Sl.No.

Topic

1. Matter and Our Surroundings

2. Atoms and molecules
3. Structure of atom
4. Chemical reactions and Equations
5. Acids Bases and Salts
6. Metals and Non-metals
7. Carbon and its Compounds (BOC)
8. Periodic Properties of Elements

002
 Matter and Our Surroundings 1. Solid

● Shape and Volume: Fixed shape

What is matter? and volume

● Anything that occupies space ● Arrangement of Molecules:

(volume) and have mass is called Regular and closely arranged
matter. ● Interparticle Space: Very less
● Example 1: A ball filled with air: It
● Movement: Negligible
occupies space and have some
weight. A deflating ball: It loses air ● Fluidity: Cannot flow
(mass) and gets reduced in size
2. Liquid
(volume).
● Shape and Volume: No fixed
shape but has volume

● Arrangement of Molecules:
Random and little sparsely
arranged

● Interparticle Space: More than in

solids
● Example 2: A balloon filled with air: It
● Movement: Depends on
occupies space and have some
interparticle attraction
weight. A deflated balloon: It has no
air (mass) and is smaller in size ● Fluidity: Flows from higher to
(volume). lower level usually; flow is
streamlined

3. Gas

● Shape and Volume: Neither

definite shape nor volume. Highly
compressible: large amount of
natural gas compressed in
cylinders - CNG

● Arrangement of Molecules:
Random and more sparsely
Classification of matter? arranged
On basis of properties of matters as listed ● Interparticle Space: Large
ahead we can classify matter, physically
and chemically. ● Movement: Free, constant, and
random .
● Physical Classification
○ Has kinetic energy
Matter is classified into 5 states
based on its physical properties.
These states are interconvertible by
effect of energy.

003
 ○ Diffuse quickly (Oxygen
gas is well diffused in
water for aquatic life);
smell of warm food
reaches our nose quickly

● Fluidity: Compressibility stores

high KE, and gaseous molecules
exert more pressure on walls of
container.

○ Flows in all directions

randomly

L: Plasma R: Bose Einstein Condensate

Physical Properties
1. Mass
○ Definition: The amount of
matter in an object, usually
measured in grams or
4. Plasma kilograms.
● Shape and Volume: Neither ○ Example: A bag of sugar may
definite shape nor volume have a mass of 1 kg.

● Arrangement of Molecules: 2. Volume

Ionized particles moving freely ○ Definition: The amount of
space an object occupies,
● Interparticle Space: Large typically measured in liters (L)
or cubic centimetres (cm³).
● Movement: Very fast and
energetic ○ SI Unit: m3
○ Example: A typical soft drink
● Fluidity: Flows in all directions
can have a volume of 350 mL.
5. Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) 3. Density
● Shape and Volume: Neither ○ Definition: The mass of a
definite shape nor volume substance per unit volume,
calculated using the formula:
● Arrangement of Molecules: Density= Mass/Volume
Particles clump together as a
○ Example: Water has a density
single quantum entity
of approximately 1 g/cm³.
● Interparticle Space: Very less

● Movement: Extremely low energy

state

● Fluidity: Flows like a superfluid

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4. Melting Point 7. Latent Heat of Fusion
○ Definition: The temperature at ○ Definition: The amount of heat
which a solid turns into a liquid energy required to change 1 kg
at atmospheric pressure. of solid into liquid at its melting
○ Equilibrium of Phases: At the point, occurring at atmospheric
melting point, both solid and pressure.
liquid phases exist ○ Example: Ice absorbs energy to
simultaneously. melt into water.
○ Example: The melting point of ice
to water is 32°F (0°C).
5. Fusion
○ Definition: Fusion occurs when
two atoms collide, resulting in
the creation of a heavier atom.
○ Example: Two hydrogen atoms
combine to form one helium 8. Latent Heat of Vaporization
atom. This process occurs in ○ Definition: The amount of heat
stars, including the Sun. energy required to change 1 kg
6. Boiling Point of liquid into gas at its boiling
○ Definition: The temperature at point.
which a liquid's vapor pressure ○ Occurrence: This process occurs
equals atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure.
causing the material to ○ Example: The latent heat of
transform from the liquid phase vaporization for water is
to the gas phase. approximately 2260 kJ/kg,
○ Example: The boiling point of needed to convert 1 kg of water
water is 100 degrees Celsius (373 at 100°C into steam.
K). The Celsius scale is based on
the melting point of ice (0°C)
and the boiling point of water Follow us on :
(100°C).

005
9. Evaporation 10. Condensation
○ Definition: The process where ○ Definition: The process where
molecules in the liquid state water vapor turns into liquid due
transition to the gaseous phase to changes in pressure and
below their boiling point. temperature.
○ Example: Drying of damp clothes ○ Explanation:
occurs as water evaporates into ■ The boiling point and
water vapor from the fabric. condensation point of
water are the same at 212°
F (100°C).
■ Water evaporates at
temperatures above its
boiling point, while cooling
water below 100°C leads to
condensation.
■ Condensation
Temperature: Generally,
occurs between 32°F (0°C)
and 212°F (100°C), with
Factors Affecting Evaporation
more noticeable
○ Temperature: Increases condensation at greater
evaporation rate; higher temperature differences.
temperatures provide more
○ Example: Droplets forming on
energy to molecules.
ice candy in hot weather
○ Surface Area: Increases illustrate condensation as
evaporation rate; larger areas water vapor from the air cools
allow more molecules to escape. and condenses on the cold
○ Humidity: Decreases surface.
evaporation rate; high humidity
saturates the air with moisture.
○ Wind Speed: Increases
evaporation rate; moving air
carries away vapor, allowing
more to escape.
Cooling Due to Evaporation
○ During evaporation, liquid
particles absorb energy to 11. Sublimation
overcome inter-particle forces, ○ Definition: The transition of a
resulting in cooling of the substance directly from its solid
surrounding environment. phase to gaseous phase without
○ Example: Sweating cools down changing into the liquid phase
the body as evaporating water (or vice versa).
absorbs heat. ○ Example: Sublimation occurs
when dry ice (solid carbon
dioxide) transitions directly to
carbon dioxide gas without
becoming liquid.

006
Chemical Classification ■ Nonmetals:
○ Matter is classified into Pure ● Oxygen (O): Essential for
substances and Mixtures based on breathing; found in the air.
its composition and chemical ● Sulfur (S): Found in matches and
properties. used in fertilizers.
■ Noble Gases:
1. Pure Substances ● Helium (He): Used in balloons
Pure substances have a consistent and for cooling superconducting
and definite composition, magnets.
characterized by distinct physical ● Neon (Ne): Used in colourful
and chemical properties. neon signs.
1.1 Elements 1.2 Compounds
○ Definition: Substances that ○ Definition: Substances formed
cannot be broken down into when two or more different
simpler substances by chemical elements chemically combine in
means.
fixed proportions.
○ Characteristics: ○ Characteristics:
■ Composed of only one ■ Have unique properties
type of atom. different from the
■ Can exist as solids, liquids, individual elements.
or gases at room ■ Can be broken down into
temperature.
simpler substances
■ Represented by chemical through chemical
symbols on the periodic
reactions.
table.
○ Examples:
○ Examples:
■ Ionic Compounds:
■ Metals:
● Sodium Chloride (NaCl):
● Iron (Fe): Used in Table salt used in food.
construction and
● Calcium Carbonate
manufacturing.
(CaCO₃): Found in chalk,
● Copper (Cu): Commonly
limestone, and used in
used in electrical wiring.
antacids.

007
 ■ Covalent Compounds: ○ Examples:
● Water (H₂O): Essential for life, ■ Aqueous Solutions: Salt
found in oceans, rivers, and our and water solution, Sugar
bodies. and water solution,
● Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Exhaled Dilutions of Alcohol, acids
during respiration and used by etc. (polar solutes)
plants in photosynthesis. ■ Alloys:
■ Acids and Bases: ● Bronze: Copper and
● Vinegar (Acetic Acid): Used in tin alloy used in
cooking and preserving food. coins and sculptures.
● Baking Soda (Sodium ● Steel: Iron alloy used
Bicarbonate): Used in baking in construction and
and cleaning. tools.
■ Gases:
● Air: A mixture of
gases (oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon
dioxide) we breathe.

2. Mixtures 2.2 Heterogeneous Mixtures

Mixtures consist of two or more ○ Definition: Mixtures that do not
substances that are physically combined, have a uniform composition and
retaining their individual properties. contain distinct components.
○ Characteristics:
2.1 Homogeneous Mixtures ■ The individual components
(Solutions) can often be seen and
○ Definition: Mixtures that have a separated physically.
uniform composition throughout. ■ The composition may vary
○ Characteristics: from one part of the
■ The components cannot mixture to another.
be easily distinguished. ○ Examples:
■ The composition is ■ Suspensions:
consistent, and the phases ● Sand and Water: When
blend together. mixed, sand settles at the
bottom.
● Oil and Vinegar Dressing:
Two liquids that do not mix
well.
■ Colloids:
● Milk: A mixture of fat
globules and water.
● Fog: Tiny water droplets
suspended in air.

008
Solutions Classification of Solutions:
● Definition: A solution is a mixture On the basis of solubility and dissolvability
with only one phase, meaning it of solute and solvent respectively we can
has no distinct boundary classify solutions as:
between constituent particles. 1. Clear Solutions (True Solutions)
● Examples: Sugar and water, salt ● Definition: Homogeneous mixtures
and water, lemonade, soft drinks. where solute particles are
completely dissolved in the solvent,
forming a single phase.
● Composition:
i. Solute: Substance present in a
smaller amount, dissolved at
the molecular or ionic level.
ii. Solvent: Substance present in a
larger amount, which dissolves
the solute.
General Characteristics of Solutions
● Properties:
● Homogeneous mixture of two or
i. Solubility: High; solute
more substances.
dissolves completely in the
● Constituent particles evenly solvent.
mixed throughout; only one
ii. Concentration: Can vary,
phase present.
represented as dilute or
● Boundaries of particles are concentrated depending on
indistinguishable. the amount of solute dissolved.
● Particle size is smaller than one iii. Particle Size: Less than 1
nanometre. nanometre; particles are not
● No Tyndall effect is observed visible to the naked eye.
(solutions do not scatter light). iv. Tyndall Effect: Not observed;
● Solute cannot be separated by solutions do not scatter light.
filtration or decantation. v. Stability: Very stable; solute
● Solutions are stable; particles do particles do not settle over
not settle at the bottom. time.
Components of a Solution vi. Examples: Saltwater, sugar in
● Solute: The substance present in water, vinegar.
a smaller quantity in the mixture.
○ Example: In a saltwater
solution, salt is the solute.
● Solvent: The substance present
in a larger quantity in the
mixture.
○ Example: In a saltwater
solution, water is the
solvent.

009
 Types of solutions

Type Examples Facts

● Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of

two or more metals, non-metals, or a
Solid-solid
Alloys combination of both.
solution
● Components of alloys cannot be
separated by physical methods.

● Salt particles blend in blend in water

Solid-liquid Solution of salt completely by breaking down into
solution and water ions and occupying inter molecular
spaces.

Solution of
water and
Liquid-liquid
alcohol/ acetic ● Formed by two miscible liquids.
solution
acid (vinegar)/
other acids

● Carbon dioxide is dissolved in the

Gas-liquid
Soft drinks liquid, creating a hissing sound when
solution
the bottle is opened.

● Air is a mixture of many gases like

Gas-gas
Air hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
solution
etc

010
2. Suspensions ● Composition:
● Definition: Heterogeneous mixtures i. Liquids: Two distinct liquids that
where large particles of the solute do not dissolve in each other,
do not dissolve in the solvent but typically with different densities
are suspended throughout the and polarities.
medium.
● Properties:
● Composition:
i. Solubility: Very low; one liquid
i. Solute: Particles large enough
cannot dissolve in the other.
to be seen and settle out over
time if left undisturbed. ii. Concentration: Does not apply
in the traditional sense, as the
ii. Solvent: Medium in which
solute particles are suspended. liquids remain separate.
● Properties: iii. Particle Size: Macroscopic;
liquid droplets are clearly
i. Solubility: Low; particles do not
dissolve in the solvent. visible when the two liquids are
mixed.
ii. Concentration: The amount of
suspended particles can vary, iv. Tyndall Effect: Not observed,
but the mixture separates upon but emulsions formed may
standing. scatter light if stabilized.
iii. Particle Size: Greater than 1000 v. Stability: Immiscible liquids
nanometres; particles visible separate into layers over time;
under a microscope or to the they can be easily separated
naked eye. using a separating funnel.
iv. Tyndall Effect: Observed; vi. Examples: Oil and water,
suspensions scatter light. kerosene and water.
v. Stability: Unstable; particles
settle down if left undisturbed
and can be separated by
filtration.
vi. Examples: Sand in water,
muddy water, flour in water.

3. Immiscible Liquids
● Definition: Two liquids that do not
mix to form a homogeneous
solution but instead form separate
layers when combined.

011
3. Colloidal Solutions (Colloids) ● Types of Colloids:
● Definition: Mixtures where the solute On the basis of dispersed phase
particles are evenly distributed and dispersion medium colloids
throughout the solvent but are have following types. We use many
larger than those in a true solution colloids every day for different
and smaller than those in a purposes as mentioned in given
suspension. table. These can be better
● Composition: understood and memorised by
relating these colloids with products
i. Dispersed Phase: Solute-like
of our everyday use, for example:
particles suspended in the
Shaving cream, Butter, Foam etc.
medium.
ii. Dispersion Medium:
Solvent-like medium in which
particles are evenly distributed.
● Properties:
i. Solubility: Particles do not
dissolve but remain dispersed
throughout the medium.
ii. Concentration: Varied;
colloidal systems can appear Tyndall Effect
opaque or translucent
depending on the amount of Scattering of light by a medium containing
dispersed phase. microscopic suspended particles.
iii. Particle Size: Between 1 and ● True Solutions do not scatter light.
1000 nanometers; particles are ● Suspensions have large size particles
too small to settle but large which show scattering of light before
enough to scatter light. settling down..
iv. Tyndall Effect: Observed; ● Colloids as well scatter the light
colloidal particles scatter light, beam.
making the beam of light
visible through the medium.
v. Stability: Relatively stable;
particles do not settle but can
be coagulated under certain
conditions.
vi. Examples: Milk, gelatine, fog,
and paint.

012
 Types of colloids

Dispersed Dispersing
Type Example MEMORIZE
Phase Medium

Not
Gas Gas -
possible

Shaving cream,
Gas Liquid Foam
whipped cream

Solid Pumice stone,

Gas Solid
Foam Styrofoam

Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, mist, spray

Milk, mayonnaise,
Liquid Liquid Emulsion
vinaigrette

Jelly, cheese,
Liquid Solid Gel
butter

Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, dust

Solid Liquid Sol Paint, ink, blood

Ruby glass, colored

Solid Solid Solid Sol
gemstones

013
Types of Alloys What is a Micelle?
1. Substitutional Alloys: A micelle is a colloidal structure formed
a. Some atoms in the metal by the aggregation of surfactant
are replaced by atoms of molecules in a solution. Surfactants are
similar size from another compounds that lower the surface
element. tension between two substances, such as
oil and water.
b. Example: Brass (made
from copper and zinc).
2. Interstitial Alloys:
a. Smaller atoms fit into the
gaps between larger metal
atoms.
b. Example: Steel (made
from iron and carbon).

Why Do We Use Alloys?

Structure of Micelles
1. Stronger and Tougher: Alloys like
● Hydrophilic Head: The
steel are much stronger than
surfactant molecules have a
pure metals like iron.
hydrophilic (water-attracting)
2. More Resistant to Rust: Metals head that is polar and can
like stainless steel don’t rust interact with water.
easily, making them great for
● Hydrophobic Tail: They also
kitchenware.
possess one or more
3. Easier to Shape: Some alloys are hydrophobic (water-repelling)
easier to mold and shape tails that are nonpolar and repel
compared to pure metals. water but can interact with oils
4. Adjustable Conductivity: Alloys and fats.
can be made to conduct Formation Process
electricity better or worse
1. Concentration: Micelles begin to
depending on the need.
form when the concentration of
surfactants in a solution reaches
Why Alloys Are Better Than Pure Metals a certain level known as the
● Better Properties: Alloys can be critical micelle concentration
made stronger, lighter, or more (CMC).
durable than pure metals.
● Special Purposes: Alloys can be
created for specific needs, like
heat resistance for engines or
flexibility for jewellery.
● Cost-Effective: Sometimes
alloys are cheaper and more
practical to use.

P.S.-Table: Alloys at page 16

014
 2. Aggregation: At concentrations Functions and Applications
above the CMC, surfactant ● Emulsification: Micelles help
molecules spontaneously stabilize emulsions, which are
aggregate in such a way that mixtures of oil and water, by
the hydrophobic tails point encapsulating oil droplets and
inward, away from the water, allowing them to mix with water.
while the hydrophilic heads
● Detergency: In cleaning
remain in contact with the
products, micelles trap dirt and
aqueous environment.
grease, allowing them to be
3. Stability: The formation of washed away with water.
micelles reduces the free energy
● Drug Delivery: In
of the system, making the
pharmaceuticals, micelles can
structure thermodynamically
encapsulate hydrophobic drugs,
stable.
improving their solubility and
bioavailability.
Characteristics of Micelles Examples
● Size: Micelles typically range 1. Soap: When soap is added to
from 10 to 100 nanometers in water, it forms micelles that trap
diameter. dirt and oil, allowing them to be
● Shape: They can have different washed away.
shapes, including spherical, 2. Detergents: Laundry detergents
cylindrical, or disc-like structures utilize micelle formation to clean
depending on the type and clothes by encapsulating oils
concentration of the surfactants. and stains.

Follow us on :

015
 Types of Alloys

Alloy Components Uses Properties

Amalgam Mercury, Silver, Durability,

Dental fillings
(Dental) Tin, Copper resistance to wear

Musical instruments,
Workability,
Brass Copper, Zinc plumbing fittings,
acoustic properties
decorative items

Corrosion
Sculptures, coins, ship
Bronze Copper, Tin resistance,
fittings
strength

Aluminium,
Copper, Aircraft components,
Duralumin Lightweight, strong
Manganese, automotive parts
Magnesium

Tin, Copper,
Tableware, jewellery, Malleability,
Pewter Antimony,
decorative objects aesthetic appeal
Bismuth

Electrical connections, Low melting point,

Solder Tin, Lead
plumbing good conductivity

Solder
Safer alternative to
(Lead Tin, Zinc, Copper Electronics, plumbing
lead solder
Free)

Construction materials, High tensile

Steel Iron, Carbon
tools, machinery strength

Cutlery, kitchen Corrosion

Steel Iron, Chromium,
appliances, medical resistance, staining
(Stainless) Carbon
instruments resistance

016
 Mixture V/S Compounds

Aspect Mixture Compound

A combination of two or A substance formed when two or

Definition more substances that are more elements are chemically
not chemically bonded. bonded together.

Can vary in composition; Has a fixed composition;

Composition the proportions of elements are combined in a
components can change. specific ratio.

Retains the individual Has properties that are different

Properties properties of its from the individual elements
components. that make it up.

Components can be
Can only be separated into its
separated by physical
Separation elements through chemical
means (e.g., filtration,
reactions.
distillation).

Air, saltwater, salad, and Water (H₂O), carbon dioxide

Examples sand mixed with iron (CO₂), and sodium chloride
filings. (NaCl).

Can be homogeneous
(uniform composition) or Always homogeneous; consists
Homogeneity heterogeneous of a uniform substance
(non-uniform throughout.
composition).

Generally, no energy
Energy changes often occur
Energy change occurs when
during the formation or
Changes mixtures are formed or
breaking of compounds.
separated.

017
 Chemical V/S Physical changes

Aspect Chemical Change Physical Change

A change that results in the A change that affects one or more

Definition formation of new chemical physical properties without altering
substances. the chemical composition.

Rusting of iron, burning of wood,

Melting ice, boiling water, dissolving
Examples digestion of food, vinegar reacting
sugar in water, breaking glass.
with baking soda.

The chemical composition of the The chemical composition remains

Composition substances is changed; new the same; no new substances are
substances are formed. created.

Often involves energy changes, Usually involves changes in physical

Energy
such as heat, light, or sound being state or form; energy changes are
Changes
produced or absorbed. typically minimal.

Generally, not easily reversible

Often reversible (e.g., melting and
Reversibility (e.g., burning wood cannot be
freezing water can be reversed).
reversed).

Colour change, gas production,

formation of a precipitate, or Changes in state, shape, or size; no
Indicators
temperature change may indicate new substances are formed.
a chemical change.

Involves rearrangement of atoms No rearrangement of atoms; the

Atomic and bonds; atoms are arrangement of molecules may
Structure transformed into different change, but the molecules
molecules. themselves remain unchanged.

018
Processes of separation of Mixtures 2. Decantation

1. Centrifugation ● Definition: Decantation is a

method for separating
● Definition: Centrifugation is a immiscible liquids based on their
separation technique that density by allowing them to
utilizes centrifugal force to settle and then pouring off the
separate components of a top layer.
mixture based on their density. ● Mechanism: After allowing the
● Mechanism: When a mixture is mixture to sit, the heavier liquid
spun rapidly, denser particles settles at the bottom, and the
move outward and settle at the lighter liquid can be carefully
bottom, while lighter poured off.
components remain closer to ● Considerations: Some of the
the top. denser liquid may also pour out
● Example: When milk is churned, if not done carefully; thus, using
fat globules are separated from a separating funnel can help.
the liquid, resulting in cream ● Example: Oil and water can be
forming at the top. separated, with the oil floating
● Applications: on top due to its lower density.
○ Pathological Tests: Used ● Tools: A separating funnel is
to separate blood often used for accurate
components (e.g., plasma separation, as it allows for
and cells) for medical controlled pouring.
analysis.
○ Dairy Industry: Separates
cream from milk,
enhancing the production
of dairy products.
○ Laundry: Washing
machines use centrifugal
force to extract water from
wet clothes, speeding up
the drying process.

019
3. Sublimation ● Mechanism: Components travel
● Definition: Sublimation is a at different speeds due to
process in which a substance varying affinities for the
transitions directly from the solid stationary phase versus the
phase to the gas phase without mobile phase.
becoming a liquid, and vice ● Example: In paper
versa. chromatography, a dye is
● Mechanism: When heated, spotted on paper and moves up
sublimable substances turn into as the solvent travels, separating
vapor; cooling causes them to the different colours based on
revert back to solid form, leaving their solubility and interaction
non-sublimable impurities with the paper.
behind. ● Applications:
● Example: Separating ○ Colour Separation: Used
ammonium chloride (which to analyse and separate
sublimes) from common salt colours in inks or dyes.
(which does not) by heating the ○ Biochemical Analysis:
mixture; ammonium chloride Helps separate pigments
turns into gas, then cools and from natural extracts or
crystallizes. drugs from blood for
● Applications: Used in testing.
laboratories to purify certain
solids that sublime, effectively
separating them from
contaminants.

