MOTIVATION

OBJECTIVES
In this chpter, you will learn that intrinsic motivation is far better than extrinsic
OVERVIEW motivation. By all means then, let us help develop intrinsic motivation in our
students.

At the end of this module, you must have:

LEARNING • Explained to a learning partner the following theories on the sources of
OUTCOMES intrinsic motivation; and
• cited the implications of these theories to the facilitation of learning.

• Attribution Theory
• Self-Efficacy Theory
INDICATIVE • Self-Determination And Self-Regulation Theory
CONTENT • Goal Theory
• Choice Theory
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

POINTS OF DISCUSSION

Attribution Theory

What is the attribution theory? The theory explains that we attribute our successes or failures or
other events to several factors. For instance, you attribute your popularity to your popular parents or
to your own sterling academic performance. On your attribute the poor economic condition you are in
to the Land Reform of the Philippines government (your land were subjected to land reform) or to the
vices of your father. These attributions differ from one another in three ways –locus, stability, and
controllability (Ormsrod, 2004)
1. Locus (“place”): Internal versus external. If your student traces his good graded to his ability and to his
hard work, he attributes his good grade to internal factors. If your student, however, claims that his
god grade is due to the effective teaching of his teacher or to the adequate library facilities, he attributes
his good grades to factors external to himself.
2. Stability: Stable versus unstable. If you attribute your poor performance to what you have inherited
from your parents, then you are attributing the cause of your performance to something stable,
something that cannot change because it is in your genes. If you attribute it to excessive watching of
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tv, then you are claiming that your poor eyesight is caused by an unstable factor, something that can
change. (You can prolong or shorten your period of watching tv.)
3. Controllability: Controllability versus uncontrollable. If your student claims his poor academic
performance is due to his teacher’s ineffective teaching strategy, he attributes his poor performance to a
factor beyond his control. If, however, your student admits that his poor class performance is due to his
poor study habits and low motivation, he attributes the event to factors which are very much within his
control.

How does attribution affect motivation?

If your student attributes his/her success or failure to something within him/her and therefore is within
his/her control or to something unstable and, therefore, can be changed s/he is more likely to be
motivated. If, however, your student traces his/her success to something outside him/her and therefore
beyond his/her control s/he is likely to be less motivated.

Motivation tends to increase when students attribute failure to lack of effort because effort can be
controlled. It tends to decrease students attribute failure to uncontrollable causes (e.g. luck, or ability if
viewed as stable (Weinstock 2007).

This is something interesting. “People tend to attribute their successes to internal causes (e.g. high
ability, hard work) and their failures to external causes (e.g. luck, behaviors of others. March, 1990). When
students do poorly, for example, they commonly attribute their failure to poor teaching, boring topics,
poor tests.

Table 1

Relationships among the Dimensions of Attributions

Attributions Locus (location of cause) Stability (of cause) Control(of

learning situation)
Ability Inside the learner Stable (cannot change) Learner
out of control
Effort Inside the learner Unstable (can change) Learner
in control
Luck Outside the learner Unstable (can change) Learner
out of control
Task difficulty Outside the learner Stable (cannot change) Learner SELF-
out of control
EFFICACY THEORY

A sense of high self-efficacy means a high sense of competence. Self-efficacy is the belief that
one has the necessary capabilities to perform a task, fulfill role expectations, or meet a challenging
situation successfully. When your students believe that they have the ability to perform learning
activities successfully, they are more likely intrinsically motivated to do such learning activities. The
secret, therefore, to enhancing intrinsic motivation is enhancing our students’ sense of self-efficacy.
Social cognitive theorists identified several self-efficacies- enhancing strategies:

• Make sure students master the basic skills. Master of the basic skills like, reading, writing, arithmetic
will enable the child to tackle higher level activities. Imagine how miserable it is for a student who has
not mastered the basic skills! Unable to perform higher-level learning tasks the require display and use
of basic skills, your student will feel he is a failure in his school life.
• Help them make noticeable progress on difficult tasks. You like to give up climbing a mountain when
you feel that is seems you are not making at progress at all. When you have spent hours and hours on
a difficult task and you seem not to be progressing, you are made to think that your efforts are leading

