Limit

1. Definition of limit
Suppose ƒ(x) is defined when x is near the number a. (This means that ƒ is defined
on some open interval that contains a, expect possibly at a itself.)
Then we write lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑛𝑛→∞

And say “the limit of ƒ(x), as x approach a, equals L”

If we can make the values of ƒ(x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by
taking x to be sufficiently close to a (on either side of a) but not equal to a.

2. Precise Definition of Limit

Let ƒ be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number a,
except possibly at a itself. Then we say the limit of ƒ(x) as x approaches a is L,
and we write

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→∞
If for every number ε > 0, there is a corresponding number 𝛿𝛿 >0 such that

If o<|x-a|< 𝛿𝛿 then. | ƒ(x)-L| < ε

3. Calculate the limit

I. Direct substitution property: If ƒ is a polynomial or a. rational function
and a is in the domain of ƒ, then lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

Example1: Prove lim (4𝑥𝑥 − 5) = 7

𝑛𝑛→∞
Solution: Let ε be a given positive number. According to Precise Definition with a=3, and L=7,
we need to find a number 𝛿𝛿 such that

If o<|x-3|< 𝛿𝛿 then | (4x-5)-7| < ε

But | (4x-5)-7|=| 4x-12|=4|x-3|. Therefore, we want
If o<|x-3|< 𝛿𝛿 then 4|x-3| < ε
Now we notice that 4|x-3| < ε, then |x-3| < ε/4, so let’s choose 𝛿𝛿= ε/4
So, we can write the following:
o<|x-3|< 𝛿𝛿 then 4|x-3| < 4𝛿𝛿= ε
 (3+ℎ)2 −9
Example2 Evaluate lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Solution: We can simply the function since we cannot use direct substitution.
(3+ℎ)2 −9 (9+6ℎ+ℎ2 )−9 6ℎ+ℎ2
F(h)= lim = = = 6+ℎ
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ ℎ
2
Example 3 lim 𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→2
Solution: Direct Substitution lim (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥2 + 2𝑥𝑥2 = 8
𝑥𝑥→2

Limits involving infinity

Definition 1:
The notation lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = ∞ means that the values of ƒ(x) can be made arbitrarily
𝑥𝑥→a
large (as large as we please) by taking x sufficiently close to a (either side of a) but
not equal to a.

Definition 2:
The line x=a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y= ƒ(x) if at least one of the
following statements is true:
lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = ∞ lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = ∞ lim+ 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = ∞
𝑥𝑥→a 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = −∞ lim− 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = −∞ lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = −∞
𝑥𝑥→a 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎+

Definition 3:
The line y=L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y= ƒ(x) if either
lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝐿𝐿 lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥→−∞
Definition 4:
The notation lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = ∞is used to indicate that the value of ƒ(x) becomes
𝑥𝑥→∞
larger as x becomes large. Similar meanings are attached to the following symbols:
lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = −∞ lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = −∞ lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = ∞
𝑥𝑥→−∞ 𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥→−∞
Example 1
2𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥
Find lim+ and lim−
𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥−3 𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥−3
Solution:
If x is close to 3 but larger than 3, then the denominator x-3 is a small positive
2𝑥𝑥
number and 2x is close to 6. So, the quotient is a large positive number. Thus,
𝑥𝑥−3
intuitively, we see that
2𝑥𝑥
lim+ =∞
𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥 − 3
Likewise, if x is close to 3 but smaller than 3, then is a small negative number but
2𝑥𝑥
2x is still a positive number (close to 6). So is a numerically large negative
𝑥𝑥−3
number. Thus
2𝑥𝑥
lim+ = −∞
𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥 − 3
Therefore x=3 is vertical asymptote.

𝑥𝑥 2 −1
Example 2 Find lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 2 +1
Solution:
𝑥𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1 − 2 2
lim 2 = lim = lim 1 −
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1 𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1
2
Since x approach infinity, so lim 1 − =1
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 2 +1
Therefore, y= 1 is horizontal asymptote.

Example 3 lim (𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→∞
Note: It would be wrong to write

lim (𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 ) = lim𝑥𝑥 2 − lim 𝑥𝑥 = ∞ − ∞ = 0

𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥→∞
Solution:
The Limit Laws can’t be applied to infinite limits because∞ is not a number ( ∞ −
∞)can’t be defined). However, we can write

lim (𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 ) = lim𝑥𝑥 (𝑥𝑥 − 1) = ∞

𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥→∞
 Continuity
Definition 1:
A function ƒ(x) is continuous at a number a if lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
Notice that Definition implicitly requires three things if ƒ is continuous at a:
1. 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)is defined (that is, a is in the domain of ƒ)
2. lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) exists
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
3. lim 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

Definition2:
A function ƒ is continuous from the right at a if

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎+
And ƒ is continuous from the left at a if

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎−
Definition3:
A function ƒ is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the
interval. (If f is defined only on one side of an endpoint of the interval, we
understand continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous from the right or
continuous from the left.)