5. Distillation
● Definition: Distillation is a
separation technique that
purifies liquids by using
differences in boiling points.
4. Chromatography ● Mechanism: When a mixture is
● Definition: Chromatography is a heated, the component with the
technique that separates lower boiling point vaporizes first.
components of a mixture based The vapor is then cooled and
on their differential rates of condensed back into liquid,
movement through a medium separating it from the other
(stationary phase) under the components.
influence of a solvent (mobile
phase).

020
 ● Example: Distilling water from a
salt solution to obtain pure
water.
● Applications: Used widely in the
purification of drinking water and
in chemical laboratories to
isolate liquids.

7. Separation of Different Gases from Air

● Process: Gases such as nitrogen,

oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
6. Fractional Distillation argon can be extracted from air
● Definition: Fractional distillation through fractional distillation
is a more refined version of
based on their boiling points.
distillation that separates
● Example: Liquid nitrogen is
components with close boiling
points. isolated first since it has the
● Mechanism: A fractional column lowest boiling point among the
is used to provide multiple gases.
condensation and vaporization ● Applications: Vital for producing
steps, enhancing separation. gases for medical, industrial, and
● Example: Separating ethanol research purposes.
and water in the production of
alcoholic beverages.
● Applications:
○ Petroleum Industry: Used
to refine crude oil into
various fractions like
gasoline, diesel, and
kerosene.
○ Air Separation: Extracts
oxygen, nitrogen, and
argon from air for
industrial uses.

021
8. Crystallization 9. Other Separation Methods for Solid
● Definition: Crystallization is a Mixtures
process used to separate pure ● Hand Picking: Separates larger,
solid crystals from a solution. visible impurities by hand; useful
● Mechanism: When a solution is for mixtures like stones in grains.
cooled or evaporated, the solute ● Sieving: Uses a sieve or mesh to
forms solid crystals, leaving separate particles based on size;
impurities in the solution. effective for separating flour
● Example: Purifying salt obtained from larger particles.
from seawater by evaporating ● Magnetic Separation Method:
the water, allowing pure salt to Utilizes magnets to remove
crystallize. magnetic materials from
● Applications: Effective for non-magnetic ones; used in
purifying various substances, recycling and mining.
including sugar and salts. It ● Sublimation: As mentioned
helps in preventing impurities earlier, effective for separating
caused by decomposed solids. sublime substances from others.

022
023
 Atoms and Molecules Laws of Chemical Combination
1. Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass
can neither be created nor
What are Atoms? destroyed during a chemical
If we go on dividing a particle to the reaction.
point we cannot anymore, we will have ○ Example: In the reaction
the smallest possible particle of matter. between H₂ (2 g) and O₂ (16 g)
This led to search of smallest particle that to form H₂O (18 g), total mass
can stably exist on its own. of reactants equals the total
History mass of the product.
2. Law of Definite Proportions: A
● Indian Philosophers:
chemical compound always
○ Maharishi Kanad: Proposed the contains its elements in a fixed ratio
smallest indivisible particles by mass.
called Parmanu. ○ Example: Water (H₂O) always
○ Pakudha Katyayama: Stated contains hydrogen and
that Parmanu combine to form oxygen in a fixed ratio of 1:8
various types of matter. by mass.
● Greek Philosophers: 3. Law of multiple proportions: When
two elements combine to form
○ Democritus and Leucippus: more than one compound, the
Suggested matter is made of masses of one element that
indivisible particles called combine with a fixed mass of the
atoms. other element are in the ratio of
● Key Points: small whole numbers.
○ Ideas were philosophical, without ○ Example:
experimental proof. i. Carbon and oxygen
form two compounds:
○ Experimental validation began in
CO (carbon monoxide)
the 18th century, distinguishing
and CO₂ (carbon
elements and compounds.
dioxide).
At the end of eighteenth century the ii. In CO, 12 g of carbon
interest of philosophy shifted towards how combines with 16 g of
do elements combine to form oxygen (ratio: 12:16 =
compounds. Antoine Lavoisier founded 3:4).
modern chemistry by establishing the iii. In CO₂, 12 g of carbon
Law of Conservation of Mass and the Law combines with 32 g of
of Definite Proportions. oxygen (ratio: 12:32 =
3:8).
iv. The ratio of oxygen
masses in these
compounds is 4:8 = 1:2,
a simple whole number.

Law of Conservation of mass

024
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory Characteristics of atoms include:
● It is the smallest particle of matter.
● All elements being composed of
tiny particles called atoms.
● Atoms being very small and not
visible to the naked eye.
● Atoms not existing freely in nature
but participating in chemical
reactions.
● Properties of matter depending on
atom characteristics.
● By John Dalton, in 1808. ● Atoms serving as the building
● Core Idea: All matter (elements, blocks of elements, akin to bricks in
compounds, or mixtures) is a building.
composed of tiny particles called ● Atom size indicated by its radius.
atoms.
● Atoms being considered indivisible
Postulates: in ancient times.
1. Atoms form the basic unit of
matter: All matter is made of tiny
particles called atoms.
2. Indivisibility: Atoms cannot be
created, destroyed, or divided in
a chemical reaction.
3. Elemental Uniformity: Atoms of
a given element are identical in
mass and chemical properties.
4. Diversity in Elements: Atoms of
different elements have distinct
masses and chemical
properties.
5. Fixed Ratios: Atoms combine in
simple whole-number ratios to
form compounds. Source: NCERT

6. Consistency in Compounds: The

relative number and types of
atoms in a compound remain
constant.
Atoms are the smallest particles of matter
according to Dalton’s Atomic Theory.

025
 Modern day naming system:
Representation of Atoms IUPAC Rules for Naming:
○ Atomic Number: Elements are named
based on their atomic number (e.g.,
Dalton and Berzilius on Chemical Nihonium for element 113).
Symbols
○ Discoverer or Place: Named after the
● Dalton: discoverer (e.g., Einsteinium) or
○ First scientist to use symbols for place (e.g., Californium).
elements in a specific way. ○ Mythology or Characteristics: Some
○ Each symbol represented one elements are named after
atom of the element, indicating mythology (e.g., Thorium) or
a definite quantity. properties.
● Berzilius: ○ Temporary Names: Newly discovered
○ Suggested that element symbols elements are given temporary
should be derived from one or names based on their atomic
two letters of the element's number (e.g., Ununseptium for
name. element 117).
● Capitalization Rule:
○ The first letter of a symbol is
always capitalized, and the
second letter (if present) is
lowercase.
○ Example: H for Hydrogen, O for
Oxygen, N for Nitrogen, Fe for
Iron.
● Origin of Element Symbols: Symbolization of Elements
○ Some symbols are derived from 1. General Rules:
English names of the elements a. First letter of an element's
(e.g., H for Hydrogen, O for symbol is always capitalized,
Oxygen). and any subsequent letters are
○ Many symbols come from Greek lowercase.
or Latin names (e.g., Na for b. Example: H for Hydrogen, O for
Sodium, Fe for Iron from the Latin Oxygen, Na for Sodium.
"ferrum").
2. Origin:
○ Places: Some elements are
a. Symbols often come from the
named after the places where
English name (e.g., C for
they were discovered (e.g.,
Carbon).
Copper from Cyprus).
b. Latin or Greek roots are also
○ Colors: Some elements are
used (e.g., Fe for Iron from
named after their colors (e.g.,
"ferrum").
Gold, which means yellow).
c. Some symbols are based on
● Key Figures:
places or scientists (e.g., Cu for
○ Berzilius is considered one of the Copper, Es for Einsteinium).
Fathers of Modern Chemistry,
3. One or Two Letters:
alongside Dalton, Lavoisier, and
Boyle. a. Symbols are usually one or two
letters long, with the first letter
capitalized.
026
 Atomic Mass 4. Atomicity - How Atoms Form
Molecules:
What is Atomic Mass? a. Atomicity refers to the number
a. Atomic mass refers to the mass of atoms in a molecule.
of an atom, which is extremely i. Monoatomic molecules:
small and difficult to measure Contain a single atom (e.g.,
directly. Helium (He), Neon (Ne)).
b. For example, the actual mass of ii. Diatomic molecules: Contain
a hydrogen atom is 1.673 × 10⁻²⁴ two atoms (e.g., Oxygen (O₂),
grams. Hydrogen (H₂)).
c. These tiny numbers are iii. Triatomic molecules: Contain
challenging to work with, so three atoms (e.g., Ozone (O₃)).
relative atomic mass is used iv. Tetra-atomic molecules:
instead. Contain four atoms (e.g.,
Why Relative Atomic Mass? Phosphorus (P₄)).
a. Carbon-12 (a specific isotope of v. Polyatomic molecules: Contain
carbon) is used as the reference more than two atoms (e.g.,
unit for atomic mass. Sulfur (S₈)).
b. 1 atomic mass unit (AMU) = 5. Examples of Molecules:
1/12th the mass of one atom of a. Water (H₂O): Two hydrogen
carbon-12. atoms bonded with one oxygen
c. Atomic mass unit (amu) is now atom.
denoted as ‘u’. b. The formula for water is H₂O,
How is Atomic Mass Measured? formed by hydrogen and
a. The atomic mass of a hydrogen oxygen atoms.
atom = 1 u, meaning one
hydrogen atom is 1x heavier than
1/12th of a carbon-12 atom.
b. Oxygen's atomic mass = 16 u,
meaning one oxygen atom is 16x
heavier than 1/12th of a
carbon-12 atom.
c. Example: The absolute mass of a
carbon-12 atom is 1.9926 × 10⁻²³
g.

Source: NCERT

Source: NCERT

027
 Ions
Writing Chemical Formula
What are Ions?
a. Ions are atoms or molecules Definition: A chemical formula shows the
that carry a charge. They are elements in a compound and their ratios.
formed when atoms gain or lose Valency:
electrons. a. It is the combining capacity of
b. Cations are ions with a positive an atom.
charge (e.g., Na⁺, K⁺). b. Helps determine how atoms
c. Anions are ions with a negative combine.
charge (e.g., Cl⁻, F⁻). Steps to Write a Formula:
Types of Ions: a. Write the positive ion (metal)
a. Monoatomic Ions: Ions formed first and the negative ion
from single atoms. (non-metal) second.
i. Examples: b. Write their valencies below their
1. Sodium ion (Na⁺), symbols.
2. Potassium ion (K⁺), c. Use the criss-cross method:
Swap the valencies and write
3. Chloride ion (Cl⁻),
them as subscripts for the
4. Fluoride ion (F⁻).
opposite element.
b. Polyatomic Ions: Ions made up
d. Simplify subscripts if needed.
of two or more atoms that act as
a single unit. e. Use brackets for polyatomic ions
if more than one is present.
i. Examples:
Example:
1. Ammonium ion
a. Magnesium Chloride:
(NH₄⁺),
i. Magnesium (Mg): 2+,
2. Hydroxide ion (OH⁻).
Chlorine (Cl): 1-.
ii. Criss-cross the valencies:
Formula = MgCl₂.

028
 Molecular Mass & Mole Mole Concept - Simplified Notes
1. Atomic Mass: The mole concept connects the number
of particles in a substance to its mass
a. Mass of a single atom, measured and volume, making it easier to measure
in atomic mass units (u). substances in chemistry.
b. 1 amu = 1/12th of the mass of one What is a Mole?
carbon-12 atom.
● Mole: A unit representing 6.022
2. Molar Mass: ×1023 particles (atoms,
a. Atomic mass expressed in molecules, or ions).
grams, also called gram atomic ● Avogadro’s Number (NA ):
mass. 6.022×1023.
b. Example: Carbon atomic mass =
12 u, so molar mass = 12 g.
Key Relationships:
3. Molecular Mass:
1. Mass and Moles:
a. Sum of the atomic masses of all
atoms in a molecule. a. 1mole = Molar Mass (in grams).
b. Example: b. Example: 1 mole of H2O=18g.
i. Molecular mass of H₂SO₄: 2. Particles and Moles:
2(H)+1(S)+4(O)=2(1)+32+ a. 1mole=6.022×1023 particles.
4(16)=98u. b. Example: 1 mole of H2O = 6.022
4. Formula Unit Mass: ×1023 molecules of water.
a. Used for ionic compounds, 3. Gases and Moles:
representing the sum of atomic a. At STP, 1 mole of gas occupies
masses in one formula unit. 22.4L.
b. Examples: Formulas:
i. NaCl: Na (23 u)+Cl (35.5
u)=58.5u.
ii. ZnO: Zn (65 u)+O (16
u)=81u.
Key Points:
● Molecular mass applies to
covalent molecules.
● Formula unit mass applies to
ionic compounds.

Applications:
● Calculate amounts in chemical
reactions.
● Find molecular formulas.
● Measure gas volumes at STP

029
 Structure of Atom Key Discoveries
Introduction ● Electrons and protons balance
each other’s charges to make
● By the late 19th century, atoms were atoms electrically neutral.
found to be divisible.
● Electrons are easily removed
● Studies on static electricity and from atoms, but protons remain
electrical conduction hinted at the bound in the nucleus.
presence of smaller charged particles.
Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model
● The discovery of electrons and
protons disproved Dalton's theory of ● Proposed by J.J. Thomson to
indivisible atoms. describe the structure of an
atom.
● Atom resembles Christmas
Pudding or a watermelon.
● Electrons are like seeds in a
watermelon, embedded in a
positively charged sphere.
Subatomic Particles Key Features:
Electron (e−) 1. The atom consists of a positively
charged sphere.
● Discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897
during cathode ray experiments. 2. Electrons are embedded within
● Properties: the sphere.
○ Charge: −1.6×10−19C. 3. The quantity of negative charge
○ Relative mass: 18361 of a equals the quantity of positive
proton (negligible). charge, making the atom
● Found outside the nucleus, electrically neutral.
revolving around it.
Proton (p+)
● Discovered by E. Goldstein in 1886
through canal ray experiments.
● Properties:
○ Charge: +1.6×10−19C.
○ Mass: ~2000 times the mass
of an electron (1 u).
● Located in the nucleus of an atom.
Neutron (n)
● Neutral particle.
● Properties:
○ Absolute mass is 1.6 x 10-24
grams.
○ Relative mass is equal to 1.
● Present in the nucleus of an atom.
● Discovery of Neutron:
○ J. Chadwick discovered
neutron in 1932.
○ Neutron found in the nucleus
of all atoms.

030
Rutherford’s Atomic Model (1911) Bohr’s Atomic Model (1913)
● Based on the Gold Foil ● Proposed by Niels Bohr, refining
Experiment conducted with Rutherford’s model.
ɑ-particles by Rutherford and Key Features:
his team.
1. Electrons orbit the nucleus in
Observations from Experiment: fixed paths called stationary
1. Most α-particles passed straight orbits or energy levels.
through the gold foil. 2. Each orbit has fixed energy,
2. Some were deflected at large preventing energy loss as long
angles. as the electron remains in that
3. A very small number bounced orbit.
back along their original path. 3. Energy levels or shells are
Proposed Model: denoted by K, L, M, N, etc., or
numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
1. Atom is mostly empty space.
4. Electrons can jump between
2. The atom has a small, dense,
energy levels by absorbing or
positively charged nucleus at its
emitting energy in the form of
center, containing most of its
light.
mass.
Distribution of Electrons in Shells:
3. Electrons orbit the nucleus in
circular paths. ● Formula: 2n², where n is the orbit
number.
Drawbacks:
○ K-shell (n = 1): Maximum 2
1. Failed to explain why orbiting
electrons.
electrons do not lose energy and
fall into the nucleus. ■ 2×12=2
2. Could not account for the total ○ L-shell (n = 2): Maximum 8
atomic mass since the neutron electrons.
was undiscovered at the time. ■ 2×22=8
○ M-shell (n = 3): Maximum
18 electrons.
■ 2×32=18
○ N-shell (n = 4): Maximum
32 electrons.
■ 2×42=32
Significance:
1. Introduced quantized energy
levels, explaining atomic
stability.
α - particle scattering 2. Explained the emission
spectrum of hydrogen using
transitions between energy
levels.
3. Maximum number of electrons
outermost shells = 8.
Bohr’s model

031
 Valency ○ Example:
● Valence Electrons: ○ Fluorine:
○ Electrons in the outermost shell ● Has 7 electrons in the
of an atom. outermost shell.
○ Govern the combining capacity ● Gains 1 electron to
or valency of an atom. complete the octet.
● Maximum Capacity: ● Valency = 1 (calculated as
8 - 7).
○ Outermost shell can hold a
maximum of 8 electrons ○ Oxygen:
(Bohr-Bury scheme). ● Has 6 electrons in the
○ Atoms with a completely filled outermost shell.
outermost shell are chemically ● Gains 2 electrons to
inactive (e.g., noble gases). complete the octet.
○ Their valency is zero. ● Valency = 2.
○ Example: Helium has 2 electrons, ● Combining Capacity:
while other noble gases like ○ The number of electrons gained,
Neon have 8 electrons in their lost, or shared to form
outermost shell. molecules determines the
● Elements with Valency: valency.
○ Atoms with incomplete outer ○ Atoms react to achieve an octet
shells tend to lose, gain, or share in their outermost shell,
electrons to achieve stability stabilizing their electronic
(octet rule).
configuration.
○ Example:
Symbol Valency
■ Hydrogen, Lithium, and
H 1
Sodium: Each has 1
electron in the outermost He 0
shell and can lose this Li 1
electron. Valency = 1.
Be 2
■ Magnesium: Has 2
B 3
electrons in the outermost
shell, so valency = 2. C 4
■ Aluminium: Has 3 N 3
electrons in the outermost O 2
shell, so valency = 3.
F 1
■ Elements Close to Octet:
Ne 0
○ Atoms with an outer shell near
full capacity determine valency Na 1
differently. Mg 2
Al 3
Si 4
P [3, 5]
S [2, 4, 6]
Cl 1
Ar 0
032 K 1
Ca 2
 Atomic Number and Mass
Number Isotopes
● Isotopes are atoms of the same
Atomic Number (Z) element with the same atomic
● The atomic number is the number of number but different mass numbers.
protons in an atom's nucleus. ● This difference is due to the varying
● Denoted by Z. number of neutrons in the atoms of
the same element.
● Determines the element and is the
same as the number of electrons in a ● Examples of isotopes:
neutral atom. ○ Hydrogen:
● Example: ■ Protium (¹₁H) - mass
○ Hydrogen has Z = 1 (1 proton), number 1
○ Carbon has Z = 6 (6 protons). ■ Deuterium (²₁H or D) -
mass number 2
Mass Number (A)
■ Tritium (³₁H or T) - mass
● The mass number is the sum of
number 3
protons and neutrons in an atom's
nucleus. ○ Carbon:
● Neutrons are neutral particles with ■ Carbon-12 (¹²₆C) - mass
nearly the same mass as protons. number 12
● Formula: Mass Number (A)=Number of ■ Carbon-14 (¹⁴₆C) - mass
Protons (Z)+Number of Neutrons (N) number 14
● Example: ○ Chlorine:
○ Carbon-12 (C): 6 protons + 6 ■ Chlorine-35 (³⁵₁₇Cl)
neutrons = 12. ■ Chlorine-37 (³⁷₁₇Cl)
○ Aluminium-27 (Al): 13 protons + Average Atomic Mass:
14 neutrons = 27. ○ The atomic mass of an element is the
weighted average mass of all its
naturally occurring isotopes.
○ For chlorine, with isotopes ³⁵₁₇Cl (75%)
and ³⁷₁₇Cl (25%), the average atomic
mass is 35.5 u. This doesn’t mean an
atom of chlorine has a fractional mass
but reflects the mix of isotopes in
Atomic Notation nature.

● The atomic notation is written as Z X A

where A is the mass number, Z is the
atomic number, and X is the element
symbol.
● Example: 6 C 12for carbon, and 13 Al 27 for
Applications of Isotopes
aluminium.
● Uranium-235 is used as fuel in
nuclear reactors.
● Cobalt-60 is used in cancer
treatment (radiation therapy).
● Iodine-131 is used in the
treatment of goitre.

033
Isobars Isoelectronic
● Isobars are atoms of different ● Isoelectronic refers to species
elements that have the same (atoms, molecules, or ions) that have
atomic mass but different atomic the same number of valence
numbers. electrons and similar electronic
Examples: structures.
● Argon-40 (₁₈Ar) and Calcium-40 ● Example:
(₂₀Ca): ○ CO (Carbon Monoxide), N₂
○ Both have the same mass (Nitrogen gas), and NO⁺ (Nitric
number (40) but different Oxide cation) all have the
atomic numbers (18 for same number of valence
Argon, 20 for Calcium). electrons and similar structure.
○ They are isobars because
their mass numbers are Isosters
equal, but their atomic ● Isosters are atoms, molecules, or ions
numbers are different. of similar size, having the same
number of atoms and valence
electrons.
● Example:
○ Neon (Ne) is an isostere of O²⁻,
F⁻, Na⁺, Mg²⁺, and Al³⁺ because
they have similar sizes and the
same number of electrons in
Isotones their outer shell.
● Isotones are nuclides (atoms) with
the same neutron number (N) but
different proton numbers (Z).
● Example:
○ Boron-12 (₅B) and Carbon-13
(₆C) both have 7 neutrons but Follow us on :
different atomic numbers (5 and
6, respectively).
Isodiaphers
● Isodiaphers are nuclides with
different atomic and mass
numbers but the same neutron
excess (same difference
between the number of neutrons
and protons).
● Example:
○ Thorium (Z=90, N=144)
and Uranium (Z=92,
N=146) both have a
neutron excess of 54.