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you nowhere and you want to give up. That’s why, it is good that you are helped to see progress while
you are working on your difficult task. The knowledge that you are progressing inspires you to keep on.
• Communicate confidence in students’ abilities through both words and actions. Express confidence
that your students, with all their abilities, can easily tackle the learning task. Words like, “if you were
able to do a more difficult task yesterday. What you are asked to do today is much easier than that of
yesterday. Needless to say, that your body language and your words expressing your belief in their
abilities must match.
• Expose them to successful peers. Being with successful peers, your students will inhale success
and get energized to succeed as well. Success is infectious in the same way that failure is also
contagious.

Other recommendations from motivation theories are:

• Provide competence-promoting feedback. Communicate to your students that they can do the
job. They have the ability to succeed.
• Promote mastery on challenging tasks. Don’t give up your students extremely difficult nor
extremely easy task. If the task you give is extremely easy, they do not get challenged and you do not
draw the best from them, if it is extremely difficult, they get frustrated. Then it is the best to strike the
golden mean between the two extremes. A challenging task is one that encourages your students to
stretch themselves to their limits.
• Promote self-comparison rather than comparison with others. Desiderata says: If you compare
yourself with others, you will become vain and bitter. For always there will be greater and lesser persons
than yourself.”
After encouraging your students to set their personal goals, ask them to evaluate their progress against
their own goals.
• Be sure errors occur within an overall context of success. (Ormrod, 2004) There will be always
be errors or mistakes as we learn, as we go through life. But they cease to be mistakes once we learn
from them. But if it is all errors that come one after another without a taste of success, chances are
your students will feel so down that they are robbed of the courage to proceed. “The learning process
requires the challenge of new and different experiences, the trying of the unknown, and therefore,
necessarily must involve the making of mistakes. In order for people to learn, they need to opportunity
to explore new situations and ideas without being penalized or punished for mistakes which are integral
to the activity of learning.” (Ortigas, 1990).

Table 2

The Influence of Self-Efficacy on Motivation

High Self-Efficacy Learners Low Self-Efficacy

Learners
Task orientation Accept challenging tasks Avoid challenging
tasks
Effort Expend high effort when faced with Expand low effort
when faced with
Challenging tasks challenging tasks
Persistence Persist when goals aren’t Give up when
goals aren’t initially reached
Initially reached
Beliefs Believe they will succeed Focus on feelings
of incompetence
Control stress and anxiety Experience
anxiety and depression
Goals aren’t met Believe they’re
not in control of their
Believe they’re in control of environment
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their environment
Strategy use Discard unproductive strategies Persist with
unproductive strategies
Performance Perform higher than low-efficacy Perform lower than
high-efficacy
Students of equal ability students of
equal ability.

Self-determination and Self-regulation theories

Students are more likely intrinsically motivated when they have a sense of self-determination –
when they believe that they have some choice and control regarding the things they does and the
directions their lives take. A student’s sense of self determination is demonstrated in his capacity for
self-regulation. Self-regulation refers to a person’s ability to master himself. He is the “I am the captain
of my soul” type of person. He is not a victim of circumstances. He is capable of directing himself.

What are the indicators of Self-regulation? They are the abilities to:

• set standards of oneself

• monitor and evaluate one’s own behavior against such standards, and
• impose consequences on oneself for one’s successes or failures. (Ormrod, 2004)

How does self-regulation relate to motivation?

A student who is capable of self-regulation is more likely to be more intrinsically motivated

because he sets his goals and standards, he monitors his progress, and evaluates his own performance.

A student who is capable of self-regulation, is not only capable of regulating his behavior, he is
also capable of regulation his own learning. (Ormrod, 2004) cites the following processes involved in
self-regulated learning:

• Goal-setting. Self-regulated learners know what they want to accomplish when they read or
study.
• Planning. Self-regulated learners determine ahead of time how best to use the time they have
available of learning.
• Attention control. Self-regulated learners try to focus their attention on the subject matter at
hand and clear their minds of potentially distracting thoughts and emotions.
• Application of learning strategies. Self-regulated learners choose different learning strategies
depending on the specific goal they hope to accomplish.
• Self-monitoring- Self-regulated learners continually monitor their progress toward their goals and
they change their learning strategies or modify their goals, if necessary.
• Self-evaluation. Self-regulated learners determine whether what they have learned is sufficient
for the goals they have set.

