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OCR GCSE Computer Science Your notes

Designing, Creating & Refining Algorithms

Contents
Inputs, Processes, & Outputs for a Problem
Structure Diagrams
Pseudocode & Flowcharts
Identify Errors in Algorithms
Trace Tables

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Inputs, Processes, & Outputs for a Problem

Your notes
Inputs, Processes, & Outputs for a Problem
Applying algorithmic thinking leads to a set of precise step-by-step instructions that can solve a
problem
To create an algorithm, the inputs, processes and outputs must be identified

What is an input?
An input is data or information being entered/taken into a program before it is processed in the
algorithm
An input can come from a variety of sources, such as:
User - keyboard, mouse, controller, microphone
Sensors - temperature, pressure, movement

What is a process?
A process is a doing action performed in the algorithm that transforms inputs into the desired output.
The central processing unit (CPU) executes the instructions that define the process
An example would be:
Comparing two numbers
Calculating an average

What is an output?
An output is the result of the processing in an algorithm and usually the way a user can see if an
algorithm works as intended
An output can take various forms, such as:
Numbers - result of calculations
Text
Images
Actions - triggering events

Example 1 - Area of a shape

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A user wants to write a program to calculate the area of a shape

Input Process Output Your notes

Length Length X width Area

Width

Example 2 - Average test score

A teacher wants to calculate the average mark achieved on a test amongst students in a class. The
teacher needs to enter how many students in the class and for each students a score out of 50

Input Process Output

Number of students TotalScore = TotalScore + score per student Average mark

Score per student Average = TotalScore / Number of students

Worked Example
A bus company offers a discount to passengers if they have a valid 'student' card or are over 65
years of age.
Identify all the inputs that will be required in an algorithm to solve this problem [2]
Answer
Student card (YES/NO)
Age (integer)

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Structure Diagrams
Your notes
Structure Diagrams
What is a structure diagram?
A structure diagram is a visual representation of problem decomposition
A tool to show how a complex problem can be broken down into more manageable sub problems
A planning tool for developers during the analysis of a problem

Worked Example
A hairdressers uses a mobile phone app to allow clients to book appointments.

Clients must log in before they can use the system. They then choose to book a new appointment,
view all appointments already made or update their personal details. If clients choose to view their
appointments, they can either view them on-screen or print them off.

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A structure diagram has been used to design the mobile phone app.
Your notes
Write one letter from the following table in each space to complete the structure diagram [4]

Letter Task

A Book new appointment

B View appointments on screen

C Update personal details

D Check price list

E Log out of system

F Print a paper copy of appointments

Answer

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Your notes

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Pseudocode & Flowcharts

Your notes
When designing algorithms there are two main tools that can be used to describe them:
Pseudocode
Flowcharts

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember, in the exam you will be expected to create, interpret, correct and refine algorithms in
either flowcharts, pseudocode or OCR exam reference language

Pseudocode
What is pseudocode?
Pseudocode is a text based tool that uses short English words/statements to describe an algorithm
Pseudocode is more structured than writing sentences in English, but is very flexible

Example
A casino would like a program that asks users to enter an age, if they are 18 or over they can enter the
site, if not then they are given a suitable message

Pseudocode

INPUT age

IF age >= 18 THEN

OUTPUT "Welcome to the site"

ELSE

OUTPUT "Sorry, this site is for users 18 and over"

END IF

The casino would like the algorithm refined so that the user also enter their first name and this is used
to greet the user when they access the site

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Pseudocode
Your notes
INPUT fname

INPUT age

IF age >= 18 THEN

OUTPUT ("Welcome to the site", fname)

ELSE

OUTPUT "Sorry, this site is for users 18 and over"

END IF

What is OCR exam reference language?

OCR exam reference language is the officially designed pseudocode that is seen in OCR based
exams to describe algorithms
Pseudocode has no official syntax so to keep exams consistent OCR have developed their own

Examples
Function OCR exam reference language

OUTPUT print("Hello")

INPUT num = input("Enter a number")

SELECTION if num == 2 then

...

elseif num < 4 then

...

endif

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FOR LOOPS for i = 1 to 10

... Your notes

next i

WHILE LOOPS while (i != 11)

...

endwhile

Examiner Tips and Tricks

OCR exam reference language is so close to Python syntax that you can write algorithms in Python in
both section A and B of the exam!

Worked Example

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Your notes

Rewrite the flowchart as a pseudocode [4]

You must use either
Pseudocode or
OCR Exam Reference Language
Answer

Pseudocode OCR exam reference language

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INPUT price price = input("Enter price")

IF price < 50 THEN if price < 50 then Your notes

OUTPUT "Great choice!" print("Great choice!")