034
Chemical Reactions and Equations

035
A chemical reaction is a process in which
reactants undergo a chemical change to
form products. Chemical reactions can
be identified by several key observations:
● Change in state
● Change in colour
● Evolution of gas
● Change in temperature
Key Points for Chemical Reactions:
For example, when magnesium ribbon is
burnt in air, it reacts with oxygen and ● Reactants undergo a chemical
forms magnesium oxide. This can be change to form products.
described as a chemical reaction and ● Chemical reactions can be
can be written in a word equation: represented by word equations or
● Magnesium + Oxygen → chemical equations.
Magnesium oxide ● The Law of Conservation of Mass
Here, magnesium and oxygen are the states that the number of atoms
reactants, and magnesium oxide is the remains the same on both sides of
product. the equation.
● Balancing chemical equations
involves adjusting the coefficients to
ensure the number of atoms of each
element is the same on both sides.
● Physical states and conditions
(temperature, pressure, catalyst) are
also indicated in the equation to fully
Chemical Equation Representation represent the reaction.
Balancing a Chemical Equation
A chemical reaction can also be According to the Law of Conservation of
represented by a chemical equation, Mass, matter can neither be created nor
which uses the symbols of elements or destroyed in a chemical reaction. Hence,
the chemical formulas of reactants and the number of atoms of each element
must remain the same on both sides of
products. The physical state of each
the chemical equation. Balancing an
substance is also indicated: equation ensures that this law is obeyed.
● Solid state = (s)
● Liquid state = (l)
● Gaseous state = (g)
● Aqueous state = (aq)

For example, the chemical reaction of

magnesium burning in oxygen can be
written as:

● 2Mg(s) + O₂(g) → 2MgO(s)

036
 Stepwise Balancing Process (using the Example:
hit and trial method):
1. Write the unbalanced chemical Fe + H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + H₂
equation and draw boxes around 1. Draw boxes around each
each formula. Do not change anything formula:
inside the boxes. Fe + H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + H₂
2. Count the number of atoms of each 2. Count atoms on both sides:
element on both sides of the equation. a. LHS: Fe = 1, H = 2, O = 1
3. Start with the element that has the b. RHS: Fe = 3, H = 2, O = 4
highest number of atoms, and add a 3. Balance Oxygen by placing a
coefficient to equalize the atoms on coefficient of 4 in front of H₂O:
both sides.
Fe + 4 H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + H₂
4. Repeat the process for the remaining 4. Balance Hydrogen by placing a
elements until all atoms are equal on
coefficient of 4 in front of H₂:
both sides.
Fe + 4 H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + 4 H₂
5. Add the physical states of the
5. Balance Iron by placing a
reactants and products:
coefficient of 3 in front of Fe:
a. Solid state = (s)
3 Fe + 4 H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + 4 H₂
b. Liquid state = (l)
6. Final Check:
c. Gaseous state = (g) a. Fe = 3, H = 8, O = 4 on both
d. Aqueous state = (aq) sides.
6. Write any necessary conditions The equation is now
(temperature, pressure, or catalyst) balanced:
above or below the arrow. 3 Fe + 4 H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + 4 H₂
Example:
Including Physical States
To balance the combustion reaction of
● Solid = (s), Liquid = (l), Gas = (g),
magnesium:
Aqueous = (aq).
● Unbalanced equation:
● Example:
Mg + O₂ → MgO
3 Fe(s) + 4 H₂O(g) → Fe₃O₄(s) + 4 H₂(g)
● Balanced equation:
Key Points
2Mg(s) + O₂(g) → 2MgO(s)
● Conservation of Mass: Atoms
must be equal on both sides.
● Balancing: Use the hit-and-trial
method to balance atoms.
● Physical States: Indicate states
of matter for completeness.

037
 Skeletal Equation Balanced Equation

Represents reactants and products

Represents reactants and products
without ensuring equal atoms of each
with equal atoms of each element.
element.

Does not follow the Law of Strictly follows the Law of

Conservation of Mass. Conservation of Mass.

Atom count of elements is unequal on Atom count of elements is equal on

both sides. both sides.

Example: Fe + H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + H₂ Example: 3 Fe + 4 H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + 4 H₂

Types of Chemical Reactions ● Examples:

● Chemical reactions involve breaking a. Formation of slaked lime:
and forming bonds between atoms. CaO (s) + H2O (l)→Ca(OH)2 (aq)
● Atoms neither transform into other b. Formation of water:
elements nor appear/disappear
2H2 (g)+O2 (g)→2H2O (l)
during reactions.
c. Formation of ammonia:
● Reactions are classified based on the
interaction between reactants and N2 (g)+3H2 (g)→2NH3 (g)
products. d. Burning of coal:
Combination Reaction C + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
● Definition: A reaction where two or e. Burning of natural gas:
more reactants combine to form a CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 (g) + 2H2O
single product.
f. Respiration:
A+B →C
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O +
● Key Characteristics: energy
○ Reactants: Two or more.
○ Product: A single compound. 2. Applications:
○ Nature: Often exothermic, a. Used in construction (e.g.,
releasing heat. slaked lime for mortar).
b. Formation of essential
compounds like ammonia in
industries.
c. Combustion processes for
energy production.

038
 Combustion Reaction ○ Electrolytic Decomposition:
A combustion reaction occurs when a ■ Caused by electricity.
substance reacts with oxygen, releasing Example:
heat and light. The products often include
2H2O(l) → Electricity → 2H2 (g)+O2 (g)
carbon dioxide and water for
hydrocarbons. ○ Photolytic Decomposition:
Examples ■ Caused by sunlight.
1. CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O (Methane ■ Example:
combustion). 2AgCl(s) → Sunlight
→2Ag(s)+Cl2
2. C + O₂ → CO₂ (Carbon (g)
combustion). ● Used in black-and-white
3. 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O (Hydrogen photography.
combustion). ● Key Characteristics:
4. C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O ○ Most decomposition reactions
(Glucose combustion). are endothermic, requiring
5. 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO (Magnesium heat, light, or electricity.
combustion). Displacement Reaction
Key Types ● Definition: A reaction where a more
1. Complete Combustion: Ample reactive element displaces a less
oxygen, produces CO₂ and H₂O. reactive element from its compound.
2. Incomplete Combustion: Limited A+BC→AC+B
oxygen, produces CO or soot. ● Examples:
Applications ○ Zinc with Copper Sulfate:
● Fuels in engines. Zn(s)+CuSO4 (aq)
→ZnSO4
+Cu(s)
● Power plants. (aq)
○ Iron with Copper Sulfate:
● Cooking and heating.
Fe(s)+CuSO4 (aq)
→FeSO4
Decomposition Reaction +Cu(s)
(aq)
● Definition: A reaction in which a Double Displacement Reaction
compound breaks down into two or
● Definition: A reaction where ions
more simpler substances.
are exchanged between two
A→B+C compounds to form new
● Types of Decomposition: compounds.
1. Thermal Decomposition: AB+CD→AD+CB
Caused by heating. ● Examples:
■ Example: Barium Chloride with Sodium Sulfate:
Heat
CaCO3 (s) → → CaO(s)+CO2 (g) BaCl2 (aq)+Na2 SO4 (aq)→BaSO4
{Used for manufacturing cement.} (s)
+2NaCl(aq)
■ Example: Lead Nitrate with Potassium Iodide:
2 FeSO4 → Heat
→ Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3 Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI2(s)(↓) +
{Green coloured ferrous sulphate is 2KNO3(aq)
oxidized to ferric sulphate, which is
reddish-brown in colour. In this
reaction a burning smell of sulphur
is released}

039
 Oxidation and Reduction (Redox Rancidity
Reactions) ● Definition: Spoilage of fats/oils due to
1. Oxidation: oxidation, causing bad smell and taste.
a. Addition of oxygen or removal ● Examples: Stale butter, oily snacks.
of hydrogen. ● Prevention:
i. Example: ○ Antioxidants: Added to slow
2Mg(s)+O2 (g)→2MgO(s) oxidation (e.g., BHT, Vitamin E).
2. Reduction: ○ Airtight Containers: Minimize
a. Addition of hydrogen or oxygen exposure.
removal of oxygen. ○ Flushing with Nitrogen: Used in
i. Example: snack packaging.
CuO(s)+H2 (g)→Cu(s)+H2O(l) ○ Refrigeration: Reduces the rate
of oxidation.
3. Redox Reaction:
Oxidation Numbers (ON)
a. A chemical reaction where
oxidation and reduction occur ● Definition: The oxidation number is the
simultaneously. charge an atom would have if all
bonds were ionic. It helps identify the
i. Example:
oxidation and reduction in a redox
Zn(s)+CuSO4 (aq)→ZnSO4 (aq)+Cu(s) reaction.
1. Zn is oxidized to Zn2+. ● Rules for Assigning Oxidation
2. Cu 2+
is reduced to Cu(s). Numbers:
Redox reactions around us: ○ Free Elements: The oxidation
Corrosion number of an atom in a free
element is 0.
● Definition: Gradual destruction of
metals due to chemical reactions with ■ Example: O2, H2 , and Na
moisture, air, or acids. have ON=0.

● Examples: ○ Monatomic Ions: The oxidation

number equals the ion's charge.
○ Iron: Rusting (reddish-brown
ferric oxide). ■ Example: Na+(ON=+1), Cl−
(ON=−1).
○ Silver: Black coating (silver
sulfide). ○ Oxygen: The oxidation number of
oxygen is usually −2, except in
○ Copper: Green coating (basic peroxides (−1) and superoxides
copper carbonate). (−1/2).
● Effects: Weakens metals, damages ○ Hydrogen: The oxidation number
structures (cars, bridges, ships). of hydrogen is +1 with nonmetals
● Prevention: and −1 with metals.
○ Galvanization: Zinc coating on
iron.
○ Electroplating: Non-corrosive
metal coating.
○ Painting/Greasing: Protective
barrier.
○ Cathodic Protection: Using a
sacrificial metal.

040
○ Neutral Compounds: The sum of the Balancing of a Redox Reaction
oxidation numbers of all atoms in a Reaction: Balancing the redox reaction
neutral compound is 0. between Fe2+ and MnO4− in acidic
■ Example: In H2O: medium.
● H=+1×2=+2. 1. Identify Oxidation and Reduction:
● O=−2. a. Fe2+→Fe3+ (oxidation, ON
● Total: +2+(−2)=0. increases from +2 to +3).
○ Polyatomic Ions: The sum of the b. MnO4− →Mn2+ (reduction, ON
oxidation numbers equals the ion's decreases from +7 to +2).
charge. 2. Write Half-Reactions:
■ Example: In SO42− : a. Oxidation: Fe2+→Fe3++e−.
● S+4×(O=−2)=−2. b. Reduction: MnO4−
● S=+6. +8H++5e−→Mn2++4H2O.
Writing Redox Reactions 3. Balance Electrons: Multiply the
oxidation half-reaction by 5 to
● Steps to Write Redox Reactions Using
match electrons.
Oxidation Numbers:
4. Combine the Reactions:
○ Identify Oxidation and
Reduction: Determine the 5Fe2++MnO4− +8H+→5Fe3++Mn2++4H2O
change in oxidation numbers to This balanced reaction shows the
identify which species is oxidized interplay of oxidation and reduction
(increase in ON) and which is processes.
reduced (decrease in ON). Applications of Redox Reactions
○ Balance Atoms: Ensure all atoms 1. Industrial Processes:
except oxygen and hydrogen are
a. Extraction of Metals:
balanced.
i. Redox reactions are
○ Balance Oxygen: Add water
used in extracting
(H2O) to balance oxygen atoms.
metals from their ores,
○ Balance Hydrogen: Add such as iron from
hydrogen ions (H+) to balance hematite (Fe2O3) or
hydrogen atoms. aluminium from
○ Balance Charges: Add electrons bauxite.
(e−) to balance charges for Example: Fe2O3 +3CO→2Fe+3CO2
oxidation and reduction
b. Production of Chemicals:
half-reactions.
i. Redox reactions are
○ Combine Half-Reactions:
used in the
Combine the two half-reactions,
manufacturing of
ensuring electrons cancel out.
chemicals like
ammonia (NH3) by the
Haber process and
sulfuric acid (H2SO4) by
the Contact process.

041
2. Electrochemical Applications: 5. Analytical Chemistry:
a. Batteries: Redox reactions are used in
Redox reactions are the foundation titrations to determine the
of electrochemical cells, such as concentration of unknown
lithium-ion batteries and lead-acid solutions (e.g., potassium
batteries. permanganate titration).
Example (Lead-acid battery): 6. Environmental Applications:
Pb+PbO2 +2H2SO4 →2PbSO4 +2H2O Water Purification:
b. Electrolysis: Chlorine (Cl2) and ozone (O3) act
as oxidizing agents to kill bacteria
Used for producing gases like
and remove impurities.
hydrogen and oxygen from water or
electroplating metals. Wastewater Treatment:
Example: Redox reactions remove pollutants
by converting harmful substances
2H2O(l)→2H2 (g)+O2 (g)
into less toxic ones.

7. Combustion and Fuel Applications:

3. Biological Processes: Fuels like hydrocarbons undergo
Respiration: redox reactions to release energy
Cellular respiration involves the in the form of heat or electricity.
oxidation of glucose to release Example: Combustion of methane:
energy. CH4+2O2 →CO2 +2H2O+Energy
Example: 8. Everyday Life:
C6 H12 O6 +6O2 → 6CO2 + Bleaching:
6H2O+Energy (ATP) Oxidizing agents like hydrogen
Photosynthesis: peroxide (H2O2) or chlorine bleach
Plants use sunlight to drive the remove stains by oxidizing
reduction of carbon dioxide to coloured compounds.
glucose. Photography:
Example: Redox reactions are used in the
6CO2 +6H2O → Light → C6 H12 O6 +6O2 development of photographic
4. Corrosion Prevention: films.
Redox principles are applied in
galvanization (coating iron with
zinc), electroplating, and cathodic
protection to prevent rusting.

042
 Important Reactions ● 2FeSO4 → Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3
● Type: Thermal decomposition
● Mg + O2 → 2MgO reaction.
● Type: Combination reaction. ● Use: Ferric oxide is used in pigments
and catalysis.
● Use: Magnesium oxide is used in
fireproofing materials and ● CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
medicine (antacids). ● Type: Thermal decomposition
● Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2 reaction.
● Type: Displacement reaction. ● Use: Quicklime is used in cement
production and water purification.
● Use: Produces hydrogen gas
used in fuel cells and as a ● 2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
reducing agent. ● Type: Thermal decomposition
● 3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2 reaction.
● Type: Combination reaction. ● Use: Lead oxide is used in glass
manufacturing and batteries.
● Use: Demonstrates rusting in
iron, crucial for understanding ● Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4↓ + 2NaCl
material degradation. ● Type: Double displacement reaction.
● CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 ● Use: Barium sulfate is used in X-ray
● Type: Combination reaction. imaging of the digestive system.
● Use: Slaked lime is used in ● ZnO + C → Zn + CO
whitewashing and neutralizing ● Type: Reduction reaction.
acidic soils. ● Use: Zinc is extracted for use in
● C + O2 → CO2 galvanization and alloys.
● Type: Combination reaction. ● MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
● Use: Carbon dioxide is used in ● Type: Redox reaction.
carbonated drinks and as a fire ● Use: Produces chlorine gas used in
extinguisher. water treatment and bleach
● 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O manufacturing.
● Type: Combination reaction. ● 2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
● Use: Water synthesis; ● Type: Neutralization reaction.
fundamental in hydrogen fuel ● Use: Used in laboratories to neutralize
cell technology. acidic spills.
● CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O ● AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl↓ + NaNO3
● Type: Combustion reaction. ● Type: Double displacement reaction.
● Use: Methane combustion is a ● Use: Silver chloride is used in
primary source of energy in photographic films.
households and industries.
● BaCl2 + H2SO4 → BaSO4↓ + 2HCl
● C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O +
● Type: Double displacement reaction.
energy
● Use: Demonstrates precipitation
● Type: Combustion reaction.
reaction; barium sulfate is used in
● Use: Cellular respiration, medical imaging.
providing energy for all living
organisms.

043
● BaCl2 + K2SO4 → BaSO4↓ + 2KCl ● FeCl3 + 3NH4OH → Fe(OH)3↓ +
● Type: Double displacement reaction. 3NH4Cl
● Use: Explains salt formation in ● Type: Double displacement reaction.
analytical chemistry. ● Use: Formation of ferric hydroxide for
● 2Al + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3 analytical chemistry.
● Type: Combination reaction. ● 2Cu + O2 → 2CuO
● Use: Aluminum chloride is used in ● Type: Combination reaction.
petrochemical industries as a catalyst. ● Use: Explains copper oxidation, used
● Zn + 2AgNO3 → 2Ag + Zn(NO3)2 in catalytic processes.
● Type: Displacement reaction. ● 4Fe + 3O2 + 6H2O → 4Fe(OH)3
● Use: Illustrates the reactivity series of ● Type: Oxidation reaction.
metals, crucial in refining silver. ● Use: Demonstrates rusting, a critical
● Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3↓ + H2O study in preventing corrosion.
● Type: Combination reaction.
● Use: Limewater test to detect carbon
dioxide gas.
● 2KBr + BaI2 → 2KI + BaBr2
● Type: Double displacement reaction.
● Use: Demonstrates halide ion
exchange reactions.
● ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2
● Type: Thermal decomposition reaction.
● Use: Zinc oxide is used in rubber
manufacturing and sunscreen.
● H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
● Type: Combination reaction.
● Use: Hydrogen chloride is used in
producing hydrochloric acid. Follow us on :
● Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
● Type: Displacement reaction.
● Use: Generates hydrogen gas, used in
chemical industries.

044
Acids, Bases and Salts

045
 Acids, Bases and Salts pH Indicators
Definition:
Introduction to Acids, Bases, and Salts Indicators are substances that identify
whether a substance is acidic or basic by
Acids, bases, and salts are essential
changing their color, odor, or other
chemical substances that play a vital role
physical properties in response to the pH
in our daily lives, from determining the
of the medium.
taste of food to forming the foundation of
numerous chemical reactions. Sources and Types of Indicators
1. Natural Indicators:
a. Source: Found naturally in
plants, fruits, and vegetables
that contain pigments sensitive
to pH changes.
b. Working Principle:
1. Tastes and Properties: Natural indicators are typically
a. Acids: Sour in taste; turn blue organic compounds like
litmus red. anthocyanins (in red cabbage) or
b. Bases: Bitter in taste; turn red curcumin (in turmeric) that exhibit
litmus blue. colour changes due to structural
changes in different pH
2. Indicators:
environments.
a. Natural Indicators:
c. Examples:
i. Litmus: Extracted from
i. Litmus: Extracted from
lichens; shows color
lichens, turns red in acids
change in acidic and
and blue in bases.
basic solutions.
ii. Red Cabbage Extract:
ii. Turmeric: Stains
Changes through a
reddish-brown in bases
spectrum of colours
and turns yellow again
depending on pH (red in
when rinsed with water.
acids, green/yellow in
b. Synthetic Indicators: bases).
i. Methyl Orange: Acid → iii. Turmeric: Contains
red, Base → yellow. curcumin, which turns
ii. Phenolphthalein: Acid → reddish-brown in basic
colourless, Base → pink. solutions and stays
3. Daily Life Example: yellow in acidic solutions.
a. If suffering from acidity after
overeating, a basic substance
like baking soda solution can
neutralize the acid.
4. Neutralization:
a. Acids and bases nullify each
other’s effects, producing salt
and water.

046
2. Synthetic Indicators: Working of Indicators in Acids and
a. Source: Chemically synthesized Bases
in laboratories. ● In Acids (pH < 7):
b. Working Principle: Indicators interact with the
Synthetic indicators are designed hydrogen ions (H⁺) in the solution,
with chemical groups that undergo causing changes in their
reversible changes in their molecular structure that result in
molecular structure when exposed colour or odor changes.
to hydrogen or hydroxide ions, Example: Litmus changes to red
causing distinct colour changes. due to the higher concentration of
c. Examples: H⁺ ions in acids.
i. Phenolphthalein: ● In Bases (pH > 7):
Colourless in acidic Indicators interact with hydroxide
solutions, turns pink in ions (OH⁻), altering their structure
basic solutions (pH > 8.2). differently than in acids. This shift
ii. Methyl Orange: Red in is observable as a distinct colour
acidic solutions (pH < 3.1), or odor change.
turns yellow in basic Example: Phenolphthalein turns
solutions (pH > 4.4). pink in bases because OH⁻ ions
iii. Bromothymol Blue: stabilize its coloured form.
Yellow in acids, blue in
bases.
3. Olfactory Indicators:
a. Source: Found in aromatic
compounds with distinctive
smells, often derived from spices,
plants, or synthesized from
essential oils. Chemical Properties of Acids:
b. Working Principle: Acids exhibit characteristic chemical
The odor of these substances is properties that help identify their nature
altered due to changes in the and behaviour. Below is a detailed
chemical interactions between the account of their reactions with water,
indicator molecules and ions in metals, metal carbonates, metal
acidic or basic media. hydrogen carbonates, metallic oxides,
and non-metallic oxides.
c. Examples:
Reaction with Water (Ionization of
i. Vanilla Extract: Retains
Acids)
its smell in acidic
solutions but loses it in ● When acids dissolve in water, they
bases. release hydrogen ions (H⁺). However,
since free H⁺ ions cannot exist in
ii. Onion Juice: The sharp
water, they combine with water
odor diminishes in basic
molecules to form hydronium ions
solutions while remaining
(H₃O⁺). This is responsible for the
unchanged in acids.
acidic nature of solutions.
iii. Clove Oil: Alters its
distinct smell depending
on the pH.

047
Chemical Properties of Acids: 3. Reaction with Metal Carbonates
Acids exhibit characteristic chemical Acids react with metal carbonates to form
properties that help identify their nature salt, water, and carbon dioxide gas.
and behaviour. Below is a detailed General Equation:
account of their reactions with water, Metal Carbonate + Acid→ Salt+ H₂O+ CO₂
metals, metal carbonates, metal
hydrogen carbonates, metallic oxides, Example:
and non-metallic oxides. CaCO₃ (s)+2HCl (aq)→CaCl₂ (aq)+H₂O
+CO₂ (g)
1. Reaction with Water (Ionization of Explanation: The release of CO₂ gas can
Acids) be detected by passing it through lime
water, which turns milky due to the
When acids dissolve in water, they release formation of calcium carbonate. This
hydrogen ions (H⁺). However, since free H⁺ reaction is widely used in baking to
ions cannot exist in water, they combine produce CO₂ for leavening.
with water molecules to form hydronium
ions (H₃O⁺). This is responsible for the
acidic nature of solutions. 4. Reaction with Metal Hydrogen
Example Reaction: Carbonates (Bicarbonates)
HCl (g)+H₂O (l)→H₃O⁺ (aq)+Cl⁻ (aq) Metal hydrogen carbonates
(bicarbonates) react with acids to
In this example, hydrochloric acid produce salt, water, and carbon dioxide
dissociates in water to form hydronium gas.
ions and chloride ions.
General Equation:
Explanation: This process, known as
ionization, makes the solution conductive Metal Hydrogen
and gives it acidic properties like a sour Carbonate+Acid→Salt+H₂O+CO₂ (g)
taste and the ability to turn blue litmus Example:
red. NaHCO₃ (s)+HCl (aq)→NaCl (aq)+H₂O
2. Reaction with Metals (l)+CO₂ (g)
Acids react with reactive metals to Explanation: This reaction is similar to the
produce hydrogen gas and a salt. This reaction with carbonates, but it involves
reaction occurs because acids donate H⁺ bicarbonates. It is used in antacid
ions, which gain electrons from metals to formulations to neutralize excess stomach
form H₂ gas. acid.
General Equation: 5. Reaction with Metallic Oxides
Metal + Acid→ Salt + H₂ (g) Metallic oxides are basic in nature and
Examples: react with acids to form salt and water.
This reaction is essentially a neutralization
Zn (s)+2HCl (aq)→ZnCl₂ (aq)+H₂ (g) reaction.
Mg (s)+2HCl (aq)→MgCl₂ (aq)+H₂ (g) General Equation:
Explanation: This reaction is commonly Metal Oxide+Acid→Salt+H₂O
used in laboratories to produce hydrogen
gas. The metal displaces the hydrogen
ions from the acid, forming a salt as the
byproduct.