A student who has self-determination and self-regulation is more likely to be intrinsically

motivated an so is more capable of self-regulated learning.

Here are some suggestions from motivation theorists to enhance students’ sense of self-
determination about school activities and assignments.

▪ Present rules and instructions in an informational manner rather than controlling manner. Here
are some examples on how to present rules in an informational manner.
“We can make sure everyone has an equal chance to speak and be heard if we listen without
interrupting and if we raise our hands when we want to contribute to the discussion.”
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“I’m giving you a particular format to follow when you do your Math homework. If you use this
format, it will be easier for me to find your answers and to figure out how I can help you improve.
▪ Provide opportunities for students to make choices. Several times a particular lesson objective
can be reached by the use of varied strategies. Students will be more likely to be intrinsically
motivated to attain the objective when they are given the freedom to choose how to attain it, of
course, within the set parameters. An example is, when we allow our students to choose their
manner of group work presentation to the class after the group activity.
▪ Evaluate student performance in a non-controlling fashion. Communicate evaluation results to
inform your students of their progress without passing judgment of some sort but to make them
see that they are strong in some points but not so in other items. The practice of self-evaluation
especially with the use of scoring rubrics will be of great help. Says renowned author, consultant
and speaker Alfie Kohn “rewards for learning undermines intrinsic motivation.”
(Kohn, 1993) Alfie,

CHOICE THEORY

Bon Sullo (2007) writes: The choice theory is a biological theory that suggest we are born with specific
needs that we are genetically instructed to satisfy. All of our behavior represents our best attempt at
any moment to satisfy our basic needs or genetic instructions. In addition to the physical need for
survival, we have four basic psychological needs that must be satisfied to be emotionally healthy:

• Belonging or connecting
• Power or competence
• Freedom
• Fun

The need for belonging or connecting motivates us to develop relationships and cooperate with others.
Without the need for belonging and cooperating, we should only strive to be independent.

The need for power is more than just a drive to dominate. Power is gained through competence,
achievement, and mastery. Our genetic instruction is to achieve, master new skills and to be recognized
for our accomplishments….

As a human, we are also motivated to be free, to choose. Having choices is part of what it means to
be human and is one reason our species has been able to evolve, adapt and thrive…

Each time we learn something new, we are having fun, another universal human motivator. It is our
playfulness and our sense of discovery that allows us to learn as much as we do.

What do these imply to our task to facilitate learning? We have to come up with a need-satisfying
environment. To motivate our students for learning, we should satisfy their need to belong, their need
to have power being competent, the need to have a free choice, and the need to enjoy learning and have
fun.

How can these be done? If we create a sense of community in the classroom and make every student
feel s/he belongs to that classroom community, s/he will more likely love to go to school. If we make
use of cooperative learning structures, we strengthen the spirit of cooperation and collaboration and
reduce, if not eliminate, the spirit of cut throat competition. (For examples of cooperative learning
structures, please refer to Principle of Teaching 1 written by Brenda B. Corpuz and Gloria G. Salandanan.)
In a non-threatening atmosphere, students are more likely to perform.

To satisfy our students’ need for power, let us help them acquire it by making them achieve, by making
them master their lessons and end up very competent. As a result of their competence and excellent
achievement, they get recognized and experience genuine power.

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Let us teach our students that the source of authentic power is competence, not bullying and other
irresponsible behaviors. This way, they will learn the true road to real power.

To motivate our students for learning, let us give them ample freedom to choose within parameters
that are safe and responsible, developmentally appropriate, and supportive of learning for that is the
ultimate purpose of freedom, to help our students learn and grow into the responsible persons they are
called to be. When our students are made to feel they have a lot of free choices, they are not driven to
satisfy this need for freedom. On the other hand, when our students perceive themselves to be so
suffocate by our impositions and limits, they are most likely to behave in ways, even irresponsible ways,
to get them the freedom they believe is not satisfied.