ELSE else

OUTPUT "Way too expensive" print("Way too expensive")

END IF end if

Flowcharts
What is a flowchart?
Flowcharts are a visual tool that uses shapes to represent different functions to describe an
algorithm
Flowcharts show the data that is input and output, the processes that take place and any decisions or
repetition
Lines are used to show the flow of control

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Example
Flowchart Your notes

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The casino would like the algorithm refined so that the user also enter their first name and this is used
to greet the user when they access the site
Your notes
Flowchart

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Your notes

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Your notes

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Identify Errors in Algorithms

Your notes
Designing algorithms is a skill that must be developed and when designing algorithms, mistakes will be
made
There are two main types of errors that when designing algorithms a programmer must be able to
identify & fix, they are:
Syntax errors
Logic errors

Syntax Errors
What is a syntax error?
A syntax error is an error that breaks the grammatical rules of a programming language and stops it
from running
Examples of syntax errors are:
Typos and spelling errors
Missing or extra brackets or quotes
Misplaced or missing semicolons
Invalid variable or function names
Incorrect use of operators
Incorrectly nested loops & blocks of code

Examples
Syntax Errors Corrected

age = input("Enter age) age = input("Enter age") # Missing "

favNum == input("Enter favourite number") favNum = input("Enter favourite number")

# Only one equal sign
print age + favNum)
print (age + favNum) # Missing bracket
print (age x favNum)
print (age * favNum) # Multiply symbol is *

num1 = imput("Enter the first number") num1 = input("Enter the first number") # Misspelt word

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num2 = input(Enter the second number) num2 = input("Enter the second number") # Missing quotes

if num1 > num2 then if num1 > num2 then Your notes
print(num1 + " is larger") print(num1 + " is larger") # Block not indented

elseif num2 > num1 then elseif num2 > num1 then

Print(num2 + " is larger") print(num2 + " is larger") # Lowercase p

else else

print("The numbers are the same") print("The numbers are the same")

endif endif

Logic Errors
What is a logic error?
A logic error is where incorrect code is used that causes the program to run, but produces an
incorrect output or result
Logic errors can be difficult to identify by the person who wrote the program, so one method of finding
them is to use 'Trace Tables'
Examples of logic errors are:
Incorrect use of operators (< and >)
Logical operator confusion (AND for OR)
Looping one extra time
Indexing arrays incorrectly (arrays indexing starts from 0)
Using variables before they are assigned
Infinite loops

Example
An algorithm is written to take as input the number of miles travelled. The algorithm works out how
much this will cost, with each mile costing £0.30 in petrol. If this is greater than £10.00 then it is
reduced by 10%.

Logic errors Corrected

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miles = input("Enter the number of miles) miles = input("Enter the number of miles")

cost = 0.3 cost = miles * 0.3 Your notes

if cost = 10 then if cost > 10 then

cost = cost * 0.1 cost = cost * 0.9

endif endif

print(cost) print(cost)

Commentary

The cost was set to 0.3 (30p) instead of correctly calculating the cost of the trip by applying the
formula, miles * 0.3
The cost should only be reduced if the cost is greater than 10, in the original algorithm it only
checked if the cost was equal to 10
To calculate a discount of 10%, either calculate what 10% is and subtract it from the original or
multiply the full cost by 0.9. In the original algorithm it calculates what 10% is and sets the cost to
equal it.

Worked Example
Nine players take part in a competition, their scores are stored in an array. The array is named scores
and the index represents the player
Array scores

Index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Score 7 9 2 11 8 4 13 10 5

The following program counts the total score of all the players
for x = 1 to 8

total = 0

total = total + scores[x]

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next x

print(total) Your notes

When tested, the program is found to contain two logic errors.
Describe how the program can be refined to remove these logic errors [2]
How to answer this question
A common logic error if an algorithm contains a loop is checking it loops the correct amount of
times, how many times should this algorithm loop?
Answer
For loop changed to include 0
total = 0 moved to before loop starts
Guidance
Moving total outside the loop is not enough, it could be moved after the loop which would still
be a logic error)
Corrected code accepted
total = 0

for x = 0 to 8

total = total + scores[x]

next x

print(total)

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Trace Tables
Your notes
Trace Tables
What is a trace table?
A trace table is used to test algorithms and programs for logic errors that appear when an algorithm or
program executes
Trace tables can be used with flowcharts, pseudocode or program code
A trace table can be used to:
Discover the purpose of an algorithm by showing output data and intermediary steps
Record the state of the algorithm at each step or iteration
Each stage of the algorithm is executed step by step.
Inputs, outputs, variables and processes can be checked for the correct value when the stage is
completed

Trace table walkthrough

Below is a flowchart to determine the highest number of ten user-entered numbers
The algorithm prompts the user to enter the first number which automatically becomes the highest
number entered
The user is then prompted to enter nine more numbers.
If a new number is higher than an older number then it is replaced
Once all ten numbers are entered, the algorithm outputs which number was the highest
Example test data to be used is: 4, 3, 7, 1, 8, 3, 6, 9, 12, 10

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Your notes

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Trace table: Highest number

Your notes
Count Highest Number Output

1 Enter ten numbers

4 Enter your first number

2 3 Enter your next number

3 7 7

4 1

5 8 8

6 3

7 6

8 9 9

9 12 12

10 10 12 is your highest number

Worked Example
01 X=5

02 Y=3

03 while X > 0

04 Y=Y+6

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05 X=X-1

06 print (Y) Your notes

Complete the following trace table for the given algorithm, the first two lines have been filled in for
you

Answer

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