048
Example: 2. Reaction with Acids (Neutralization
CuO (s)+2HCl (aq)→CuCl₂ (aq)+H₂O (l) Reaction)
Explanation: Metallic oxides act as bases, Bases react with acids to form salt and
and acids neutralize them to form a salt water. This reaction is called a
and water. Such reactions are used in neutralization reaction.
refining processes, such as the extraction General Equation:
of metals from ores. Base+Acid→Salt+H₂O
6. Reaction with Non-Metallic Oxides Examples:
Non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature NaOH (aq)+HCl (aq)→NaCl (aq)+H₂O (l)
and react with water to form acids.
Ca(OH)₂ (aq)+2HNO₃ (aq)→Ca(NO₃)₂
General Equation: (aq)+2H₂O (l)
Non-Metallic Oxide+Water→Acid Explanation: The base neutralizes the
Example: acid by reacting with its H⁺ ions to form
CO₂ (g)+H₂O (l)→H₂CO₃ (aq) water, and the remaining ions form a salt.
This reaction is commonly used in
Explanation: Non-metallic oxides dissolve
acid-neutralizing medications and water
in water to produce acids, making them
treatment.
an integral part of the formation of acid
rain. For example, sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides dissolve in rainwater to 3. Reaction with Non-Metallic Oxides
produce sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature
Chemical Properties of Bases and react with bases to form salt and
Bases release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in water.
water, giving them distinct properties. General Equation:
They neutralize acids, react with certain Base+ Non-Metallic Oxide →Salt +H₂O
metals, and interact with oxides to form
Examples:
salts and water. Below is a concise
overview of their chemical behavior. 2NaOH (aq)+CO₂ (g)→Na₂CO₃ (aq)+H₂O
(l)
1. Reaction with Water (Dissociation of
Bases) Ca(OH)₂ (aq)+CO₂ (g)→CaCO₃ (s)+H₂O (l)
Bases dissolve in water to release Explanation: This reaction is used in
hydroxide ions (OH⁻). This dissociation is industries to capture carbon dioxide, such
responsible for their basic nature. as in limewater tests where CO₂ turns
limewater milky due to calcium
Example Reaction:
carbonate formation.
NaOH (s)H₂O Na⁺ (aq)+OH⁻ (aq)
4. Reaction with Metals
Sodium hydroxide dissociates in water to
produce sodium ions and hydroxide ions. Bases react with certain reactive metals
like zinc and aluminum to produce
Explanation: Bases in aqueous solutions
hydrogen gas and a salt.
exhibit a slippery feel and turn red litmus
blue due to the production of hydroxide General Equation:
ions. Base+Metal→Salt+H₂ (g)

049
 Examples: 2. Electric Conductivity:
2NaOH (aq)+Zn (s)→Na₂ZnO₂ (aq)+H₂ (g) a. The presence of free H⁺ ions,
(Sodium zincate formation) allows acids to conduct
2NaOH (aq)+Al (s)+6H₂O (l)→2Na[Al(OH) electricity in solution.
₄] (aq)+3H₂ (g) b. Observation: A bulb glows in an
(Sodium aluminate formation) electric circuit when an acid is
Explanation: Unlike acids, only certain present, confirming the flow of
metals react with bases, and such ions.
reactions are common in industrial
cleaning processes where bases remove
grease and oils.

5. Reaction with Metallic Oxides

Metallic oxides are basic in nature, so their
reaction with bases is rare. However, in
some cases, bases and metallic oxides 3. Not All Hydrogen-Containing
can combine to form complex salts. Substances Are Acids:
a. Substances like glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)
and alcohol (C₂H₅OH) contain
Additional Characteristics of Bases
hydrogen but do not release H⁺
● Slippery Feel: Due to their ability to ions in water and thus do not
react with skin oils to form soap-like behave as acids.
compounds.
Common Features of Bases
● Conductivity: Bases conduct
1. Presence of OH⁻ Ions:
electricity in aqueous solutions due
to the presence of free OH⁻ ions. a. All bases produce hydroxide ions
(OH⁻) in aqueous solutions.
What Do All Acids and Bases Have in
Common? b. These ions are responsible for
the bitter taste, slippery feel, and
Acids and bases differ in taste, reactivity,
other basic properties.
and pH, but they share common
in water
characteristics linked to their ionic nature c. Example: NaOH → →
in aqueous solutions. Na⁺+OH⁻
Common Features of Acids 2. Electric Conductivity:
1. Presence of H⁺ Ions: a. Free OH⁻ ions enable bases to
conduct electricity.
a. All acids release hydrogen ions
(H⁺) when dissolved in water. b. Observation: A bulb glows when
a base like NaOH or KOH is tested
b. These ions are responsible for
in a circuit.
their characteristic acidic
properties such as sour taste,
reactivity with metals, and ability
to conduct electricity.
c. Example: HCl → in water → H⁺+Cl⁻

050
 Conclusion 4. Neutralization Reaction:
● Ionic Basis of Properties: a. Salt and water are formed when
○ Acids derive their properties acids and bases react.
from H⁺ ions, while bases rely on b. This occurs due to the
OH⁻ ions. combination of H⁺ ions (from the
○ The production of these ions in acid) with OH⁻ ions (from the
solution is a defining feature of base), resulting in water.
acids and bases. H⁺ (aq)+OH⁻ (aq)→H₂O (l)
● Conductivity: c. General Reaction: Acid+ Base
○ Both acids and bases conduct →Salt+ Water
electricity due to the movement 5. Dilution of Acids and Bases:
of H⁺ or OH⁻ ions, highlighting a. When an acid or base is added
their shared dependence on to water, the concentration of
ionic dissociation in water. H₃O⁺ or OH⁻ ions per unit volume
Acid or Base in Water Solution is reduced. This process is
1. Acids in Water: referred to as dilution.
a. Hydrogen ions (H⁺) are b. Safety Precaution:
produced by acids only in the i. Acid must always be
presence of water. added slowly to water
b. H⁺ ions are not found while constant stirring is
independently but are done, as the process is
combined with water highly exothermic.
molecules to form hydronium ii. If water is added to acid,
ions (H₃O⁺). the heat generated may
c. HCl+ H₂O →H₃O⁺+Cl⁻ cause splashing,
resulting in burns, or may
2. Bases in Water:
break the glass container
a. Hydroxide ions (OH⁻) are due to localized heating.
released when bases are
6. Key Concept:
dissolved in water.
in water ● Through dilution, the strength of
i. Examples: KOH →
acids and bases is decreased,
→ K⁺+OH⁻
making them less concentrated
3. Alkalis: and safer for handling.
a. Bases that dissolve in water are Strength of Acids and Bases
referred to as alkalis.
The strength of an acid or base is
b. Alkalis are identified as slippery determined by the concentration of
to touch, bitter in taste, and hydrogen ions (H⁺) or hydroxide ions (OH⁻)
corrosive in nature. in the solution, measured using the pH
scale.

051
 Concept Importance of pH in Everyday Life
1. Universal Indicator: 1. pH and Living Organisms
a. A mixture of indicators showing ● pH Sensitivity: Most living
different colors for varying organisms survive only within a
concentrations of H⁺ ions. narrow pH range. For humans,
b. Used to determine the acidic or the body functions effectively
basic strength of a solution. within a pH range of 7.0 to 7.8.
2. pH Scale: ● Aquatic Life: Acid rain (pH < 5.6)
lowers the pH of river water,
a. Ranges from 0 to 14:
making it difficult for aquatic
i. pH < 7: Acidic (lower pH organisms to survive.
indicates stronger
2. pH in Soil and Plants
acidity).
● Soil pH: Plants require specific
ii. pH = 7: Neutral (e.g.,
soil pH for healthy growth.
water).
● Testing Soil pH: By testing soil pH
iii. pH > 7: Basic (higher pH
from different regions, one can
indicates stronger
identify the plants best suited for
basicity).
growth in that soil.
b. pH is influenced by the
3. pH in Digestion
concentration of H₃O⁺ or OH⁻ ions.
● Stomach Acid: Hydrochloric acid
3. Relationship:
(HCl) in the stomach aids in
a. Higher H₃O⁺ concentration → digestion.
Lower pH → Stronger acid.
● Indigestion Relief: Excess acid
b. Higher OH⁻ concentration → during indigestion can be
Higher pH → Stronger base. neutralized using antacids like
4. Measurement of pH: magnesium hydroxide (milk of
a. pH paper or pH meters are used. magnesia).

b. The color change on pH paper is 4. pH and Tooth Decay

compared with a standard color ● Tooth Enamel: Made of calcium
chart. phosphate, it starts corroding
Applications of pH: when the mouth pH falls below
5.5.
Agriculture: Maintaining soil pH for crop
health. ● Prevention: Cleaning the mouth
after meals and using basic
Medicine: Monitoring body fluid pH in toothpaste neutralizes acids and
diagnostics. prevents decay.
Environment: Ensuring safe water pH in
aquariums or pools.

052
 Acids, Bases and Salts

Where Found or
Name Type Chemical Formula pH Range
Used

Lemon Juice Organic Acid Citric Acid (C₆H₈O₇) Citrus fruits ~2

Cooking, cleaning,
Vinegar Organic Acid Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH) 2.5-3
food preservation

Tomatoes, cooking,
Tomato Juice Organic Acid Ascorbic Acid (C₆H₈O₆) 4.2
juice

Soft Drinks Acidic Beverage Carbonic Acid (H₂CO₃) Carbonated drinks 3-4

Sour Milk/Curd Organic Acid Lactic Acid (C₃H₆O₃) Dairy products 4.4-4.6

Apple Organic Acid Malic Acid (C₄H₆O₅) Apples 3.3-3.9

Black Coffee Mild Acid Tannic Acid Beverage 5

Sodium Bicarbonate
Toothpaste Base Oral hygiene 8-9
(NaHCO₃)

Sodium Bicarbonate Baking, cooking,

Baking Soda Base 8.3
(NaHCO₃) antacid

Sodium Hydroxide
Soap Solution Base Cleaning 9-10
(NaOH)

Magnesium Hydroxide
Milk of Magnesia Base Antacid 10.5
(Mg(OH)₂)

Sodium Hypochlorite Disinfectant,

Bleach Base 12.5-13
(NaOCl) whitening agent

Sodium Carbonate Cleaning agent,

Washing Soda Base 11
(Na₂CO₃) water softening

053
 Acids, Bases and Salts

Where Found or
Name Type Chemical Formula pH Range
Used

Saliva Body Fluid Various Mouth 6.5-7.5

Blood Body Fluid Various Bloodstream 7.35-7.45

Urine Body Fluid Various Excretion 4.5-8

Milk Neutral Substance Lactose, Casein Dairy products 6.5-6.8

Pure Water Neutral Substance H₂O Solvent 7

Oranges, citrus
Orange Juice Organic Acid Citric Acid (C₆H₈O₇) 3.5
fruits

Grapes Organic Acid Tartaric Acid (C₄H₆O₆) Grapes, winemaking 3.5-4.5

Saliva Body Fluid Various Mouth 6.5-7.5

Blood Body Fluid Various Bloodstream 7.35-7.45

Urine Body Fluid Various Excretion 4.5-8

Milk Neutral Substance Lactose, Casein Dairy products 6.5-6.8

Pure Water Neutral Substance H₂O Solvent 7

Oranges, citrus
Orange Juice Organic Acid Citric Acid (C₆H₈O₇) 3.5
fruits

054
5. Self-Defence in Animals and Plants Acid Rain:
● Bee Stings: Contain acidic ● Definition: Acid rain refers to
venom that causes irritation and rain that has a pH of less than
pain. Relief can be provided by 5.6 due to the presence of
applying a mild base like baking dissolved acidic pollutants like
soda. sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and
● Nettle Plants: Secrete nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) in the
methafnoic acid from stinging atmosphere.
hairs, causing burning pain. Dock ● Formation: These gases
plants, often found near nettles, combine with water vapor to
provide a natural base to form sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and
neutralize the sting. nitric acid (HNO₃), which then
6. pH and Environmental Chemistry fall to the Earth as acid rain,
damaging ecosystems, aquatic
● Venus' Atmosphere: The thick
life, and buildings.
clouds of sulphuric acid make
Venus' atmosphere inhospitable Acids are not kept in copper and its
to life. major alloys:
● Traditional Remedies: Many ● Copper and its alloys, such as
plants, like dock leaves, serve as brass and bronze, react with
natural neutralizing agents acidic substances in food. This
against acidic stings. reaction produces toxic copper
salts, which can contaminate
the food.
You Must Know:
● Consumption of copper salts
Aqua Regia: can cause health issues like
● Composition: Aqua regia is a stomach pain, nausea, and
highly corrosive and fuming vomiting. Prolonged exposure
liquid made by mixing may lead to copper poisoning.
concentrated hydrochloric acid
(HCl) and nitric acid (HNO₃) in a
3:1 ratio.
● Properties: It is capable of
dissolving noble metals like gold
and platinum, which do not
dissolve in other acids. The name
"aqua regia" means "royal water"
because of its ability to dissolve
such precious metals.

055
 Salts and their properties: 1. Halide Salts
Formation of Salts: ● Family: Salts containing halide ions
● Reaction with Acid and Base (Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻, F⁻).
(Neutralization): Salts are commonly ● Examples:
formed when an acid reacts with a ○ Sodium chloride (NaCl):
base in a neutralization reaction. Common table salt.
During this process, the H⁺ ions from
○ Calcium chloride (CaCl₂): Used
the acid combine with the OH⁻ ions
for de-icing roads.
from the base to form water, and the
remaining ions from the acid and base ○ Potassium iodide (KI): Used in
form a salt. medical treatments.
○ Example: ○ Ammonium fluoride (NH₄F):
HCl (acid) + NaOH (base) → Used in water treatment and as
NaCl (salt) + H₂O (water) a reagent.
● Reaction with Metal and Acid: A metal
reacts with an acid to produce a salt 2. Nitrate Salts
and hydrogen gas. ● Family: Salts containing nitrate ions
○ Example: (NO₃⁻).
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂ ● Examples:
● Reaction of Metal Oxides and Acids: ○ Sodium nitrate (NaNO₃): Used
Metal oxides react with acids to form in fertilizers and food
salts and water. preservation.
○ Example: ○ Potassium nitrate (KNO₃): Used
CuO + 2HCl → CuCl₂ + H₂O in fertilizers and gunpowder.
● Reaction of Metal Carbonates and ○ Ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃):
Acids: A metal carbonate reacts with Key component in explosives
an acid to produce a salt, carbon and fertilizers.
dioxide, and water.
3. Sulfate Salts
○ Example:
CaCO₃ + 2HCl → CaCl₂ + CO₂ + ● Family: Salts containing sulfate ions
H₂O (SO₄²⁻).
● Examples:
Family of Salts ○ Sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄): Used
in detergents and in the paper
Salts can be grouped into different industry.
families based on their composition and
the type of ions they contain. These ○ Copper(II) sulfate (CuSO₄):
families can be classified into inorganic Used in agriculture and
and organic salts based on their source, electroplating.
and further categorized based on their ○ Magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄):
anion and cation types. Below is an Epsom salt, used in medicine
overview of the primary families of salts: and agriculture.

056
 4. Carbonate Salts 7. Acetate Salts
● Family: Salts containing carbonate ● Family: Salts containing acetate ions
ions (CO₃²⁻). (CH₃COO⁻).
● Examples: ● Examples:
○ Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃): ○ Sodium acetate (NaCH₃COO):
Used in glass manufacturing, Used in food preservation and
water treatment, and as a as a buffer in chemistry.
cleaning agent. ○ Calcium acetate (Ca(C₂H₃O₂)₂):
○ Calcium carbonate (CaCO₃): Used in the treatment of
Found in limestone and used in phosphate buildup in kidney
construction and agriculture. disease.
○ Potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃): ○ Potassium acetate (CH₃COOK):
Used in fertilizers and glass Used in food and as a de-icing
production. agent.

5. Phosphate Salts 8. Oxalate Salts

● Family: Salts containing phosphate ● Family: Salts containing oxalate ions
ions (PO₄³⁻). (C₂O₄²⁻).
● Examples: ● Examples:
○ Sodium phosphate (Na₃PO₄): ○ Calcium oxalate (CaC₂O₄):
Used in water treatment and as Found in kidney stones and
a detergent. some plants.
○ Calcium phosphate (Ca₃(PO₄)₂): ○ Potassium oxalate (K₂C₂O₄):
Found in bones and teeth, used Used in some chemical
in fertilizers. reactions.
○ Ammonium phosphate (NH₄)
₃PO₄: Commonly used in 9. Citrate Salts
fertilizers.
● Family: Salts containing citrate ions
(C₆H₅O₇³⁻).
6. Hydroxide Salts ● Examples:
● Family: Salts containing hydroxide ions ○ Sodium citrate (Na₃C₆H₅O₇):
(OH⁻). Used in food preservation and
● Examples: as an anticoagulant.
○ Sodium hydroxide (NaOH): Also ○ Calcium citrate (Ca₃(C₆H₅O₇)₂):
known as caustic soda, used in Used as a calcium supplement.
soap making, paper production,
and as a drain cleaner.
○ Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂):
Also known as slaked lime, used
in construction and water
treatment.
○ Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)
₂): Used as an antacid.

057
 10. Tartrate Salts pH of Salts
● Family: Salts containing tartrate ions The pH of a salt depends on the
(C₄H₄O₆²⁻). strength of the acid and base from
● Examples: which it is formed.
○ Potassium tartrate (K₂C₄H₄O₆): 1. Salts of Strong Acid and Strong
Used in winemaking and as a Base
buffer. a. pH: Neutral (around 7)
○ Calcium tartrate (CaC₄H₄O₆): b. Example: NaCl (from HCl and
Used in the food and NaOH)
pharmaceutical industries. 2. Salts of Strong Acid and Weak Base
a. pH: Acidic (less than 7)
11. Organic Salts b. Example: NH₄Cl (from HCl and
● Family: Salts that are composed of NH₄OH)
organic anions. 3. Salts of Weak Acid and Strong Base
● Examples: a. pH: Basic (more than 7)
○ Ammonium acetate b. Example: NaCH₃COO (from
(NH₄C₂H₃O₂): Used in CH₃COOH and NaOH)
pharmaceuticals.
4. Salts of Weak Acid and Weak Base
○ Sodium formate (HCOONa):
a. pH: Variable (can be acidic,
Used in leather tanning and as a
neutral, or basic)
chemical intermediate.
b. Example: NH₄CH₃COO (from
NH₃ and CH₃COOH)
12. Hydrated Salts
Types of Salts:
● Family: Salts that contain water
1. Inorganic Salts:
molecules in their crystal structure.
a. These are salts derived from
● Examples:
inorganic acids and bases.
○ Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate
b. Examples: Sodium chloride
(CuSO₄·5H₂O): Used in
(NaCl), Calcium sulfate
agriculture and electroplating.
(CaSO₄), Potassium nitrate
○ Magnesium sulfate (KNO₃)
heptahydrate (MgSO₄·7H₂O):
2. Organic Salts:
Known as Epsom salt, used in
medicine and agriculture. a. These are salts formed from
organic acids (such as acetic
acid, citric acid) and
inorganic or organic bases.
b. Examples: Sodium acetate
(CH₃COONa), Potassium
citrate (C₆H₅K₃O₇)

058
3. Natural Salts: 8. Double Salts:
a. These salts are naturally a. These salts are formed by the
occurring and are obtained combination of two different
from mineral deposits, seas, or salts that crystallize together in
lakes. a fixed ratio.
b. Examples: Common salt (NaCl) b. Example: Mohr’s salt (FeSO₄·(NH₄)
from seawater, Gypsum ₂SO₄·6H₂O), a combination of
(CaSO₄·2H₂O) from mining. ferrous sulfate and ammonium
4. Hydrated Salts: sulfate.
a. These salts contain water 9. Complex Salts:
molecules within their a. These salts contain complex
crystalline structure. The ions formed by the coordination
water is known as water of molecules or ions with a
of crystallization. central metal ion.
b. Examples: Copper(II) b. Example: Silver ammonia
sulfate pentahydrate complex (Ag(NH₃)₂)Cl, where
(CuSO₄·5H₂O), Calcium ammonia molecules coordinate
sulfate dihydrate with silver ions.
(CaSO₄·2H₂O) Properties of Salts:
5. Crystallized Salts: ● Solubility: Salts can be soluble
a. Crystallized salts are formed or insoluble in water. Solubility
when an aqueous solution of depends on the nature of the
salt is evaporated, and the salt salt and the solvent (water).
forms solid crystals. ● Hygroscopic Nature: Some salts
b. Example: Sodium chloride absorb moisture from the air
(NaCl), Potassium nitrate (e.g., Calcium chloride, NaOH)
(KNO₃) and are known as hygroscopic
6. Basic Salts: salts.
a. These are formed when a base ● Electrical Conductivity: Salts
is in excess during the dissolved in water conduct
neutralization process. electricity because they
dissociate into ions.
b. Example: Lead (II) acetate
(Pb(C₂H₃O₂)₂), where there is
more base than the acid
involved.
7. Acidic Salts:
a. These salts are formed when an
acid is in excess during the
neutralization process.
b. Example: Ammonium chloride
(NH₄Cl), where ammonia is the
base and hydrochloric acid is
the acid.