Fun is an universal human motivator. If our students’ need for fun is satisfied, they are most likely to
learn much. Glasser (1990) claims “fun is the genetic payoff for learning.” A joyless classroom does not
motivate students to perform. Let’s have fun while we teach. Without our knowing, our students are
learning and mastering that we are teaching while we are having fun.

“What happens outside of us has a lot to do with what we choose to do but the outside event does not
cause our behavior. What we get, and all we ever get from the outside is information; how we choose to
act on that information is up to us. (William Glasser, 1990 quoted by Bob Sullo,

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A student’s lower-order needs must first be met before s/he works for the satisfaction of his/her
higher-order needs. The lower-order needs include first-level needs and second-level needs. The first-
level needs are basic survival and physiological needs for food, air, water, and sleep. The second-level
needs are bodily safety and economic security.

There are three (3) levels in the higher-order needs. The first (which is now the third level in
Maslow’s need hierarchy) is the need for love and belonging. The needs at the fourth level include those
for esteem and status, including one’s feelings of self-worth and of competence. The fifth level need is
self-actualization, which means becoming all that one is capable of becoming, using one’s skills to the
fullest, and stretching talents to the maximum.

Based on Maslow’s theory, a satisfied need is not a strong motivator but an unsatisfied need is.
Research proves that “unless the two lower-order needs (physiological and security) are basically
satisfied, employees (in our teaching-learning context or our students will not be greatly concerned with
higher-order needs. (Newstrom, 1997)

For us teachers, this means that we cannot teach students with hungry stomachs. We cannot
teach students when they feel afraid and insecure. While it is not our obligation to feed them, working
with parents, the school nurse and all others who can help address the problem of students’ hunger, lack
of sleep and the like will be of great help.
Our students’ need for love and belonging is satisfied in a class where they feel they belong and
are accepted regardless of their academic standing in class, economic status, and ethnic background.
Their need for self-esteem is satisfied when we help them succeed, recognize their effort and contribution
no matter how insignificant and praise their achievement. Doing so actually propels them to self-
actualization.

GOAL THEORY

Learning gals versus performance goals. The goals we set for ourselves affect our level of
motivation. There are several types of goals. In relation to learning we can speak of learning goal and
performance goal. How do they differ?
A learning goal is a “desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new skills” while a
performance goal is a “desire to look good and receive favorable judgements from others or else look
bad and receive unfavorable judgements.” (Ormrod, 2004) Between these two goals, with which type
of goal is the intrinsically-motivated student occupied? Obviously, the ideal student is a student with a

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learning goal. The student with a learning goal is mastery-focused while the student with a
performance goal is performance-focused.

Table 3 shows a comparison of learning mastery – focused and performance – focused

classrooms.

Table 3
Comparison of Mastery-Focused and Performance-Focused Classrooms
Mastery Focused Performance Focused
Success defined as…. Mastery, improvement High grades, doing better than
others
Value placed on… Effort, improvement High grades, demonstration of
high ability
Reasons for satisfaction… Meeting challenges, hard work Doing better that others, success
with
minimum
. effort
Teacher oriented toward Student learning Student performance
View of errors… A normal part of learning A basis for concern and anxiety
Reasons for effort… Increased understanding High grades, doing better than
others
Ability viewed as… Incremental, alterable An entity, fixed
Reasons for assessment… measure progress toward preset Determine grades, compare
students to one
criteria, provide feedback another
Source: Eggen Paul and Don Kauchak, 2008 Educational Psychology, Windows on Classroom, 8 th ed.
OH. Pearson Co.