Theorem: The following types of functions are continuous at every number in

their domains: polynomials, rational functions, root functions, trigonometric
functions.

Example: Show that the function ƒ(x)=1-√1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 is continuous on the interval [-1,1]

Solution: -1<a<1, then using the Limit Laws, we have

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = lim (1-√1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 ) = 1 − lim (1-√1 − 𝑥𝑥 2)
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

= � lim (1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 ) = 1 − �1 − 𝑎𝑎2 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
Thus, by Definition l, ƒ is continuous at a if -1<a<1. Similar calculations show that

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = 1 = 𝑓𝑓 (−1) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = 1 = 𝑓𝑓(1)

𝑥𝑥→−1+ 𝑥𝑥→−1−
and so ƒ is continuous from the right at -1 and continuous from the left at 1. Therefore,
according to Definition 3, is continuous on [-1,1].
(The graph of is function is the lower half of the circle)
 Differentiability
1. Differentiation is the process of finding a derivative

2. Connection between differentiation and continuity

Any differentiable function must be continuous at every point in its domain.
The converse does not hold: a continuous
function need not be differentiable. For example, a function with a bend,
cusp, or vertical tangent may be continuous, but fails to be differentiable at
the location of the anomaly.

3. By the definition of derivative, it is easy to see

𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓𝑓 (𝑎𝑎)
𝑓𝑓 ′ (x) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
( )
𝑓𝑓 ′ (x) = lim
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
4. Property of derivative

Multiplication by a constant 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 ′

Note: Derivative of a

constant, c, equals 0.

Power Rule 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = (𝑛𝑛)𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1

Sum Rule 𝑓𝑓 + 𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓 ′ + 𝑔𝑔′

Difference Rule 𝑓𝑓 − 𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓 ′ − 𝑔𝑔′

Product Rule 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑔𝑔′ + 𝑔𝑔𝑓𝑓 ′

Quotient Rule 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑓𝑓 ′ − 𝑓𝑓𝑔𝑔′

𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔2

Reciprocal Rule 1 (−𝑓𝑓 ′ )

𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓 2
 Chain Rule (Composition) 𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔) × 𝑔𝑔

Chain Rule using (“) 𝑓𝑓(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)) 𝑓𝑓 ′ �𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)�𝑔𝑔′(𝑥𝑥)

Chain Rule using 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Examples: differentiate
1. ƒ(x)=cos(x) 𝑓𝑓 ′ = −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2. 𝑥𝑥 8 + 𝑥𝑥 5 − 6𝑥𝑥 − 5 = 8𝑥𝑥 7 + 5𝑥𝑥 4 − 6
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
3. (3𝑥𝑥 4) = 3 (𝑥𝑥 4 ) = 3(4𝑥𝑥 3) = 12𝑥𝑥 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4. Find the derivative of ƒ(x)=(𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 ) at x=2
′( )
𝑓𝑓 (𝑎𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓𝑓 (𝑎𝑎) (𝑎𝑎 + ℎ)2 + 2(𝑎𝑎 + ℎ) − (𝑎𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑎)
𝑓𝑓 x = lim =
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ
𝑎𝑎2 +2𝑎𝑎ℎ+ℎ2 +2𝑎𝑎+2ℎ−𝑎𝑎2 −2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎ℎ+ℎ2 +2ℎ
= = = 2𝑎𝑎 + ℎ + 2 = 6
ℎ ℎ

Practice Problems:
Limits:
1. Find the limit of the following:
𝑥𝑥
a. lim
𝑥𝑥→10 2
𝑥𝑥 2 −1
b. lim
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥−1
5𝑥𝑥 2 +1
c. lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 3𝑥𝑥 2 −𝑥𝑥
d. lim 2𝑥𝑥 − 7𝑥𝑥 3
𝑥𝑥→∞
Definition of derivative practice

1. Use the definition of the derivative to find f ' (-1), where 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 1.

1
2. Use the definition of the derivative to find f ' (x), where 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = .
�(𝑥𝑥−4)

Review Derivative Rules

1. Differentiate the following functions

a. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 4𝑥𝑥 3

b. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 4𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑥𝑥)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥)
 c. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = (3𝑥𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2)

𝑥𝑥 3
d. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = (
2𝑥𝑥−1) 2

Solutions:

Limits:

1.

a. 5

b. 2
5
c.
3

d. −∞

Definition of Derivative practice:

1. 𝑓𝑓 ′ (−1) = −4
1
2. 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = − 3
2(𝑥𝑥−4)2

Review of Derivative Rules:

1.

a. 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 12𝑥𝑥 2

b. ℎ′ (𝑥𝑥 ) = 4 cos2 𝑥𝑥 − 4 sin2 𝑥𝑥

c. ℎ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 36𝑥𝑥 3 + 18𝑥𝑥 2 + 38𝑥𝑥 + 12

2𝑥𝑥 5 (4 𝑥𝑥−3)
d. 𝑔𝑔′ (𝑥𝑥 ) = (2 𝑥𝑥−1)3