059
 Chemical
Salt Reaction Types Uses
Formula
Chlor-alkali
NaCl → Na⁺ + Cl⁻ Inorganic Salt,
Sodium Chloride NaCl process, Food
(Dissociation in water) Natural Salt
seasoning

CaCO₃ + HCl → CaCl₂ +

Inorganic Salt, Construction,
Calcium Carbonate CaCO₃ CO₂ + H₂O (Reaction with
Natural Salt Agriculture
hydrochloric acid)

MgSO₄ → Mg²⁺ + SO₄²⁻ Inorganic Salt, Laxative,

Magnesium Sulfate MgSO₄
(Dissociation in water) Hydrated Salt Agriculture

CuSO₄ + H₂O → Inorganic Salt, Agriculture,

Copper(II) Sulfate CuSO₄
CuSO₄·5H₂O (Hydration) Hydrated Salt Electroplating

Sodium NaHCO₃ → Na⁺ + HCO₃⁻ Inorganic Salt,

NaHCO₃ Baking, Antacid
Bicarbonate (Dissociation in water) Basic Salt

CaSO₄ + 2H₂O →
Inorganic Salt, Plaster of Paris,
Calcium Sulfate CaSO₄ CaSO₄·2H₂O (Formation of
Hydrated Salt Building materials
gypsum)

KNO₃ → K⁺ + NO₃⁻ Inorganic Salt, Fertilizers,

Potassium Nitrate KNO₃
(Dissociation in water) Nitrate Salt Gunpowder

Ammonium NH₄Cl → NH₄⁺ + Cl⁻ Inorganic Salt, Batteries, Flux in

NH₄Cl
Chloride (Dissociation in water) Ammonium Salt metal preparation

Water treatment,
FeCl₃ + 3H₂O → Fe(OH)₃ + Inorganic Salt,
Iron (III) Chloride FeCl₃ Metal surface
3HCl (Hydrolysis) Chloride Salt
treatment

ZnSO₄ → Zn²⁺ + SO₄²⁻ Inorganic Salt, Fertilizers, Health

Zinc Sulfate ZnSO₄
(Dissociation in water) Sulfate Salt supplements

NH₄NO₃ → NH₄⁺ + NO₃⁻ Inorganic Salt, Fertilizer,

Ammonium Nitrate NH₄NO₃
(Dissociation in water) Nitrate Salt Explosives

Chlor-alkali
NaOH → Na⁺ + OH⁻ Inorganic Salt,
Sodium Hydroxide NaOH process, Soap
(Dissociation in water) Base Salt
production

Na₂CO₃ + H₂O → 2NaOH + Glass

Inorganic Salt,
Sodium Carbonate Na₂CO₃ CO₂ (Reaction with manufacturing,
Carbonate Salt
water) Water treatment

Inorganic Salt,
Potassium KMnO₄ → K⁺ + MnO₄⁻ Water purification,
KMnO₄ Permanganate
Permanganate (Dissociation in water) Disinfectant
Salt

Na₂S₂O₃ → 2Na⁺ + S₂O₃²⁻ Inorganic Salt, Photography,

Sodium Thiosulfate Na₂S₂O₃
(Dissociation in water) Thiosulfate Salt Water treatment

060
 Important Industrial Processes Involving Key Notes from NCERT
Salts 1. Sodium Chloride (NaCl) – Common
1. Haber Process: Salt
a. Relevant Salt: Ammonium Formation:
Nitrate (NH₄NO₃) Sodium chloride is formed by the
b. Use: Used to produce ammonia, neutralization reaction between
which is a key ingredient in hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium
fertilizers. hydroxide (NaOH).
2. Chlor-alkali Process: Reaction:
a. Relevant Salt: Sodium Chloride HCl (aq)+NaOH (aq)→NaCl (aq)+H₂O (l)
(NaCl) Uses:
b. Use: Produces chlorine (Cl₂) and ● Food seasoning and preservation
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) by
● Raw material for the production of
electrolysis.
chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and
3. Bayer Process: hydrogen gas
a. Relevant Salt: Sodium Aluminate ● Used in Chlor-Alkali process
(NaAlO₂) (electrolysis of brine) for producing
b. Use: Used to extract aluminum chlorine and sodium hydroxide
from bauxite ore. Source:
4. Dow Process: ● Found in seawater, rock salt, or
a. Relevant Salt: Sodium Bromide obtained through the Chlor-Alkali
(NaBr) process.
b. Use: Used to produce bromine 2. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) – Caustic
(Br₂) from brine. Soda
5. Ostwald Process: Formation:
a. Relevant Salt: Ammonium Sodium hydroxide is produced by the
Nitrate (NH₄NO₃) Chlor-Alkali process, which involves the
b. Use: Produces nitric acid (HNO₃), electrolysis of brine.
which is used in fertilizers. Reaction:
6. Lead Chamber Process: 2NaCl (aq)+2H₂O (l)→2NaOH (aq)+Cl₂
a. Relevant Salt: Lead(II) Nitrate (g)+H₂ (g)
(Pb(NO₃)₂) Uses:
b. Use: Produces sulfuric acid ● Soap making (saponification)
(H₂SO₄), which is used in a wide ● Manufacture of paper, textiles, and
range of industrial processes. detergents
7. Pidgeon Process: ● Used in drain cleaners and for water
a. Relevant Salt: Magnesium treatment
Sulfate (MgSO₄) Source:
b. Use: Produces magnesium, ● Obtained from seawater through
which is used in aircraft electrolysis of brine.
construction, and as a reducing
agent in chemical industries.

061
 3. Bleaching Powder (Ca(OCl)₂) 5. Washing Soda (Na₂CO₃·10H₂O) –
Formation: Sodium Carbonate
Bleaching powder is produced by Formation:
reacting chlorine gas with slaked lime Washing soda is obtained by heating
(Ca(OH)₂). sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and
Reaction: recrystallizing sodium carbonate.
Ca(OH)₂+Cl₂→Ca(OCl)₂+H₂O Reaction: 2NaHCO₃→Na₂CO₃+CO₂+H₂O
Uses: Uses:
● Bleaching textiles and wood pulp in ● Water softening (removes hardness
the paper industry from water)
● Disinfection of water and surfaces ● Used in glass, soap, and paper
industries
● Oxidizing agent in chemical industries
● Cleaning agent in domestic
Source:
applications
● Made by reaction of chlorine with
Source:
slaked lime (Calcium hydroxide).
● Produced from sodium bicarbonate
4. Baking Soda (NaHCO₃) – Sodium
(baking soda), which is derived from
Bicarbonate
sodium chloride.
Formation:
6. Calcium Carbonate (CaCO₃) –
Baking soda is produced using sodium Limestone
chloride, ammonia, and carbon dioxide.
Formation:
Reaction:
Calcium carbonate occurs naturally and
NaCl+NH₃+CO₂+H₂O→NaHCO₃+NH₄Cl is commonly found in limestone and
Uses: marble. It is also formed by the reaction of
● Baking powder for making cakes, calcium oxide (lime) with carbon dioxide.
breads, and cookies (releases CO₂ to Reaction: CaO+CO₂→CaCO₃
make dough rise) Uses:
● Antacid to neutralize stomach acid ● Construction material (used in
(mild basic salt) cement and concrete)
● Cleaning agent for household ● Manufacture of lime (CaO) by heating
purposes limestone
Source: ● Neutralizing acids in agricultural soil
● Prepared from sodium chloride via (liming)
Ammonia soda process. Source:
● Found in limestone, marble, and
chalk.

062
 7. Plaster of Paris (CaSO₄·½H₂O) ● Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O):
Formation: ○ Gypsum also contains water of
Plaster of Paris is made by heating crystallization, specifically two
gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) to about 150°C. water molecules.
Reaction: CaSO₄⋅2H₂Oheat CaSO₄⋅21 H₂O ○ Chemical Formula: CaSO₄·2H₂O.
Uses: ○ Uses:
● Casting and molding in the ○ The concept of water of
construction and medical industries crystallization helps in
understanding whether certain
● Making statues and decorative items
salts are "wet" or not.
● Orthopedic applications (as
○ Example: Sodium carbonate
bandages and casts)
decahydrate (Na₂CO₃·10H₂O)
Source: contains water of crystallization,
● Produced from gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O). which can affect its
appearance and behavior.
Water of Crystallisation
● Water of Crystallization:
○ It is the fixed number of water
molecules present in one
formula unit of a salt.
○ This water is incorporated into
the crystal structure of the salt.
● Copper Sulfate (CuSO₄·5H₂O):
○ Copper sulfate crystals appear
blue due to the presence of
water of crystallization.
○ Upon heating, the water is
removed, turning the crystals
white.
Follow us on :
○ When moistened again, the blue
color reappears.
○ Chemical Formula: CuSO₄·5H₂O.

063
Metals and Non-Metals

064
● Total of 118 elements have been 4. Good Conductors of Heat and
discovered so far, of which 94 occur Electricity
naturally on Earth. ● Description: Metals allow heat and
● On the basis of their physical and electricity to pass through them
chemical properties we classify these easily due to free electrons.
into 3 basic categories, metals, ● Examples: Silver and Copper are
non-metals and metalloids. excellent conductors.
● Use: Calorimetric material, electric
● Specifically, 91 metals, 18 non-metals
coils for heating.
and 7 metalloids.
● Exception: Lead and bismuth are
Physical Properties of Metals poor conductors of electricity
1. Lustre compared to other metals.
● Description: Metals have a shiny
appearance when freshly cut or
polished.
● Examples: Gold, Silver, Aluminium.
● Use: Jewellery and decor purposes.
● Exception: Some metals like sodium
and potassium quickly lose their
shine due to oxidation.
2. Malleability
● Description: Metals can be 5. High Density and Hardness
hammered into thin sheets without ● Description: Metals generally have
breaking. high density and are hard.
● Examples: Aluminium foil, gold ● Examples: Iron, Gold.
sheets. ● Use: Manufacture of machine
● Use: Making of gold and silver foils parts and hardware structures.
for gourmet cuisines, Aluminium foil ● Exception: Alkali metals like
for tiffin and packaging. Sodium, Potassium, and Lithium
● Exception: Zinc and arsenic are are soft and have low density
brittle and cannot be easily (float on water).
hammered. 6. High Melting and Boiling Points
3. Ductility ● Description: Metals usually have
● Description: Metals can be drawn high melting and boiling points
into thin wires. due to strong metallic bonds.
● Examples: Copper wires, Aluminium ● Examples: Tungsten has the
wires. highest melting point.
● Use: Electric wiring. ● Use: Bulb filament for high
● Exception: Mercury and bismuth are resistance and glow.
not ductile. ● Exception: Mercury and gallium
have low melting points (mercury
is liquid at room temperature).

065
 7. Sonorous Chemical Properties of Metals
● Description: Metals produce a Metals exhibit characteristic chemical
ringing sound when struck. properties, including reactions with
● Examples: Bells and gongs are oxygen, water, acids, and metal salt
made of metals like bronze or solutions.
copper. 1. Reaction of Metals with Oxygen
● Use: Tuning fork and metal strings
of guitar and string instruments. General Reaction: Metal+O2 →Metal
● Exception: Non-sonorous metals Oxide
like lead do not produce a ringing Metal oxides may be basic, acidic, or
sound. amphoteric.
8. State P.S: Table on page 67
● Description: Most metals are solid 2. Reaction of Metals with Water
at room temperature. General Reaction:
● Examples: Iron, Aluminium.
● Exception: Mercury is a liquid at Metal+H2 O→ Metal Hydroxide/Oxide+H2
room temperature. ● Reactivity decreases down the
9. Opacity reactivity series (mentioned
ahead).
● Description: Metals are opaque and
● Copper and lead do not react with
do not allow light to pass through.
water under normal conditions.
● Examples: Iron, Gold.
● Exception: Thin films of gold can be
semi-transparent.
10. Heat Expansion
● Description: Metals expand on
heating and contract on cooling.
● Examples: Used in thermostats and
thermometers.
● Use: Mercury is used for
thermometers; Gaps are left
between the iron rails of railway
tracks to accommodate expansion Anodising of Aluminium
caused by the heat generated Definition: Anodising is an
through friction. electrochemical process that thickens
the natural oxide layer on aluminium,
enhancing its corrosion resistance and
appearance.
Process:
■ Aluminium is made the anode in an
electrolytic cell with dilute sulphuric
acid as the electrolyte.
■ Oxygen gas evolves at the anode,
reacting with aluminium to form a
thicker oxide layer (Al₂O₃).
■ The process increases durability,
making the aluminium more resistant
to corrosion and wear.
P.S: Continued on page 68

066
 Type of
Metal Reaction with Oxygen Equation
Oxide

Reacts explosively to form

Potassium 4K + O₂ → 2K₂O Basic
potassium oxide

Reacts vigorously to form

Sodium 4Na + O₂ → 2Na₂O Basic
sodium oxide

Forms a protective oxide

Aluminium layer of aluminium oxide, 4Al + 3O₂ → 2Al₂O₃ Amphoteric
preventing further corrosion

Burns with a bright white

Magnesium flame to form magnesium 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO Basic
oxide

Forms zinc oxide on heating,

Zinc 2Zn + O₂ → 2ZnO Amphoteric
which is amphoteric

Forms iron oxide at high

Iron temperatures (rusts in 3Fe + 2O₂ → Fe₃O₄ Basic
moist air)

Reacts slowly with oxygen

Lead 2Pb + O₂ → 2PbO Amphoteric
to form lead(II) oxide

Forms copper(II) oxide on

strong heating; forms Basic
Copper 2Cu + O₂ → 2CuO
copper carbonate in moist
air

067
Benefits:
■ Corrosion Resistance: Thicker oxide layer prevents further oxidation.
■ Aesthetic Appeal: The porous oxide layer can be dyed for color.
■ Durability: Provides a hard, scratch-resistant surface.
■ Electrical Insulation: The oxide layer is non-conductive.
Applications:
■ Used in aerospace, automotive, architecture, and consumer products like
cookware and smartphones.

Type of
Reaction with Hydroxid
Metal Equation Hydroxide
Water e Formed
Formed

Reacts explosively
with cold water to
2K + 2H2O ->
Potassium form potassium Basic KOH
2KOH + H2
hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.

Reacts vigorously
with cold water to
2Na + 2H2O ->
Sodium form sodium Basic NaOH
2NaOH + H2
hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.

Reacts with steam

to form 2Al + 3H2O ->
Aluminium Amphoteric Al2O3
aluminium oxide Al2O3 + 3H2
and hydrogen.

Reacts with hot

water to form
Magnesiu Mg + 2H2O ->
magnesium Basic Mg(OH)2
m Mg(OH)2 + H2
hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.

Reacts with steam

to form zinc oxide Zn + H2O ->
Zinc Amphoteric ZnO
and hydrogen ZnO + H2
gas.

Reacts with steam

to form iron(II, III) 3Fe + 4H2O ->
Iron Basic Fe3O4
oxide and Fe3O4 + 4H2
hydrogen gas.

068
3. Reaction of Metals with Acids
General Reaction: Metal +Dilute Acid→Salt+H2
Aqua regia, (Latin for ‘royal water’) is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated
hydrochloric acid and concentrated nitric acid in the ratio of 3:1. It can dissolve gold,
even though neither of these acids can do so alone. Aqua regia is a highly corrosive,
fuming liquid. It is one of the few reagents that is able to dissolve gold and platinum.

Salt Type
Metal Reaction with Acids Equation
Formed

Reacts explosively with

acids to form
Potassium 2K + 2HCl → 2KCl + H₂ Basic Salt
potassium salt and
hydrogen gas.

Reacts vigorously with

Sodium acids to form sodium 2Na + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H₂ Basic Salt
salt and hydrogen gas.

Reacts to form
Amphoteric
Aluminium aluminium salt and 2Al + 6HCl → 2AlCl₃ + 3H₂
Salt
hydrogen gas.

Reacts vigorously to
Magnesium form magnesium salt Mg + 2HCl → MgCl₂ + H₂ Basic Salt
and hydrogen gas.

Reacts moderately to
Amphoteric
Zinc form zinc salt and Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
Salt
hydrogen gas.

Reacts slowly to form

Iron iron salt and hydrogen Fe + 2HCl → FeCl₂ + H₂ Basic Salt
gas.

Reacts slowly due to

formation of an
Lead Pb + 2HCl → PbCl₂ + H₂ Basic Salt
insoluble lead chloride
layer.

No reaction with dilute

Cu + H₂SO₄(conc) → CuSO₄ +
Copper acids. Reacts with N/A
SO₂ + 2H₂O
concentrated acids.

069
 4. Reaction of Metals with Metal Salt Solutions
Displacement Reaction: A more reactive metal
displaces a less reactive metal from its salt solution..

Reaction with Metal Type of

Metal Equation
Salt Solutions Reaction

Reacts with almost

Potassium all metal salts to K + CuSO₄ → K₂SO₄ + Cu Displacement
displace metals.

Reacts with most

Sodium metal salts to 2Na + MgCl₂ → 2NaCl + Mg Displacement
displace metals.

Displaces metals
2Al + 3CuCl₂ → 2AlCl₃ +
Aluminium like iron, copper, and Displacement
3Cu
zinc from their salts.

Displaces metals
Magnesium like iron and copper Mg + FeSO₄ → MgSO₄ + Fe Displacement
from their salts.

Displaces copper
Zinc from copper sulfate Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu Displacement
solution.

Displaces copper
Iron from copper sulfate Fe + CuSO₄ → FeSO₄ + Cu Displacement
solution.

Displaces silver from

Pb + 2AgNO₃ → Pb(NO₃)₂ +
Lead silver nitrate Displacement
2Ag
solution.

No reaction with
other metal salt
Copper N/A N/A
solutions because it
is less reactive.

070
Reactivity Series of Metals
The reactivity of metals refers to their tendency to lose electrons and form
positive ions. The reactivity series orders metals based on their ability to
react with water, acids, and other substances.
Hydrogen (H): While not a metal, hydrogen is often included in reactivity
series because it helps illustrate the relative reactivity of metals. Hydrogen
gas is typically placed below most metals in the series, meaning it will not
displace them from their compounds.

Metal Reactivity Remarks

Reacts explosively with cold water and

Potassium (K) Most reactive
oxygen.

Reacts vigorously with cold water and

Sodium (Na) Very reactive
oxygen.

Highly Reacts with cold water to form calcium

Calcium (Ca)
reactive hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

Reacts with hot water to form magnesium

Magnesium Moderately
hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Burns
(Mg) reactive
brightly in air.

Reacts with acids and bases. Forms a

Aluminium Moderate
protective oxide layer that prevents
(Al) reactivity
further reaction.

Moderate Reacts with acids to form zinc salts and

Zinc (Zn)
reactivity hydrogen gas.

Low to
Reacts with acids to form iron salts and
Iron (Fe) moderate
hydrogen gas. Rusts in moist air.
reactivity

Reacts slowly with acids to form lead

Lead (Pb) Low reactivity
salts.

Less reactive
Will not be displaced from its compounds
Hydrogen (H) than most
by most metals.
metals

Very low Reacts with concentrated nitric acid and

Copper (Cu)
reactivity hot concentrated sulfuric acid.

Does not react with acids. Tarnishes

Silver (Ag) Least reactive
slowly in air.

Non-reactive
Gold (Au) Unaffected by most chemicals.
(Noble metal)

071
Key Characteristics of Metal Reactivity ○ Electrochemical Cells:
1. Reaction with Oxygen: Metals ○ Used to determine which
higher in the series form oxides metal acts as the anode or
rapidly. cathode.
a. Potassium and sodium react 1. High Electronegativity
explosively, while copper Non-metals tend to attract electrons
oxidizes slowly. strongly due to their high
b. Amphoteric metals like zinc electronegativity.
and aluminium form oxides ○ Example:
that react with acids and
■ Fluorine (F) + Hydrogen (H) →
bases.
Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
2. Reaction with Water:
■ F₂ + H₂ → 2HF
a. Highly reactive metals like
○ Fluorine, being highly
potassium and sodium react
electronegative, readily gains an
with cold water.
electron from hydrogen to form
b. Less reactive metals like hydrogen fluoride.
magnesium react with hot
2. Formation of Acids
water or steam.
● Non-metals form acidic oxides
3. Reaction with Acids:
that dissolve in water to produce
a. Metals above hydrogen in the acids.
reactivity series react with
○ Example:
acids to produce hydrogen
gas. ■ Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) + Water (H₂O)
→ Sulfurous acid (H₂SO₃)
b. Copper, silver, and gold do
not react with dilute acids. SO₂ + H₂O → H₂SO₃
4. Displacement Reactions: ■ Carbon dioxide (CO₂) + Water
(H₂O) → Carbonic acid (H₂CO₃)
a. More reactive metals displace
less reactive ones from their CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃
salts. 3. Reaction with Metals
● Non-metals react with metals to
Applications of Reactivity Series form salts.
● Extraction of Metals: ○ Example:
○ Highly reactive metals (K, Na, ■ Chlorine (Cl₂) + Sodium (Na) →
Ca) are extracted via Sodium chloride (NaCl)
electrolysis. Cl₂ + 2Na → 2NaCl
○ Less reactive metals (Zn, Fe, ■ Sulfur (S) + Iron (Fe) → Iron(II)
Pb) are extracted by sulfide (FeS)
reduction with carbon. S + Fe → FeS
● Corrosion Prevention:
○ Metals lower in the series (like
copper) resist corrosion
better.

072
 4. Oxidizing Nature 7. Reduction Reactions
● Many non-metals are oxidizing ● Non-metals can gain electrons
agents, meaning they readily (reduction) in reactions.
accept electrons from other ○ Example:
substances.
■ Chlorine (Cl₂) + Sodium (Na) →
○ Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl)
■ Chlorine (Cl₂) + Iron (Fe) → Iron ● Cl₂ + 2e⁻ → 2Cl⁻
chloride (FeCl₂)
■ Oxygen (O₂) + Carbon (C) → Carbon
● Cl₂ + Fe → FeCl₂ dioxide (CO₂)
■ Oxygen (O₂) + Iron (Fe) → Iron ● O₂ + 4e⁻ → 2O²⁻
oxide (Fe₂O₃)
● C + O₂ → CO₂
● 3O₂ + 4Fe → 2Fe₂O₃
8. Reactivity with Hydrogen
5. Covalent Bonding
● Non-metals react with hydrogen to
● Non-metals tend to form covalent form hydrides (compounds where
bonds by sharing electrons to hydrogen is bonded with a
achieve stability. non-metal).
○ Example: ○ Example:
■ Hydrogen (H) + Oxygen (O) → ■ Chlorine (Cl₂) + Hydrogen (H₂) →
Water (H₂O) Hydrogen chloride (HCl)
● 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O ● H₂ + Cl₂ → 2HCl
■ Nitrogen (N₂) + Hydrogen (H₂) → ■ Nitrogen (N₂) + Hydrogen (H₂) →
Ammonia (NH₃) Ammonia (NH₃)
● N₂ + 3H₂ → 2NH₃ ● N₂ + 3H₂ → 2NH₃
6. Non-metallic Oxides 9. Allotropy
● Non-metal oxides are typically acidic. ● Some non-metals exhibit allotropy,
When dissolved in water, they form meaning they exist in different forms
acids. with distinct properties.
○ Example: ○ Example:
■ Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) + Water (H₂O) ■ Carbon exists in various
→ Nitric acid (HNO₃) allotropes like diamond,
● 2NO₂ + H₂O → HNO₃ + HNO₂ graphite, and fullerenes.
■ Carbon dioxide (CO₂) + Water (H₂O) → ■ Diamond has a rigid structure
Carbonic acid (H₂CO₃) and is hard, while graphite is
● CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃ soft and conducts electricity.