Self-determined goals. Personally relevant goals and self-determined goals enhance a student’s
motivation. When lesson objectives are relevant to the life of students, then students turn out to be
more motivated to learn. When the lesson objectives are owned by the students because they find
them relevant to their life, most likely students become highly motivated for learning. This departs
from the de-contextualized teaching that happens when all we do is deposit information into the minds
of our students, students memorize, and we withdraw what we taught every periodic examination.
Goal setting. As a motivation tool, goal setting is effective when the following major elements are
present: 1) goal acceptance, 2) specificity, 3) challenge, 4) performance monitoring, and 5)
performance feedback. Thus, it is necessary that our students accept and own our lesson objectives
(See self-determined goals in the foregoing paragraph) and that our lesson objectives must be SMART
(specific, measurable, attainable, result-oriented and time-bound) and challenging. It is quality
important that we monitor our student’s learning. However, simply monitoring results is not enough.
We have to give our students feedback about their performance.

EXERCISE 1. Construct a True-False type of test to evaluate the first objective of this
Module.
2. Between learning goal and performance goal, with which type do you
identify? Explain your answer.
3. To what factors do great men and women attribute their success? It is to personal factors
like ability and effort or to situational factors such as difficulty of the task and impact of
luck?
4. “Success has many fathers; failures or defeat is an orphan.” How does this general
behavior relate to self-esteem?
5. Do attributions always reflect the true state of affairs? Or can we have something like false
attributions? Explain your answer.
6. How does Maslow’s need theory compare with Glasser’s choice theory and that of
Alderfer’s E-R-G need theory? Do research on these.
7. Authors warn us to avoid simple attributions, meaning not to attribute success or failure
just to one factor only. Why so?
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8. Why do people tend to attribute their successes to internal causes and their failures to
external causes?

• Interview your learning partner (classmate) on factors that affect his/her

EVALUATION performance. Together, analyze if these factors are within or outside his/her
control. Analyze also the effects of these factors on your learning partner’s
motivation.
• Reflect on your own performance and the factors to which you attribute the quality of your
performance. How do these factors influence your motivation for learning?
• Give one teaching application for each motivation theory

CHAPTER 15- HUMAN ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING

MOTIVATION

If environment is defined as the sum total of one’s surroundings, then

environmental factors that affect students’ motivation include human as well
OVERVIEW
as non-human factors. The immediate human factors that surround the
learner are the teachers, the other students and his/her parents.

At the end of this module, you must have:

• compared a poem/song describing teachers’ behavioral traits that are
LEARNING facilitative of learning;
OUTCOMES • shown through poster the de-motivating function of bullying in schools.
• Listed down the behavioral traits of parents who are supportive of
learning.

INDICATIVE
• Teacher’s Affective Traits
CONTENT

POINTS OF DISCUSSION

Teacher’s Affective Traits

Studies suggest that management and instructional processes are key of facilitating learning but
many interview responses, like the letter at the beginning of this module, emphasize the teacher’s
affective characteristics or social and emotional behaviors, more than pedagogical practice. Some
of your teachers were motivating and inspiring. Others were not.

You are grateful to those who motivated and inspired you. You must also be grateful to those who
were not as motivating and inspiring. In a way, they also helped you become better persons in the
sense that you strived to become better than they.
Researches cite the following affective characteristics of effective teachers James H. Stronge,
2002):
• Caring – Specific attributes that show caring are:
- sympathetic listening to students not only about life inside the classroom but more
about students’ lives in general
- understanding of students’ questions and concerns
- knowing students individually, their likes and dislikes, and personal situations affecting
behavior and performance
• Fairness and respect – These are shown in specific behaviors like:
- treating students as people