073
 10. Thermite Reaction You Must Know –
● Some non-metals can also participate Metals
in displacement reactions and 1. Soft Metals:
produce exothermic reactions.
a. Examples: Sodium (Na) and
○ Example: Potassium (K).
■ Iron(III) oxide (Fe₂O₃) + b. Key Point: These metals are so
Aluminum (Al) → Iron (Fe) + soft that they can be cut with a
Aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) knife. They are highly reactive
● Fe₂O₃ + 2Al → 2Fe + Al₂O₃ and stored in oil to prevent
■ This is an example of the reactions with air or water.
thermite reaction, used to 2. Liquid Metal:
produce molten iron from iron a. Example: Mercury (Hg).
ore.
b. Key Point: The only metal that is
liquid at room temperature;
Summary of Reactions: used in thermometers and
● Non-metals + Oxygen → Non-metal barometers.
oxides (acidic) 3. High-Density Metals:
○ Example: 2SO₂ + O₂ → 2SO₃ (Sulfur a. Examples: Osmium and Iridium.
dioxide to sulfur trioxide) b. Key Point: These are the
● Non-metals + Hydrogen → Hydrides densest metals, used in
○ Example: Cl₂ + H₂ → 2HCl specialized equipment and
(Hydrogen chloride) jewellery.
● Non-metals + Metals → Salts 4. Alloys:
○ Example: Cl₂ + Na → NaCl a. Brass: Alloy of Copper (Cu) and
(Sodium chloride) Zinc (Zn); used in musical
instruments and hardware.
● Non-metals + Metals → Non-metallic
compounds b. Bronze: Alloy of Copper (Cu)
and Tin (Sn); used for statues
○ Example: S + Fe → FeS (Iron
and coins.
sulfide)
c. Stainless Steel: Alloy of Iron
(Fe), Chromium (Cr), and Nickel
(Ni); resists corrosion; used in
cookware and medical
instruments.
5. Graphene:
a. Key Point: A single layer of
carbon atoms in a hexagonal
lattice, stronger than steel and
an excellent conductor of heat
and electricity.
b. Applications: Flexible
electronics, high-performance
batteries, water purification.

074
6. Reactivity with Water: 4. Hard Non-Metals:
a. Examples: Sodium (Na) and a. Example: Diamond (allotrope
Potassium (K). of carbon).
b. Reaction: React vigorously with b. Key Point: Hardest naturally
water, producing hydrogen gas occurring substance.
and forming an alkaline solution. 5. Liquid Non-Metal:
7. Magnetic Metals: a. Example: Bromine (Br2).
a. Examples: Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), b. Key Point: The only non-metal
and Nickel (Ni). that is liquid at room
b. Key Point: These metals exhibit temperature.
natural magnetic properties. 6. Amorphous Non-Metals:
8. Oxidation Resistance: a. Examples: Coal and Charcoal.
a. Example: Aluminium (Al). b. Key Point: These non-metals
b. Key Point: Forms a protective do not have a defined
oxide layer, preventing further crystalline structure.
corrosion. 7. Noble Gases:
9. Tensile Strength: a. Examples: Helium (He), Neon
a. Example: Titanium (Ti). (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr),
b. Key Point: High tensile strength; Xenon (Xe).
used in aerospace and medical b. Key Point: Exist as monatomic
implants. gases.
Non-Metals c. Uses: Helium in balloons and
1. Structures of Sulfur: cryogenics; Neon in
advertising signs.
a. Rhombic Sulfur: Stable at room
temperature, crystalline. 8. Chlorine (Cl2):
b. Monoclinic Sulfur: Stable at a. Key Point: A gaseous
higher temperatures, needle-like non-metal used in water
crystals. purification and
manufacturing bleaching
c. Plastic Sulfur: Produced by rapid
powder.
cooling of molten sulfur,
rubber-like consistency. 9. Acidic Oxides:
2. Graphite: a. Example: Carbon dioxide
(CO2).
a. Key Point: An allotrope of carbon,
a good conductor of electricity b. Key Point: Non-metal oxides
due to delocalized electrons. are generally acidic in nature.
b. Uses: Pencils, lubricants, and 10. Comparison with Metals:
electrodes. ● Non-metals are generally poor
3. Reactive Non-Metals: conductors of electricity (except
graphite), brittle, and have low
a. Example: Fluorine (F2).
melting/boiling points compared to
b. Key Point: The most reactive metals.
non-metal, reacts with nearly all
elements.

075
 Reactivity of Metals and Non-Metals
Formation of Ionic Compounds:
Introduction to Reactivity:
● Ionic compounds (also called
● Elements react to achieve a stable electrovalent compounds) are
electron configuration, similar to noble formed when electrons are
gases (complete octet in their valence transferred from a metal to a
shell). non-metal.
● Noble gases have a filled valence shell ● Example: Magnesium Chloride
and are chemically inert. Other elements (MgCl₂).
react to attain this stable configuration. 1. Magnesium (Mg):
Example of Sodium and Chlorine: a. Electronic configuration: 2,
1. Sodium (Na): 8, 2
b. Magnesium has two
a. Electronic configuration: 2, 8, 1
electrons in its outermost
b. Sodium has one electron in its shell.
outermost shell. c. It loses both electrons to
c. To achieve stability, it loses this form a Mg²+ ion.
electron, forming a Na+ ion with a 2. Chlorine (Cl):
stable 2, 8 configuration. a. Electronic configuration: 2,
2. Chlorine (Cl): 8, 7
b. Chlorine needs one more
a. Electronic configuration: 2, 8, 7
electron to complete its
b. Chlorine has seven electrons in its octet.
outer shell. c. It gains one electron to
c. It gains one electron to complete form a Cl- ion.
its octet, forming a Cl- ion with a 3. Reaction between Magnesium
stable 2, 8, 8 configuration. and Chlorine:
a. Mg loses two electrons to
form Mg²+.
b. Each Cl atom gains one
electron to form Cl-.
c. The oppositely charged
ions (Mg²+ and Cl-) attract
each other, forming
magnesium chloride
3. Reaction between Sodium and (MgCl₂).
Chlorine: d. Reaction:
a. Na loses an electron to form Na+. Mg(s)+Cl2(g)→MgCl2 (s)
b. Cl gains the electron to form Cl-.
c. The oppositely charged ions (Na+
and Cl-) are attracted by
electrostatic forces to form
sodium chloride (NaCl).
d. Reaction:
2Na(s)+Cl2(g)→2NaCl(s)
e. Sodium chloride is an ionic
compound, where ions are held
together by electrostatic
attraction (not molecules).

076
 Electronic Bond
Element Reaction Ionic Compound Formed
Configuration Type

Hydrogen (H) 1 H → H⁺ + e⁻ - -

Helium (He) 2 - - -

Lithium (Li) 2, 1 Li → Li⁺ + e⁻ Lithium Chloride (LiCl) Ionic

Be → Be²⁺ +
Beryllium (Be) 2, 2 Beryllium Chloride (BeCl₂) Ionic
2e⁻

Boron (B) 2, 3 - - -

Carbon (C) 2, 4 - - Covalent

Nitrogen (N) 2, 5 - - Covalent

Oxygen (O) 2, 6 O + 2e⁻ → O²⁻ - -

Fluorine (F) 2, 7 F + e⁻ → F⁻ Sodium Fluoride (NaF) Ionic

Neon (Ne) 2, 8 - - -

Sodium (Na) 2, 8, 1 Na → Na⁺ + e⁻ Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Ionic

Mg → Mg²⁺ + Magnesium Chloride

Magnesium (Mg) 2, 8, 2 Ionic
2e⁻ (MgCl₂)

Aluminium (Al) 2, 8, 3 Al → Al³⁺ + 3e⁻ Aluminium Chloride (AlCl₃) Ionic

Silicon (Si) 2, 8, 4 - - Covalent

Phosphorus (P) 2, 8, 5 - - Covalent

Sulfur (S) 2, 8, 6 S + 2e⁻ → S²⁻ Sodium Sulfide (Na₂S) Ionic

Chlorine (Cl) 2, 8, 7 Cl + e⁻ → Cl⁻ - -

Argon (Ar) 2, 8, 8 - - -

077
 Electronic Bond
Element Reaction Ionic Compound Formed
Configuration Type

Potassium (K) 2, 8, 8, 1 K → K⁺ + e⁻ Potassium Chloride (KCl) Ionic

Calcium (Ca) 2, 8, 8, 2 Ca → Ca²⁺ + 2e⁻ Calcium Chloride (CaCl₂) Ionic

Scandium (Sc) 2, 8, 9 Sc → Sc³⁺ + 3e⁻ Scandium Chloride (ScCl₃) Ionic

Titanium (Ti) 2, 8, 10 Ti → Ti⁴⁺ + 4e⁻ Titanium Chloride (TiCl₄) Ionic

Vanadium (V) 2, 8, 11 V → V⁵⁺ + 5e⁻ Vanadium Chloride (VCl₅) Ionic

Chromium (Cr) 2, 8, 13 Cr → Cr³⁺ + 3e⁻ Chromium Chloride (CrCl₃) Ionic

Mn → Mn²⁺ + Manganese Chloride

Manganese (Mn) 2, 8, 13, 2 Ionic
2e⁻ (MnCl₂)

Iron (Fe) 2, 8, 14 Fe → Fe²⁺ + 2e⁻ Iron Chloride (FeCl₂) Ionic

Cobalt (Co) 2, 8, 15 Co → Co²⁺ + 2e⁻ Cobalt Chloride (CoCl₂) Ionic

Nickel (Ni) 2, 8, 16 Ni → Ni²⁺ + 2e⁻ Nickel Chloride (NiCl₂) Ionic

Copper (Cu) 2, 8, 18 Cu → Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻ Copper Chloride (CuCl₂) Ionic

Zinc (Zn) 2, 8, 18 Zn → Zn²⁺ + 2e⁻ Zinc Chloride (ZnCl₂) Ionic

Summary: Key Points:

● Metals tend to lose electrons to ● Sodium (Na), Magnesium (Mg),
achieve a stable electron Calcium (Ca), and other metals
configuration, forming positive ions from Group 1 and 2 typically form
(cations). ionic compounds by losing
● Non-metals tend to gain electrons to electrons.
achieve stability, forming negative ● Chlorine (Cl), being a halogen,
ions (anions). gains electrons to form anions like
● Ionic compounds are held together by Cl⁻.
electrostatic forces of attraction ● Non-metals like Oxygen (O), Sulfur
between positively and negatively (S), and Fluorine (F) typically gain
charged ions. electrons to form anions (O²⁻, S²⁻, F⁻).
● The compounds formed by these
reactions are ionic in nature and are
held together by electrostatic forces
between positively and negatively
charged ions.

078
 Properties of Ionic Compounds Occurrence of Metals and Their
1. Physical Nature: Extraction
Ionic compounds are generally 1. Occurrence of Metals:
solid, hard, and brittle. The strong ● Sources:
electrostatic attraction between ○ Metals are abundantly found in
positive and negative ions makes the Earth's crust, either in
them hard. However, they are brittle elemental form or as
because when pressure is applied, compounds (minerals).
the ions shift and like-charged ions
○ Seawater contains metals in
come together, causing the
the form of dissolved salts, such
structure to break.
as sodium chloride (NaCl) and
2. Melting and Boiling Points: magnesium chloride (MgCl₂).
Ionic compounds have high ● Minerals and Ores:
melting and boiling points. This is
○ Minerals: Naturally occurring
because a large amount of energy
inorganic substances with a
is required to overcome the strong
definite chemical composition.
ionic bonds between the positively
and negatively charged ions. ○ Ores: Minerals that contain a
high percentage of a specific
3. Solubility:
metal, allowing economical
Ionic compounds are usually extraction.
soluble in water due to the ability of
○ Not all minerals are ores, but all
water molecules to surround and
ores are minerals.
separate the ions. However, they are
insoluble in non-polar solvents like 2. Reactivity-Based Classification of
kerosene, as non-polar solvents Metals:
cannot break the strong ionic ● Low Reactivity Metals:
bonds. ○ Found in a free state due to
4. Conduction of Electricity: their inert nature.
Ionic compounds conduct ○ Examples: Gold (Au), Silver (Ag),
electricity when dissolved in water Platinum (Pt).
or in the molten state. In these ● Moderate Reactivity Metals:
states, the ions are free to move,
allowing the flow of electric current. ○ Exist as oxides, sulfides, or
carbonates in the crust.
However, in their solid state, they do
not conduct electricity because the ○ Examples: Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn),
ions are fixed in place and cannot Lead (Pb).
move. ● High Reactivity Metals:
○ Never found free in nature; exist
as stable compounds.
○ Examples: Potassium (K),
Sodium (Na), Calcium (Ca),
Aluminium (Al).

079
 3. Metal Extraction Methods: 4. Common Ores and Extraction
Low Reactivity Metals: Techniques:
● Direct physical separation methods ● Iron:
like gravity separation are used. ○ Hematite (Fe₂O₃), Magnetite
● Example: Gold is panned or separated (Fe₃O₄), Siderite (FeCO₃).
from alluvial soil. ○ Extracted using blast furnaces.
Moderate Reactivity Metals: ● Aluminum:
● Chemical Reduction: ○ Bauxite (Al₂O₃·2H₂O), Cryolite
○ Reduction of oxides with carbon (Na₃AlF₆).
or carbon monoxide is common. ○ Extracted using the Bayer
○ Example: Iron is extracted from process followed by electrolysis.
hematite (Fe₂O₃) in a blast ● Copper:
furnace. ○ Copper pyrite (CuFeS₂),
● Thermal Decomposition: Malachite (Cu₂CO₃(OH)₂).
○ Carbonates or sulfides are ○ Extracted by roasting, smelting,
thermally decomposed to oxides and electrolytic refining.
before reduction. ● Zinc:
○ Example: Zinc carbonate (ZnCO₃) ○ Zinc blende (ZnS), Calamine
is first converted to zinc oxide (ZnCO₃).
(ZnO) by heating.
○ Extracted by roasting to Zn.
High Reactivity Metals:
● Electrolytic Reduction:
○ Electrolysis is used to break
stable bonds in compounds.
○ Example: Aluminium is extracted
from bauxite via the Hall-Héroult
process.
● High-energy processes are necessary
due to their high reactivity.

Source: Internet

080
5. Key Terms in Metallurgy Methods of Concentration:
● Gangue or Matrix 1. Gravity Separation:
The ore extracted from the Earth's ○ Suitable for oxide ores. The
crust contains unwanted materials crushed and powdered ore
such as sand, rocks, or clay, is washed with water.
collectively referred to as gangue or Heavy metal particles
matrix. These impurities must be settle, while lighter
removed before extracting the impurities are washed
metal. away.
○ Example: Used for oxide
● Flux
ores.
Flux is a material added to the 2. Froth Flotation:
furnace during smelting, along with ○ Used for sulfide ores like
roasted or calcined ore and coke, to zinc sulfide (ZnS) and
eliminate non-fusible impurities in galena (PbS). The
the ore. powdered ore is mixed with
● Slag water, pine or eucalyptus
When flux reacts with non-fusible oil, and air is bubbled
impurities, it forms a fusible through. Metal sulfide
by-product called slag. Being particles, wetted by oil, rise
lighter, slag floats on the molten with the froth, leaving
metal and can be easily separated. impurities below.
The nature of impurities in the ore 3. Electromagnetic Separation:
determines the type of flux used. For ○ For ores with magnetic
acidic impurities like silica (SiO₂) or impurities. The ore is
phosphorus pentoxide (P₂O₅), passed through a conveyor
calcium oxide is added as a flux. For belt near magnetic rollers.
basic impurities such as Magnetic impurities like
manganese oxide, silica is used as wolframite (from tinstone)
the flux. are attracted, separating
the metal ore.

6. Process of metallurgy:
● Concentration of Ore or
Enrichment of Ore
The ore, as obtained from the earth,
contains impurities called gangue
(e.g., sand, clay). Concentration
involves removing these impurities
to increase the metal content.

081
Conversion of Concentrated Ore to Metal Refining of Impure Metal
Oxide The metal obtained is usually impure
The concentrated ore is converted into and must be purified using one of the
metal oxide, as oxides are easier to following methods:
reduce to metals. Methods of Refining:
Processes: ● Distillation:
● Calcination: ○ For volatile metals like zinc
○ Heating the ore in limited air. and mercury.
○ Removes moisture and ○ Metals are vaporized,
volatile impurities. condensed, and collected,
○ Suitable for carbonate ores leaving impurities behind.
(e.g., ZnCO₃ → ZnO + CO₂). ● Liquation:
● Roasting: ○ For low-melting metals like
○ Heating the ore in excess air. tin.
○ Removes sulfur and converts ○ Impure metal melts and
sulfide ores to oxides. flows, leaving solid
impurities behind.
○ Example:
● Oxidation:
2ZnS+3O2 →2ZnO+2SO2
○ Impurities oxidize when the
molten metal is exposed to
Reduction of Metal Oxide to Metal air, forming scum.
The metal oxide is reduced to free metal ● Electrolytic Refining:
by various methods:
○ Impure metal is the anode,
Techniques: pure metal is the cathode,
● Electrolysis: and an electrolyte is used.
○ For highly reactive metals like ○ Example: Copper
sodium, calcium, and purification where pure
aluminum. copper is deposited on the
○ Fused salts or oxides are cathode.
electrolyzed, depositing pure
metal at the cathode. Example Process: Extraction of Zinc
○ Example: Electrolysis of 1. Concentration: Froth flotation for
alumina (Al₂O₃) in cryolite for zinc sulfide (ZnS).
aluminum extraction.
2. Conversion to Oxide: Roasting to
● Smelting: form ZnO.
○ High-temperature reduction 3. Reduction: Smelting ZnO with
in the presence of a reducing coke to form molten zinc.
agent (e.g., carbon).
4. Refining: Electrolytic refining for
○ Flux is added to remove high-purity zinc.
impurities as slag (e.g.,
limestone in a blast furnace
for iron).
○ Example:
Fe2 O3 +3C→2Fe+3CO.

082
 NCERT Key Points Extracting Metals Low in the Activity
Series
Enrichment of Ores
● Characteristics of Metals:
● Definition: Ores extracted from
the earth are mixed with ○ Low reactivity.
impurities like soil and sand, ○ Found as oxides or sulfides in
called gangue. nature.
● Purpose: To remove gangue and ● Reduction Method:
increase the metal ○ Direct Heating in Air: Reduces
concentration before metal metal oxides to pure metals.
extraction.
Examples
● Principle: Based on differences in
1. Extraction of Mercury (Hg)
the physical or chemical
properties of the ore and ● Ore: Cinnabar (HgS).
gangue. ● Steps:
● Methods: ○ Roasting:
○ Physical Separation: 2HgS(s)+3O2 (g) → Heat
Techniques like gravity 2HgO(s)+2SO2 (g)
separation, froth flotation, ○ Reduction:
or electromagnetic
2HgO(s) → Heat 2Hg(l)+O2 (g)
separation.
2. Extraction of Copper (Cu)
○ Chemical Processes: Such
as leaching, to selectively ● Ore: Copper Glance (Cu2 S).
dissolve metal ● Steps:
compounds. ○ Roasting: 2Cu2 S(s)+3O2 (g) →
Heat
2Cu2 O(s)+2SO2 (g)
○ Reduction: 2Cu2 O(s)+Cu2 S(s)
→ Heat 6Cu(s)+SO2 (g)
Extracting Metals in the Middle of the
Activity Series
● Examples: Iron, zinc, lead, copper, etc.
Follow us on : ● Reactivity: Moderately reactive;
typically found as sulfides or
carbonates in nature.
Conversion of Ores to Oxides
● Why Oxides? Easier to reduce
compared to sulfides or carbonates.
1. Roasting:
a. Heating sulfide ores in excess
air to form oxides.
b. Example:
2ZnS(s)+3O2 (g) → Heat 2ZnO(s)+2SO2 (g)
2. Calcination:
a. Heating carbonate ores in
limited air to form oxides.
b. Example:
ZnCO3 (s) → Heat ZnO(s)+CO2 (g)
083
 Reduction of Oxides to Metals Refining of Metals
● Reducing Agents: ● Why? : Metals obtained through
○ Commonly carbon (coke) is reduction are impure and need
used. refining.
○ Example: ZnO(s)+C(s) ● Electrolytic Refining:
→Zn(s)+CO(g). ○ Impure metal: Anode.
● Displacement Reactions: ○ Pure metal strip: Cathode.
○ Highly reactive metals (e.g., ○ Metal salt solution: Electrolyte.
sodium, calcium, aluminum) ● Process:
displace less reactive metals.
○ Impure metal dissolves from
○ Example: the anode into the electrolyte.
3MnO2 (s)+4Al(s)→3Mn(l)+2Al2 O3 ○ Pure metal is deposited on the
(s)+Heat. cathode.
● Thermit Reaction: ○ Insoluble impurities form anode
○ Reaction of iron (III) oxide with mud.
aluminum. ● Examples: Copper, zinc, tin, nickel,
○ Used to join railway tracks or silver, gold.
repair machinery.
○ Example:
Fe2O3 (s)+2Al(s)→2Fe(l)+Al2O3 (s)+Heat.