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- avoiding the use of ridicule and preventing situations in which students lose respect in
front of their peers
- practice gender, racial and ethnic fairness
- providing students with opportunities for students who participate and to succeed
• Social interactions with students – The specific behaviors of a facilitative social interaction are:
- Consistently behaving a friendly personal manner while maintaining professional distance with
students
- Interacting productively by giving students responsibility and respect
- Allow students to participate in decision-making
- Willing to participate and demonstrating a sense of fun
- Have a sense of humor and is willing to share jokes
• Enthusiasm and motivating for learning shown in:
- encouraging students to be responsible for their own learning
- maintaining an organized classroom environment
- setting high standards
- assigning appropriate challenges
- providing reinforcement and encouragement during tasks
• Attitude toward the teaching profession
- dual commitment to personal learning and to students’ learning anchored on the belief that all
students can learn
- helping students succeed by using differentiated instruction
- working collaboratively with colleagues and other staff
- serving as an example of a lifelong learner to his/her students and colleagues
• Positive expectations of students manifested in:
- striving to make all students feel competent
- communicating positive expectations to students, i.e., They will be successful
- high personal teaching efficacy shown in their belief that they can cause all students to learn.
• Reflective Practice
- reviewing and thinking on his/her teaching process
- eliciting feedback from others in the interest of teaching and learning
Classmates – Bullying and the Need to Belong

Students from part of the human environment of the learner. In fact, they far outnumber the teachers
in the learning environment.

The need to belong in a basic human need. Students who are accepted by teachers and classmates feel
they belong to the class. students who feel are part of the class look forward to attending class and
participating in class. the sense of belongingness enhances their learning and performance. The
prevalence of bullying, however, obstructs the creation of a learning community where everyone feels
s/he belongs. With bullying in schools, the learning environment cannot be safe. Then buy all means,
bullying should be eliminated in school. Bullying takes on several forms. It can be mild; it can be intense
or deeply-seated and highly violent. Today safety in schools is being raised all over the world.

A parent as Part of the Learners’ Human Learning Environment. The learner spends at least six hours in
school. The rest, s/he spends at home. Parents, therefore, are supposed to have more opportunity to be

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with their children than teachers. How many of our parents use the opportunity to support their children
in their studies?

What parents’ behavioral traits are supportive of their children’s learning are observed to do the
following:

• Follow up status of their children’s performance

• Supervise their children in their homework/project
• Check their children’s notebooks
• Review their children’s corrected seat works and test papers
• Attend conferences for Parents, Teachers and Community Association (PTCA)
• Are willing to spend on their children’s project and involvement in school activities
• Participate actively in school-community projects
• Confer with children’s teachers when necessary
• Are aware of their children’s activities in school
• Meet the friends of their children
• Invite the children’s friends at home

Unsupportive parent behaviors are the opposite of all those listed above.

The interaction between the learner and the teacher, among the learners, and among the learner,
teacher and parents affect the learner’s motivation. Whether the climate that come as a by-product of
the interactions nurtures or obstructs learning depends on the quality of these interactions

EXERCISES

1. Make clipping of articles on school bullying. React to one article of your choice
2. Read and discuss its provisions and implication to teaching of DepEd Order 40 s.2012, DepEd’s
Child Protection Policy.

EVALUATION

1. Rev. Father Joseph V. Landy, SJ in his book “Letter to a Young Teacher. The Art of Being
Interesting”, cites 5 elements that are especially useful for gaining attention in the classroom, to
wit” 1) activity, 2) reality, 3) The vital, 4) Humor, and 5) Novelty. Are these elements found in the
affective traits of the facilitating teacher given by Stronge in this chapter?

2. “The quality of teacher-student relationships is the key to all other aspects of classroom
management”, says recognized expert in classroom management, Robert Marzano. Do the teacher’s
affective traits have something to do with the quality teacher-student relationships? Explain your
answer.

3. By means of graphic organizer, list down the behavioral traits of parents who are supportive of
children’s studies.

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Module Title: Facilitating Learner-Centered Education
Course Title: Facilitating Learner-Centered Education
Course Number: Ed 105
Course Description: This course explores the fundamental principles processess and practices anchored
on learner-centeredness and other educational pschychologies as these apply to facilitate various
teaching learning delivery modes to enhance learning.
Total Learning Time: 54 Hours
Pre-requisite:

CHAPTER 16- THE CLASSROOM CLIMATE

The classroom climate is more a product of the interaction between and among
teacher and students than that of the physical condition of the classroom. The
OVERVIEW physical condition of the classroom may exert an influence on the social
interaction among the personalities in class but it may not contribute as much
as the classroom social interaction does.
What is classroom climate that facilities learning? It is something business-like and yet non-
threatening. What takes place in a classroom where a business-like and a non-threatening atmosphere
prevail? This is the concern of this Module.

At the end of this module, you must have:

LEARNING • Described the classroom climate that is conducive of learning by the use of
OUTCOMES simile or metaphor; and
• Simulate the first day of class where you act as teacher giving class
policies and rules;

INDICATIVE • Classroom Climate

CONTENT
POINTS OF DISCUSSION
The classroom climate that is conducive for learning is one that is non-threatening yet
business-like.
It is classroom where:
• specific classroom rules and procedures are clear
• these classroom rules and procedure are discussed on the first days of class
• students are involved in the design of rules and procedures
• techniques to acknowledge and reinforce acceptable behavior and provide negative
consequences are employed
• clear limits for unacceptable behavior are stablished
• there is a healthy balance between dominance and cooperation
• teacher is aware of the needs of different types of students
• teacher is fully aware of the happenings in class
• students’ responsibility for their own behavior is enhanced. (Marzano, et al, 2003)
(for additional notes, you may refer to Principles of Teaching 1 written by Corpuz, Brenda and Gloria G.
Salandanan.)

1. Describe a classroom atmosphere by means of simile or metaphor.

EXERCISES

Simulate a classroom setting. Let 2 students introduce their classroom

EVALUATION rules in a creative way in class. Evaluate the process.

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CHAPTER 17- THE PHYSICAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

We do not get affective only by the psychological climate in the classroom. We are also affected by the
physical condition of the learning place. The learner is put at a disadvantage
OVERVIEW when the classroom is overcrowded, dark and damp. We hear of teachers
saying “It gets into my nerve” when students are unnecessarily noisy and
unruly in a classroom that is topsy turvy. The physical learning environment
matters, too, in facilitating learning.

At the end of this Module, you must have designed a favorable physical
OVERVIEW learning environment.

POINTS OF DISCUSSION

The physical learning environment has something to do with the condition of the classroom, the
immediate environment of the learner. A conducive physical learning environment is one that:
allows maximum interaction between teacher and student and among student;
allows student movement without unnecessary distraction
allows teacher to survey the whole class;
is safe, clean, orderly;
is well-ventilated, spacious, and adequately lighted and makes possible re-arrangement of chairs as
the need arises.

Let us not forget the fact that while the physical condition of the classroom and the persons that
the students interact with constitute their immediate environment, our students are also influenced by
factors outside their immediate environment. Our students bring to the classroom many attitudes as a
result of their being conditioned by their families: These attitudes influence their class performance.

1. One of you should be assigned to secure a copy of the minimum

EXERCISES standards of physical facilities to open a school from the Commission on
Higher Education (CHED). Why are these minimum standards on size of
classroom, library, books, etc. set?
1. Is a quiet classroom necessary favorable for learning?
2. Research on wall color/s that is/are most conducive for learning, considering varied
developmental stages of learners?

EVALUATION Design a classroom that is conducive learning. Indicate color of paint,

arrangement of desks, teacher’s table, and other fixtures.

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CHAPTER 18- ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES THAT CAN INCREASE
MOTIVATION
An indispensable part of the teaching-learning process is assessment. It is
OVERVIEW usually at the end of a lesson plan termed “evaluation”. A lesson plan is
not complete without an assessment. The instructional cycle indeed is not
complete without assessment.
Assessment is at the service of learning, thus the phrase assessment
for learning. Assessment is meant to ensure that learning takes place. This is possible only when the
assessment process motivates students to learn. Unfortunately, however, in many instances assessment
as a process does not motivate, instead threatens. How can we make assessment a motivating and a
facilitating experience is the concern of this Module.

LEARNING At the end of this module, you must have:

• cited ways to make assessment more motivating for students; and
OUTCOMES
• demonstrated appreciation of assessment as a process to evaluate
and facilitate learning

INDICATIVE
• Assessment for Learning
CONTENT

POINTS OF DISCUSSION

That’s the reason why the title of this Module is “Assessment for Learning” instead of “Assessment
of Learning” We chose the latter because it emphasizes the role that assessment plays in facilitating
learning. It is not just done at the end of the teaching-learning process. Instead, it is an integral part
of the teaching-learning process, such that assessment not just evaluates the learning but becomes
a tool to facilitate and enhance learning.