Extracting Metals at the Top of the

Activity Series
● Examples: Sodium, magnesium,
calcium, aluminum.
● Reactivity: Highly reactive;
cannot be reduced using
carbon.
Reduction Method: Corrosion: Overview with Reactions and
● Electrolytic Reduction: Prevention
○ Metals are extracted by Corrosion is the chemical or
the electrolysis of their electrochemical process by which
molten compounds. metals degrade due to their reaction
with environmental factors like air, water,
○ Example: Electrolysis of
or other substances. Corrosion leads to
molten sodium chloride.
the formation of oxides, salts, or other
Reactions: compounds, which compromise the
○ At Cathode: Na++e −→Na. metal's integrity. Below are some key
○ At Anode: 2Cl−→Cl2 +2e−. reactions involved in corrosion.
● Example: Aluminium:
○ Obtained by the
electrolysis of aluminium
oxide (Al2O3) dissolved in
cryolite.

084
 Types of Corrosion with Reactions Copper Corrosion
Rusting of Iron ● Reaction: Copper reacts with moist
● Reaction: carbon dioxide in the air to form
copper carbonate (CuCO3 ), which
● Iron reacts with oxygen from the air
creates the greenish patina on
and water to form hydrated iron oxide
copper surfaces.
(rust).
Chemical Equation:
○ Chemical Equation:
2Cu+CO2 +H2 O→CuCO3 ⋅Cu(OH)2
4Fe+3O2 +6H2 O→4Fe(OH)3 (Rust, Fe2 O3 ⋅xH2 O)
The green patina is a mixture of copper
○ Rusting Process: Iron (Fe)
carbonate and copper hydroxide.
reacts with oxygen (O₂) and
water (H₂O), forming hydrated Corrosion of Other Metals
iron oxide (rust), which is a 1. Aluminium Corrosion:
brown, flaky substance. ● Reaction: Aluminium reacts with
● Electrochemical Reaction: Rusting of oxygen to form a protective layer
iron occurs through an of aluminium oxide (Al2O3).
electrochemical process. The metal Chemical Equation:
surface acts as an anode and cathode
4Al+3O2 →2Al2O3
in an electrolyte (water).
This oxide layer prevents further
At the Anode (Iron loss):
corrosion, making aluminium
Fe→Fe2++2e− resistant to rusting.
At the Cathode (Reduction): 2. Zinc Corrosion:
O2 +2H2 O+4e−→4OH− ● Reaction: Zinc reacts with oxygen
The Fe²⁺ ions combine with OH⁻ ions to and carbon dioxide in the air to
form Fe(OH)₂, which further reacts with form zinc carbonate (ZnCO3),
oxygen to form Fe₂O₃·XH₂O (rust). which gives zinc a dull
appearance.
Chemical Equation:
Zn+CO2 +H2 O→ZnCO3
Zinc forms a protective coating when
exposed to air, preventing further
corrosion.
3. Iron in Saltwater (Marine Corrosion):
Silver Corrosion ● Reaction: Iron in seawater
● Reaction: Silver reacts with sulfur accelerates the corrosion process.
compounds in the air to form silver The presence of salt increases the
sulfide (Ag2S), causing silver to turn conductivity of water, allowing the
black. electrochemical reaction to
proceed faster.
○ Chemical Equation:
Example Reaction:
2Ag+H2 S→Ag2S+H2
Fe+O2 +2H2 O+2Cl−→FeCl2 +2OH−
Silver sulfide forms on the surface, making
the silver appear black. Iron chloride forms, leading to faster
deterioration of the metal.

085
 Preventive Methods for Corrosion with
Reactions B. Alloying the Metal
A. Coating the Metal 1. Stainless Steel:
1. Painting: ● Reaction: Stainless steel is an alloy
a. Applying paint creates a of iron and chromium, where
physical barrier between the chromium forms a passivating
metal and environmental oxide layer that prevents further
elements like oxygen and water. corrosion.
This prevents the metal from ● Chemical Equation:
reacting with corrosive Fe+Cr+O2 →FeCr2 O4
substances.
● The chromium oxide layer acts as
2. Galvanizing (Zinc Coating): a protective shield.
a. Reaction: Zinc is more reactive
than iron and acts as a sacrificial 2. Bronze (Copper-Tin Alloy):
anode, protecting the iron
beneath it. ● Reaction: Bronze, made of
copper and tin, is less prone to
b. Chemical Reaction: corrosion than pure copper due
Zn+2Fe3+→Zn2++2Fe2+ to the stable oxide layer formed
Zinc corrodes in place of iron, by tin.
preventing rust. C. Electrochemical Protection
1. Sacrificial Anode (Cathodic
Protection):
● A more reactive metal like zinc or
magnesium is connected to a less
reactive metal (e.g., iron), and the
sacrificial metal corrodes instead
of the metal being protected.
● Reaction: Zn→Zn2++2e− (Zinc loses
electrons and corrodes to protect
the iron).
2. Impressed Current System:
3. Chrome Plating: ● An external electrical current is
a. A thin layer of chromium is applied to prevent corrosion by
applied to metal, creating a reversing the electrochemical
protective barrier against oxygen reactions. The metal to be
and water. protected acts as a cathode, and
b. Reaction: Chromium forms a the anode is a different material
stable oxide layer that resists that corrodes instead.
further corrosion.

086
 D. Environmental Control 2. Properties of Alloys
1. Decreasing Moisture: ● Physical Properties of Alloys:
● Reducing exposure to moisture ○ Electrical Conductivity: Alloys
can slow down corrosion. Using generally have lower electrical
desiccants (substances that conductivity than pure metals.
absorb moisture) can help ○ Melting Point: The melting point
protect metals in sealed of alloys is usually lower than
environments. that of pure metals.
2. Use of Protective Coatings in 3. Examples of Common Alloys
Saltwater:
● Steel (Iron + Carbon): Pure iron is soft
● Marine environments require and easily deformed, but when mixed
specialized anti-corrosion with carbon (about 0.05%), it
coatings to prevent becomes hard and strong.
saltwater-induced corrosion.
● Stainless Steel (Iron + Nickel +
Summary of Corrosion Prevention Chromium): Stainless steel, an alloy
Methods of iron, nickel, and chromium, is
1. Coating: Painting, galvanizing, chrome resistant to corrosion and rust. It is
plating, etc. hard and durable, making it suitable
2. Alloying: Use of corrosion-resistant for use in a variety of applications,
alloys like stainless steel. from kitchenware to surgical tools.
3. Electrochemical Protection: Sacrificial ● Brass (Copper + Zinc): Brass, made
anodes, impressed current systems. by alloying copper with zinc, is not a
good conductor of electricity, unlike
4. Environmental Control: Reducing
pure copper. It is used in applications
moisture exposure, using protective
such as musical instruments, coins,
coatings in marine environments.
and decorative items due to its
NCERT Value Points: durability and appealing colour.
1. Alloying: Improving the Properties of ● Bronze (Copper + Tin): Bronze is
Metals made by alloying copper with tin. It is
Definition of Alloy: An alloy is a harder and more corrosion-resistant
homogeneous mixture of two or more than pure copper, making it suitable
metals, or a metal and a non-metal. for use in statues, coins, and tools.
Alloys are prepared by melting the ● Solder (Lead + Tin): Solder, an alloy of
primary metal and dissolving the other lead and tin, has a low melting point
elements into it. and is used for joining electrical wires
● Purpose of Alloying: Alloying and other metals in various
changes the properties of the base applications, such as electronics.
metal, such as hardness, strength, ● Gold Alloys: Pure gold (24 carat) is
corrosion resistance, and melting soft and unsuitable for jewellery. To
point. The desired properties are improve its hardness and durability, it
achieved by selecting specific is alloyed with metals like silver or
elements to mix with the primary copper. For instance, 22 carat gold
metal. means that 22 parts of gold are
mixed with 2 parts of copper or silver,
making it more durable for jewellery
use.

087
 Metals and Ores

Metal Ore(s)
Sodium (Na) Rock salt (NaCl), Trona (Na₂CO₃·NaHCO₃·2H₂O)
Calcium (Ca) Limestone (CaCO₃), Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O)

Aluminum (Al) Bauxite (Al₂O₃·2H₂O), Cryolite (Na₃AlF₆)

Iron (Fe) Hematite (Fe₂O₃), Magnetite (Fe₃O₄), Limonite (FeO(OH)·nH₂O)
Potassium (K) Sylvite (KCl), Carnallite (KCl·MgCl₂·6H₂O)

Magnesium (Mg) Magnesite (MgCO₃), Dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂)

Chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂), Malachite (Cu₂CO₃(OH)₂), Bornite
Copper (Cu) (Cu₅FeS₄)
Silver (Ag) Argentite (Ag₂S), Chlorargyrite (AgCl)
Gold (Au) Native gold (Au), Calaverite (AuTe₂), Sylvanite (AuAgTe₄)
Zinc (Zn) Sphalerite (ZnS), Smithsonite (ZnCO₃)
Mercury (Hg) Cinnabar (HgS)
Nickel (Ni) Pentlandite ((Ni,Fe)₉S₈), Garnierite (Ni₃Si₂O₅(OH)₄)
Uranium (U) Pitchblende (U₃O₈), Carnotite (K₂(UO₂)₂(VO₄)₂·3H₂O)

088
 4. Amalgams: A Special Type of Alloy 5. Ancient Indian Metallurgy: The Iron
● When one of the components of an Pillar
alloy is mercury, the resulting mixture ● The Iron Pillar near the Qutub Minar
is known as an amalgam. in Delhi is a marvel of ancient Indian
○ Example: Dental fillings are often metallurgy. Built more than 1600
made from silver amalgam, years ago, it demonstrates an
which consists of mercury, silver, advanced process of rust resistance.
and other metals. ○ Key Features:
■ The pillar is 8 meters high
and weighs 6 tonnes
(6000 kg).
■ It was made by Indian
ironworkers using
techniques that allowed
the iron to resist rusting,
Silver Amalgam
which intrigued scientists
worldwide.
○ This pillar is a testament to
India's ancient knowledge of
metallurgy and the ability to
Resistance to create durable materials
Metal without modern technology.
Corrosion

Gold ***** (Highest)

Aluminium ****

Copper ****

Nickel ***

Lead ***

Tin ***

Zinc **

Iron * (Lowest)

089
Carbon and its Compounds (Basics of Organic Chemistry)

090
 Introduction Key Features
● Versatility of Carbon: 1. Tetravalency
○ Carbon constitutes 0.02% of the a. Carbon can form four
Earth's crust (as minerals) and covalent bonds with other
0.03% in the atmosphere (as atoms, enabling it to create
CO₂). stable, diverse compounds.
○ Forms the basis of all living b. Examples: Methane (CH4 ),
organisms. Ethene (C2H4 ).
○ Found in materials like paper, 2. Catenation
plastic, leather, rubber, etc. a. Carbon atoms can bond with
Chemical Nature of Carbon each other to form long
● Covalent Bonding in Carbon: chains, branches, and rings.
○ Atomic Number: 6; Electronic b. Examples: Propane (C3H8),
Configuration: 2, 4. Cyclohexane (C6H12).
○ Unable to gain/lose electrons 3. Bonding Versatility
due to high energy requirements. a. Carbon forms single, double,
○ Achieves stability by sharing and triple bonds.
electrons (covalent bonds). b. Examples:
○ Examples: Formation of H₂, O₂, N₂ i. Single bond: Ethane (C2H6 )
molecules. ii. Double bond: Ethene (C2H4 )
● Properties of Covalent Compounds: iii. Triple bond: Ethyne (C2H2 )
○ Low melting/boiling points
(weaker intermolecular forces).
○ Poor conductivity (absence of
free ions).

Property Details

Atomic Number 6

Electronic
1s22s22p21s^2 2s^2 2p^21s22s22p2
Configuration

2.55 (forms covalent bonds by sharing

Electronegativity
electrons).

Valency 4 (Tetravalent)

091
 The Covalent Bond ● Double Bond: Oxygen molecule
1. Definition and Nature of Covalent Bond (O2) → O=O.
● Covalent Bond: The bond formed by
the sharing of electron pairs between
two atoms.
● Carbon's Behavior:
○ Carbon always forms covalent
bonds due to its tetravalent
nature.
● Triple Bond: Nitrogen molecule
2. Noble Gas Configuration of Carbon
(N2) → N≡N.
Why Carbon Forms Covalent Bonds:
○ Tetravalency:
■ Carbon has four valence
electrons.
■ It does not form ionic bonds
because:
a. Losing four electrons (C4+): ● Water Molecule (H2O): Oxygen
Requires too much energy. forms single covalent bonds
with two hydrogen atoms.
b. Gaining four electrons (C4−):
Creates instability due to
electron repulsion.
○ Carbon shares its electrons to attain a
stable noble gas configuration.
● Bond Formation:
○ Carbon shares electrons with:
■ Other carbon atoms. 4. Physical Properties of Covalent
■ Atoms of elements like Compounds
hydrogen, oxygen, ● Melting and Boiling Points:
nitrogen, chlorine, etc. Covalent compounds have
3. Examples of Covalent Bonds low melting and boiling
● Single Bond: Hydrogen molecule points due to weak
intermolecular forces.
(H2 ) → H−H.
● Conductivity: They are poor
conductors of electricity
because they lack charged
particles (no free electrons or
ions).

092
 Allotropes of Carbon

Allotrope Structure Properties Applications

Hardest natural
3D rigid Jewellery,
Diamond substance,
lattice cutting tools
insulator

Layers of Soft, slippery, Pencils,

Graphite hexagonal conducts lubricants,
rings electricity electrodes

Nanotechnolo
Spherical Lightweight,
Fullerenes gy, drug
(e.g., C60 ) strong
delivery

Flexible,
Flexible
Single excellent
Graphene electronics,
carbon layer conductor,
solar cells
strong

Absorbs
Charcoal,
Amorphous Irregular impurities,
filtration
Carbon structure used in gas
systems
filtration

093
 Versatile Nature of Carbon Types of Carbon Compounds
1. Unique Properties of Carbon
Hydrocarbons
● Catenation:
1. Definition: Compounds made up of
○ Carbon can link with other
carbon atoms to form: carbon and hydrogen.
■ Long chains. 2. Types of Hydrocarbons:
a. Saturated Hydrocarbons
■ Branched chains.
(Alkanes):
■ Closed rings.
i. Contain only single bonds
2. Tetravalency: between carbon atoms.
○ Bonds with diverse ii. General formula: Cn H2n+2 .
elements like H, O, N, S, Cl. iii. Example: Methane (CH4), Ethane
3. Stability: (C2H6 ).
○ Small atomic size enables b. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
strong bonding and stable i. Contain double or triple bonds
compounds.
between carbon atoms.
ii. Alkenes:
1. Contain at least one double
Saturated Unsaturated bond (−C=C−).
Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons 2. General formula: Cn H2n .
iii. Alkynes:
All carbon atoms They contain sp² or
1. Contain at least one triple
are sp³ hybridized. sp hybridized
bond (−C≡C−).
carbons.
2. General formula: CnH2n−2.

Contain more Contain fewer

hydrogen atoms hydrogen atoms Saturated V/S Unsaturated fats:
than corresponding than corresponding 1. Unsaturated fats:
unsaturated saturated a. Have double bonds.
b. Liquid at room
hydrocarbons. hydrocarbons.
temperature.
c. Found in fish oil, seed oils,
Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes,
nuts etc.
Cycloalkanes. Aromatic d. Better for health.
hydrocarbons. 2. Saturated fats:
a. Have single bonds.
Relatively low More reactive than b. Solid at room temperature.
chemical reactivity. saturated c. Found in dairy fats,meat,
hydrocarbons. palm oil, etc.
d. Not good for health.
Generally burn with Generally burn with
a blue flame. a sooty flame.

094
Names, Molecular Formulae, and Structural Formulae of
Saturated Hydrocarbons

095
 From unsaturated to saturated From saturated to unsaturated
hydrocarbons: hydrocarbons:
Hydrogenation (Addition of Hydrogen) Dehydrogenation (Removal of
● Process: Adds hydrogen (H₂) to Hydrogen)
unsaturated hydrocarbons ● Process: Removes hydrogen from
(alkenes/alkynes) to form saturated saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) to
hydrocarbons (alkanes). form unsaturated hydrocarbons
● Example: C2H4 +H2 →Ni →C2H6 (alkenes/alkynes).
● Catalysts: Nickel (Ni), Platinum (Pt), ● Example:
Palladium (Pd) C2H6 → Al2O3 →C2H4 +H2
● Conditions: High pressure (3-5 atm), ● Catalysts: Aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃),
moderate temperature (150-200°C) Platinum (Pt), Chromium (Cr)
● Industrial Uses: ● Conditions: High temperature
○ Vegetable Oil Hydrogenation: (500-600°C), low/moderate pressure
Converts liquid vegetable oils ● Industrial Uses:
into solid fats (e.g., margarine, ○ Production of Ethene
ghee). (Ethylene): Dehydrogenation of
○ Petroleum Refining: ethane to produce ethylene,
Hydrogenation is used to refine which is a key building block for
and improve the quality of plastic production (e.g.,
petrochemical products by polyethylene).
saturating unsaturated ○ Production of Benzene:
hydrocarbons. Dehydrogenation of toluene to
○ Production of Synthetic Fuels: produce benzene for the
Hydrogenation of coal or natural chemical industry.
gas to produce synthetic fuels ○ Aromatic Hydrocarbons:
like gasoline and diesel. Dehydrogenation is used in the
production of aromatic
compounds like styrene, which
are essential for manufacturing
plastics, synthetic rubber, and
resins.

Process Reaction Catalyst Conditions Industrial Use

High Pressure Hydrogenation of

(3–5 atm), vegetable oils,
Hydrogenation CnH2n +H2 →CnH2n+2 Ni, Pt, Pd Moderate petroleum refining,
Temp synthetic fuels
(150–200°C) production

High Temp Production of

De- Al₂O₃, Pt, (500–600°C), ethylene, benzene,
CnH2n+2 →CnH2n +H2
hydrogenation Cr Low/Moderate aromatic
Pressure hydrocarbons

096
Structures of Carbon Compounds Electron Dot Structure of Saturated
Carbon compounds can be classified Hydrocarbons
based on the arrangement of carbon
atoms into straight chain, branched Ethane (C2H6 ): H3−C-C−H3
chain, and cyclic (ring) structures.

1. Straight Chain Structure

● Description: Carbon atoms
bonded in a continuous,
unbranched chain.
● Example: Butane (C₄H₁₀)
Structure: CH₃—CH₂—CH₂—CH₃
● Properties: Higher boiling points
due to stronger intermolecular
forces. Ethene (C2H4 ): H2−C=C−H2

2. Branched Chain Structure

● Description: Carbon atoms form Ethyne (C2H2 ): H2−C=C−H2
a main chain with side branches.
● Example: Isobutane (C₄H₁₀)
Structure: CH₃—CH(CH₃)—CH₃
● Properties: Lower boiling points,
weaker intermolecular forces.

3. Cyclic (Ring) Structure

● Description: Carbon atoms form
a closed loop (monocyclic or
polycyclic).
● Example: Cyclohexane (C₆H₁₂),
Benzene (C₆H₆)
● Properties: Stable (aromatic or
alicyclic), different reactivity.

097
 Functional Groups and Homologous
Comparison:
Series

Type Example Properties ○ Functional Groups: Atoms

replacing hydrogen in
hydrocarbons, determining
Higher boiling chemical properties (e.g., -OH
Straight
Butane points, stronger in alcohols).
Chain
forces
○ In general added
Lower boiling atoms/compounds to carbons
Branched which changes the properties
Isobutane points, weaker
Chain of hydrocarbons and make
forces
them into a completely
Stable structure, different chemical.
Cyclic Cyclohexa
aromatic or
(Ring) ne
alicyclic

098
 Homologous Series: Haloalkanes (Chloro)
○ Compounds with the same functional 1. Chloro-Methane- CH3Cl
group but varying molecular masses 2. Chloro-Ethane- C2H5Cl
(e.g., alcohols: CH₃OH, C₂H₅OH).
3. Chloro-Propane- C3H7Cl
○ Successive members differ by a CH₂
4. Chloro-Butane- C4H9Cl
unit; physical properties (e.g.,
boiling/melting points) increase with 5. Chloro-Pentane- C5H11Cl
molecular mass. 6. Chloro-Hexane- C6H13Cl
Alkanes: Haloalkanes: organic compounds
1. Methane- CH4 where one or more hydrogen atoms of
an alkane are replaced by halogen
2. Ethane- C2H6
atoms (F, Cl, Br, I), with the general
3. Propane- C3H8 formula R-X. They are used in
4. Butane- C4H10 applications like solvents, refrigerants,
5. Pentane- C5H12 and as intermediates in chemical
synthesis.
6. Hexane- C6H14
Table of some functional groups with their
Alcohols: prefix and suffix
1. Methanol- CH3OH
2. Ethanol- C2H5OH
3. Propanol- C3H7OH
4. Butanol- C4H9OH
5. Pentanol- C5H11OH
6. Hexanol- C6H13OH

099
 Steps of Nomenclature of Organic Isomerism
Chemistry Definition:
IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Isomerism occurs when hydrocarbons
Compounds with the same molecular formula have
1. Identify the Longest Chain: Find the different atom arrangements, resulting
longest carbon chain, which gives the in distinct properties.
parent name (e.g., methane, ethane). Key Points:
2. Number the Chain: Number the ● Isomerism starts with
carbons starting from the end closest hydrocarbons having four or more
to the first substituent. carbon atoms.
3. Identify Substituents: Name any ● Example:
groups (e.g., methyl, ethyl) attached to ○ C4H10 → Butane
the main chain and assign them ○ C4H10 → 2-Methylpropane
numbers. (Isobutane)
4. Assign Locants: Give the lowest Types of Isomerism in Alkanes:
possible numbers to substituents. If
● Structural Isomerism:
multiple identical groups exist, use
prefixes like di-, tri-. ● Atoms are arranged differently in
space.
5. Name the Compound: List substituents
in alphabetical order, followed by the ● Types:
parent chain name. Use hyphens to a. Chain Isomerism:
separate numbers and words. Arises from branching of
6. Double/Triple Bonds: If present, add carbon atoms.
-ene or -yne with the position number. Example:
7. Functional Groups: If functional groups C5H12 → Pentane (linear)
(like alcohol, carboxylic acid) are
present, use the appropriate suffix (-ol, C5H12 → 2-Methylbutane
-al, -ic acid), placing it at the lowest (isobutane)
possible locant. b. Linear isomers: Lower
8. Isomerism: Specify isomeric forms boiling points.
(e.g., cis-trans for alkenes). c. Branched isomers: Higher
Example boiling points.
For CH₃-CH₂-COOH:
● Longest chain: 3 carbons →
propanoic acid.
● Functional group: carboxyl group
→ -oic acid.
● Name: propanoic acid.