The practice of checking your own answers in both pretest and posttest helped you learn better,
too. It challenged you to complete with yourself. Is there a proof of learning better than improved
scores?
Assessment is something that students frown upon. It is a scarecrow for students. Nobody wants
tests and quizzes. The usual bargain of students with teachers is “no more test”.
Why this negative connotation of test? Perhaps because tests have always been associated with
grades and consequently with passing and failing that is why they have become threatening.
Why can we make it motivating and facilitating and so non-threatening?

Assessment Strategies that can Increase Motivation

How can we make assessment a palatable menu for our students? Experience in classroom
assessment and principles of assessment tell us the following:
1. Make clear your learner’s objectives every time. It is good if students are clarified on the objectives
they are working on and the criteria that will be used in evaluating their learning.
2. Make your students own the lesson objective. Allow them to set their own personal learning targets
based on the lesson objective. Initially their personal target may be lower than the learning target
set for the class but with the expectation that they will gradually bring them up according to their
pace until their personal targets coincide with the class target. This will make them feel
unthreatened comfortable.

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3. Engage your students in self-assessment. They have established their own target against clearly
set lesson objectives. They are in the best position to determine if they have met their own targets
and the class target or objective.
When learners are given in the opportunity to evaluate their own performance, they bring to mind
the personal task and strategy variables applicable to them. They reflect on their personal
characteristics that affect their learning, the task they need to work on and the strategies that can
help them. In this way, assessment empowers the students to take a more active role in their own
learning process.
4. Practice criterion-referenced assessment rather than norm-referenced assessment. Make your
students compare their performance against established criterion, i.e., the learning objective or
target and not against other students’ performance. Comparing a student’s performance with the
latter makes assessment threatening.
5. If you are indeed criterion-referenced, then your assessment is certainly based on established
criterion, your learning target or objective. It has been observed, however, that a number of
teachers set learning objectives but assess another. This leads to students’ confusion and
discouragement.
6. Inspire your students to have mastery-focus rather than performance-focus. Set their hearts on
lesson mastery for the love learning rather than on scores, grades and performance. If they feel to
get an item or items in a test, tell them not to worry and assure them that they will taught again
until mastery.
7. Have a “growth mindset”. Believe that your students can improve. Failure or wrong answer is
welcome. Assure your students that they are not made less of themselves by a wrong answer or a
mistake. What is most important is that they learn from their mistakes and continuously grow and
improve.
8. Your assessment practice must be sensitive and constructive because assessment has an emotional
impact. Bear in mind that your comments, marks and grades, as well as the manner you
communicate them to students, can affect their self-confidence. Assessment should be constructive
as much as possible. Judging students harshly to the point that they feel belittled or insulted will
kill their spirit and may lead them to have a negative view both of themselves and the subject.
9. Don’t make the test too difficult to discourage students nor too easy to make them complacent. An
extremely easy test is not challenging while an extremely difficult test is discouraging.
10. Communicate results/feedback. A teacher facilitates learning by providing students with important
feedback on their learning areas….(Bloom, Madaus and Hastings, Stiggins as
cited in Guskey, 2003)
EXERCISES 1. Read on outcomes-based teaching and assessment. Is the practice of
OBE (Outcomes-Based) facilitative of assessment?
2. List down on best classroom assessment practices.
5. When can assessment gives too much pressure on students?
List:
EVALUATION 1. Three (3) things I should do to make assessment increase students
‘motivation.
2. Three (3) things I should never do to make assessment non-
threatening?

REFERENCES
Corpuz, B. and Salandanan, G. (2017). Principles of teaching 2. Lorimar Publishing Co.

Lucas, M.R. & Corpuz, B.B. (2013). Facilitating Learning: A metacognition process.
Lorimar Publishing House. Metro Manila.

DepEd Order s. 2012. DepEd’s Child Policy Protection

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