100
 ● Position Isomerism: Functional 2. Oxidation:
groups/atoms occupy different ● Alcohols convert to carboxylic
positions. acids using oxidizing agents like
● Functional Group Isomerism: KMnO₄ or K₂Cr₂O₇.
Different functional groups.
● Tautomers: Dynamic equilibrium
between isomers.
● Stereoisomerism:
a. Caused by non-similar
3. Addition Reactions:
spatial arrangements of
functional groups/atoms. ● Unsaturated hydrocarbons
react with hydrogen in the
b. Types:
presence of catalysts (Ni, Pt)
■ Enantiomers: (e.g., vegetable oil to ghee).
Non-superimposable
mirror images.
■ Diastereomers: Not
mirror images.

4. Substitution Reactions:
● Hydrogen in saturated
hydrocarbons replaced by
other atoms under heat/light.

Chemical Properties of Carbon

Compounds
1. Combustion: Important Carbon Compounds: Ethanol
and Ethanoic Acid
a. Carbon compounds burn
to form CO₂, H₂O, heat, and 1. Ethanol (C₂H₅OH)
light.
Physical Properties:
b. Sooty flames indicate
● Appearance: Colourless, with a
unsaturated
hydrocarbons. pleasant smell and burning
c. Combustion of coal and taste.
petroleum contributes to ● Solubility: Soluble in water.
acid rain.
● Boiling Point: Low, at 351 K.
● Nature: Neutral compound.

101
 Chemical Properties: 2. Reaction with Base:
1. Reaction with Sodium: a. Reaction:
a. Reaction: CH3COOH+NaOH→CH3COONa+H2O
2Na+C2 H5 OH→2C2 H5 ONa+H2 b. Ethanoic acid neutralizes
b. Result: Sodium ethoxide and bases to form salts (like
hydrogen gas (produces a pop sodium acetate).
sound when tested). 3. Reaction with Carbonates and
2. Dehydration: Bicarbonates:

a. Ethanol undergoes dehydration a. Reaction with Sodium

to form ethene when heated Carbonate:
with a dehydrating agent. 2CH3COOH+Na2CO3 →2CH3COONa
+H2O
+CO2

Ethanoic Acid (Acetic Acid, CH₃COOH) b. Reaction with Sodium

Bicarbonate:
Physical Properties:
CH3COOH+NaHCO3→CH3COONa+ H2O
● Appearance: Colourless liquid
with a sour taste and +CO2
vinegar-like smell. Soaps and Detergents
● Boiling Point: 391 K. ● Soap:
● Special Property: Freezes into a ○ Sodium or potassium salts of
long-chain fatty acids (e.g.,
colourless, ice-like solid (called
C₁₇H₃₅COONa).
glacial acetic acid).
○ Effective in soft water.
Chemical Properties:
● Detergents:
1. Esterification: ○ Ammonium or sulphonate
a. Ethanoic acid reacts with salts of long-chain fatty acids.
alcohols to form esters, ○ Work effectively in both hard
which are sweet-smelling and soft water.
compounds.

102
 Cleansing Action of Soap Hard Water
● Structure of Soap: Water that contains dissolved minerals,
○ Ionic (Hydrophilic) Part: primarily calcium (Ca²⁺) and
Water-attracting. magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions, which make it
less effective for cleaning purposes.
○ Hydrocarbon (Hydrophobic)
These minerals react with soap to form
Part: Water-repelling.
insoluble precipitates, known as scum,
● Mechanism: reducing the soap's cleaning ability.
○ The hydrophobic part of soap Types of Hard Water
attaches to the oily dirt, while the
1. Temporary Hard Water:
hydrophilic part interacts with
water molecules. This forms a. Caused by the presence of
micelles, which trap dirt and calcium bicarbonate
grease, making it easier to wash (Ca(HCO₃)₂) and magnesium
off. bicarbonate (Mg(HCO₃)₂).
● Problem with Hard Water: b. These salts are soluble in water
but can be removed by boiling
○ Hard water contains magnesium
(which decomposes the
and calcium salts that react with
bicarbonates to form insoluble
soap, forming insoluble scum,
carbonates).
which reduces soap's cleaning
effectiveness. c. Characteristics: Can be
softened easily by boiling.
● Detergents:
2. Permanent Hard Water:
○ Unlike soap, detergents do not
form scum with hard water, a. Caused by the presence of
making them more effective for calcium sulfate (CaSO₄),
cleaning. magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄),
calcium chloride (CaCl₂), and
magnesium chloride (MgCl₂).
b. These salts are not removed by
boiling and require other
methods to be softened.
c. Characteristics: Cannot be
softened by boiling.
Causative Salts of Hard Water
1. Calcium Salts:
a. Calcium Bicarbonate
Ca(HCO₃)₂
b. Calcium Sulfate CaSO₄
c. Calcium Chloride CaCl₂
2. Magnesium Salts:
a. Magnesium Bicarbonate
Mg(HCO₃)₂
b. Magnesium Sulfate MgSO₄
c. Magnesium Chloride MgCl₂

103
 Methods of Softening Hard Water 4. Reverse Osmosis (RO) Method:
1. Boiling (for Temporary Hard Water): a. Process: Water is forced
a. Process: When hard water through a semi-permeable
containing calcium and membrane that allows only
magnesium bicarbonates is water molecules to pass
boiled, the bicarbonates through, leaving behind
decompose to form insoluble dissolved salts.
carbonates of calcium and b. Result: This method effectively
magnesium, which precipitate removes both calcium and
out. magnesium ions from the
b. Reaction: water, thus softening it.
Ca(HCO₃)₂heat CaCO₃+CO₂+H₂O 5. Chelation (Using Water Softening
Agents):
c. Precipitate formed: Calcium
carbonate (CaCO₃). a. Process: Water softening
agents (such as EDTA or
2. Ion Exchange Method (for Permanent
polyphosphates) bind to
Hard Water):
calcium and magnesium ions,
a. Process: Involves exchanging preventing them from forming
calcium and magnesium ions in scum with soap and allowing
the water with sodium ions (Na⁺) them to remain in solution.
using an ion exchange resin. This
b. Effectiveness: Mostly used for
method works for both
industrial water treatment and
temporary and permanent
detergents.
hardness.
b. Reaction:
Ca²⁺+2Na (resin)→Ca (resin)+2Na+
c. After ion exchange, the water is
soft because the sodium ions do
not form scum with soap.
3. Addition of Washing Soda:
a. Process: Washing soda (sodium
carbonate, Na₂CO₃) is added to
hard water to precipitate
calcium and magnesium as their
carbonates.
b. Reaction:
Ca²⁺+Na₂CO₃→CaCO₃ (precipitate)+2Na⁺
c. This is effective for removing
temporary hardness and can
help reduce permanent
hardness.

010
4
NCERT Fact Check! Coal and Wood:
Fuels: Substances that produce energy ● Coal: A fossil fuel with high carbon
through combustion or other chemical content, used in thermal power
reactions, utilized for cooking, heating, plants and industries. It is
transportation, and industrial non-renewable and a major
applications. contributor to pollution.
● Calorific Value: The amount of ● Wood: A traditional fuel for cooking
energy produced by burning 1 kg of and heating in rural areas; it is
fuel, measured in kJ/kg. A higher renewable but inefficient and
calorific value indicates greater produces smoke.
energy efficiency; for example, LPG Kerosene Oil: A liquid fuel derived from
has a higher calorific value crude oil, used in rural households for
compared to coal. lighting, cooking, and heating, as well as
● Ideal Fuel: A fuel that is in aviation.
cost-effective, easy to store and Biogas: A renewable fuel produced from
transport, produces minimal organic waste through anaerobic
pollutants, and possesses a high digestion, primarily composed of
calorific value. Examples include methane and CO₂. It is widely used in
LPG and natural gas. rural areas for cooking and lighting.
Natural Gas: Composed mainly of
methane 85% ethane, propane and
butane; it is cleaner and more efficient
than other fossil fuels, used in power
generation, cooking, and vehicles.
Producer Gas: A mixture of carbon
Types of Fuels monoxide and nitrogen produced by
● Solid Fuels: Include coal, wood, and burning coal or coke in a limited air
biomass. These are commonly used supply, used as a low-cost industrial fuel.
for heating and power generation Water Gas (syn gas): A combination of
but are less efficient and contribute carbon monoxide and hydrogen,
significantly to air pollution. produced by passing steam over red hot
● Liquid Fuels: Include petrol, diesel, coke; used as a synthesis gas in
and kerosene. These fuels are chemical industries.
energy-dense and suitable for C + H2O →CO + H2
vehicles and heating; however, they
Coal gas: Mixture of H2, CH4, C2H4, CO,
contribute to greenhouse gas
and other gases like CO2. Obtained by
emissions.
destructive distillation of coal.
● Gaseous Fuels: Include LPG, CNG,
Oil Gas: Produced by cracking petroleum
biogas, and producer gas. These
oils, used in gas lamps and some
fuels burn cleaner, are easy to
industries.
transport via pipelines, and are
used for domestic, industrial, and Gobar Gas: A type of biogas derived
automotive purposes. from fermentation cow dung, used as a
renewable and affordable fuel in rural
households for cooking and electricity.

105
 Petroleum Gases: CNG (Compressed Natural Gas):
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas): ● Composed primarily of methane
● Composed of propane (C3H8) and (CH4) with small amounts of other
butane (C4H10), with traces of other hydrocarbons.
hydrocarbons. ● Stored at high pressure (20-25
● Stored in liquid form under high MPa) in specially designed
pressure in cylinders or tanks. cylinders.
● Commonly used in domestic ● Commonly used as a fuel for
cooking, industrial heating, and vehicles, especially in urban areas,
small-scale power generation. and in power generation.
● Advantages: ● Advantages:
○ High Calorific Value: Provides ○ Eco-Friendly: Emits lower
more energy per unit levels of carbon dioxide,
compared to wood or coal. nitrogen oxides, and
particulate matter
○ Clean Burning: Produces
compared to petrol or diesel.
fewer pollutants and no soot.
○ Economic Benefits: Cheaper
○ Portability: Conveniently
than liquid fuels and extends
stored and transported in
the engine life of vehicles.
cylinders.
○ Domestic Applications:
○ Safety Additives: A
Used as an alternative to LPG
foul-smelling odorant like
in some regions for cooking
ethyl mercaptan is added for
and heating.
leak detection.
○ Safer: Lighter than air,
● Limitations: Non-renewable and
disperses quickly in case of
requires infrastructure for refilling
a leak, reducing fire risks.
and storage.
● Limitations: Requires pressurized
2C4H10+13O2→8CO2+10H2O+Heat
storage, distribution pipelines, and
Produces carbon dioxide (CO₂), water vehicle modifications.
vapor (H₂O), and releases significant heat
energy.
Petroleum Product Uses

Petrol (Gasoline) Fuel for cars, motorcycles, small engines, and lawnmowers.

Diesel Fuel for trucks, buses, trains, generators, and heavy machinery.

Paraffin Wax Candles, polishes, waterproofing coatings, cosmetics, and as a lubricant.

Bitumen (Asphalt) Road construction, roofing, waterproofing, and industrial applications.

Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF) Fuel for aircraft jet engines.

Lubricating Oils Reduce friction in machinery and engines, protect engine parts from wear and tear.

Petrochemical feedstock for the production of plastics, synthetic rubber, and other
Naphtha chemicals.

Cooking, heating, electricity generation, and transportation fuel (in vehicles like
Natural Gas natural gas vehicles).

106
Knocking and Octane Number Fertilizers:
Knocking: Substances used to supply essential
nutrients to plants, enhancing growth and
● It happens when the fuel in an crop yields.
engine ignites too early, causing a
Types:
pinging sound and reducing engine
performance. Chemical Fertilizers: These are synthetically
produced, providing essential nutrients in a
● This can damage the engine and precise manner.
occurs with low-quality fuel.
Examples:
Octane Number:
● Urea (NH₂CONH₂): High in nitrogen,
● Measures how well a fuel resists essential for leaf growth.
knocking. ● Superphosphate (Ca(H₂PO₄)₂): Rich in
● Higher octane means better phosphorus, aids root development.
resistance to knocking. Organic Fertilizers: Derived from natural
sources like plant and animal matter.
○ Iso-octane has an octane
number of 100 (very resistant Examples:
to knocking). ● Manure: Animal waste, rich in organic
matter.
○ n-heptane has an octane
number of 0 (very prone to ● Compost: Decomposed plant
knocking). material, enhancing soil fertility.
Biofertilizers: Contain living organisms that
● Fuels with higher octane numbers
promote nutrient availability in the soil.
are used in high-performance
engines to prevent knocking and Examples:
improve efficiency. ● Rhizobium: Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
that enhance soil fertility.
Alcohol as a fuel:
Pesticides:
Sugarcane plants are very good at
Definition: Chemical agents used to kill or
turning sunlight into energy. The juice
control pests that damage crops, including
from sugarcane can be turned into
insects, weeds, and fungi.
molasses, which is then fermented to
make alcohol (ethanol). Some countries Types:
mix ethanol with petrol because it burns Insecticides: Target insects and pests.
cleaner, producing only carbon dioxide Examples:
and water. ● DDT: Widely used in the past, though
now banned in many countries due to
environmental concerns.
● Pyrethroids: Synthetic insecticides
derived from chrysanthemum flowers,
commonly used in homes and
agriculture.
Herbicides: Designed to kill or control
unwanted plants (weeds).
Examples:
● Glyphosate: A widely used
broad-spectrum herbicide.
● Atrazine: Used in cornfields to control
weeds.

107
Fungicides: Used to kill fungi and molds Polymers:
that affect plants. Definition: Polymers are large molecules
Examples: formed by bonding multiple small
● Sulfur: A natural fungicide used in molecules (monomers). They can be
organic farming. natural or synthetic.
● Copper sulfate: Used to control Types:
fungal diseases in crops like grapes. Natural Polymers: Found in nature, used
for various applications from textiles to
medicines.
Examples:
● Cellulose: The main structural
component in plants, used in
paper and textiles.
● Silk: A natural protein polymer
Dyes: produced by silkworms.
Definition: Chemicals used to color Synthetic Polymers: Man-made
materials like textiles, food, and polymers, widely used in packaging,
cosmetics. construction, and textiles.
Types: Examples:
Nitro Dyes: These dyes contain a nitro ● Polyethylene: Used in plastic bags,
group (-NO₂) attached to an aromatic containers.
ring. They are known for bright colors but ● PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride): Used in
have limited stability and may degrade pipes, flooring, and electrical
over time. insulation.
● Example: Nitrobenzene, used in ● Nylon: Used in fabrics, ropes, and
some industrial applications. industrial applications.
Azo Dyes: Characterized by the presence Impact of Polymers:
of an azo group (-N=N-) linking two
● Environmental Concern: Synthetic
aromatic rings. They are the most
polymers like plastic are
commonly used class of synthetic dyes
non-biodegradable and
due to their vibrant colors and stability.
accumulate in the environment,
● Examples: leading to pollution. Additionally,
○ Orange II: Used for dyeing chemicals used in their production
textiles. can harm health.
○ Carmine: A red dye,
commonly used in food and
cosmetics.

108
Plastics and Their Uses: Rubber:
1. Thermoplastics: Natural Rubber:
○ Description: Plastics that can ● Synthesis: Extracted from the latex
be melted and re-molded of rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis)
multiple times. through tapping.
○ Examples: Polyethylene (used ● Uses:
in plastic bags), ○ Tires: High elasticity and
Polypropylene (used in durability make it ideal for
containers). vehicle tires.
○ Uses: Packaging, toys, ○ Footwear: Used in soles and
containers, and household shoes.
items.
○ Medical Supplies: Latex
2. Thermosetting Plastics: gloves, catheters, etc.
○ Description: Plastics that ○ Conveyor Belts: Due to
harden permanently after flexibility and strength.
being molded once.
Synthetic Rubber:
○ Examples: Bakelite (used in
● Synthesis: Manufactured through
electrical insulators), Epoxy
polymerization of monomers like
(used in adhesives).
butadiene, styrene, and isoprene
○ Uses: Electrical components, in industrial processes.
automotive parts, and
● Uses:
adhesives.
○ Tires: Commonly used for
automotive tires, especially
in all-season types.
○ Gaskets and Seals: For
Polymer Key Uses
automotive and industrial
Polyethylene (PE) Packaging, bags, bottles applications.

Containers, fibers, auto ○ Waterproof Materials: Used

Polypropylene (PP) in raincoats and roofing
parts
materials.
Polyvinyl Chloride
Pipes, flooring, medical ○ Industrial Hoses: For
(PVC)
flexibility and resistance to
Packaging, insulation, wear.
Polystyrene (PS)
cutlery
Nylon Clothing, ropes, carpets
Non-stick cookware,
Teflon
insulation
Polyester Clothing, bottles, films
Acrylic Windows, lenses, signs
Lexan Durable windows, eye
(Polycarbonate) protection

109
 Periodic Properties of Elements

Need for Classification ● Example:

Classification of elements is essential to ○ Lithium (Li), Beryllium (Be),
compare their physical and chemical Boron (B), Carbon (C), Nitrogen
properties and arrange similar elements (N), Oxygen (O), Fluorine (F),
into groups. This helps in understanding and Sodium (Na).
the periodicity and trends in element ○ Sodium's properties are similar
properties. to lithium.
1. Genesis of Periodic Classification ● Limitations:
Dobereiner’s Triads (1829) ○ Only worked up to calcium.
● Dobereiner grouped elements ○ When noble gases were
with similar properties into sets discovered, they disturbed the
of three, called triads. arrangement.
● The atomic mass of the middle
element was roughly the
average of the first and third
elements.
● Example:
○ Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na),
Potassium (K)
○ Calcium (Ca), Strontium 3. Mendeleev’s Periodic Table (1869)
(Sr), Barium (Ba) ● Mendeleev arranged elements by
● Limitations: increasing atomic mass and noticed
○ Only a few triads could be that properties of elements repeat
formed; not all elements periodically.
could be classified in this ● Mendeleev’s Periodic Law: The
way. properties of elements are a periodic
function of their atomic masses.
● Structure:
○ Elements are arranged in
periods (horizontal rows) and
groups (vertical columns).
2. Newlands’ Law of Octaves (1864)
○ Groups contain elements with
● John Newlands arranged similar properties.
elements in increasing order of
○ Mendeleev included zero group
atomic mass and observed that
for noble gases, whose valency
every eighth element exhibited
is zero.
similar properties.
○ Mendeleev's table had seven
● This was compared to the
periods and nine groups.
musical octave, where the 8th
note repeats the first.

110
 4. Importance of Mendeleev’s Periodic ● Lanthanoids and actinoids: These
Table elements were placed separately at
● Systematic study: Once the bottom without clear reasoning.
properties of one element in a ● No explanation for periodicity:
group were known, others could Mendeleev couldn’t explain why
be predicted. elements in the same group share
● Discovery of new elements: similar properties.
Mendeleev’s table led to the
prediction of missing elements Modern Periodic Law and Periodic Table
and their properties.
Modern Periodic Law
● Correction of atomic masses:
The physical and chemical properties of
Some atomic masses were
the elements are periodic functions of
corrected based on their
their atomic numbers. This is the basis
predicted positions.
for the modern periodic table, where
elements are arranged in increasing
order of their atomic numbers.
1. Present Form of the Periodic Table
(Modern Periodic Table)
● The modern periodic table arranges
elements in order of increasing
atomic numbers, not atomic masses.
● It is known as the Long Form of the
Periodic Table.
2. Nomenclature of Elements with
Atomic Numbers Greater Than 100
5. Defects in Mendeleev’s Periodic Table ● Elements with atomic numbers
● Hydrogen's position: Hydrogen was greater than 100 are named
placed in Group I (alkali metals) but according to the standard IUPAC
resembled halogens (Group VII) in guidelines.
many properties. ● These names are based on their
● Atomic mass issue: Some elements atomic numbers, typically using a
with higher atomic masses were combination of Latin roots.
placed before elements with lower
atomic masses (e.g., iodine and
tellurium).
● Isotopes: Isotopes of elements (same
atomic number, different atomic
masses) posed problems in their
placement.
● Grouping issues: Some elements with
similar properties were placed in
different groups.
●

111
 3. Structural Features of the Periodic p-Block Elements
Table ● General electronic configuration:
Groups ns²np¹-⁶
● The table consists of 18 groups ● Characteristics:
(vertical columns). ○ Mostly form covalent
● Characteristics of Groups: compounds.
○ Elements in the same group ○ Show variable oxidation states.
have the same general ○ Non-metallic character
electronic configuration. increases across a period.
○ Atomic numbers in a group ○ Reactivity decreases down the
increase by fixed intervals (2, 8, 8, group.
18, 18, 32).
○ At the end of each period is a
○ Atomic size increases as we noble gas with a closed
move down a group due to the valence shell (ns²np⁶).
increase in the number of shells.
d-Block Elements (Transition Elements)
○ Elements in a group have similar
● General electronic configuration:
chemical properties.
(n-1)d¹-¹⁰ns⁰-²
Periods
● Characteristics:
● The table consists of 7 periods
○ High melting and boiling points.
(horizontal rows).
○ Form colored ions and exhibit
● Characteristics of Periods:
variable oxidation states.
○ All elements in a period have
○ Often act as catalysts in
electrons filling the same
reactions.
valence shell.
f-Block Elements (Inner Transition
○ Atomic size generally decreases
Elements)
from left to right across a period.
● General electronic configuration:
4. Block Elements
(n-2)f¹-¹⁴(n-1)d⁰-¹ns²
s-Block Elements
● Characteristics:
● General electronic configuration: ns¹-²
○ Consist of Lanthanoids (Z =
● Characteristics: 58–71) and Actinoids (Z =
○ Soft metals with low melting and 90–103).
boiling points. ○ All are metals, and properties
○ Highly reactive and form ionic within each series are quite
compounds. similar.
○ Good conductors of heat and ○ Most Actinoids are radioactive.
electricity.
○ Often impart colors to flames.

112
 5. Classification of Elements 6. Element Types
Metals Representative Elements
● Location: Left side of the periodic table. ● Includes Group 1 (alkali metals),
● Characteristics: Group 2 (alkaline earth metals),
and Groups 13 to 17 (p-block
○ Solid at room temperature
elements).
(except mercury).
● They have predictable
○ Good conductors of heat and
properties and are found in the
electricity.
s- and p-blocks.
○ High melting and boiling points.
Transition Elements
○ Malleable and ductile.
● Consist of d-block elements
Non-Metals (Groups 3–12).
● Location: Right side of the ● Found in the center of the
periodic table. periodic table.
● Characteristics: Inner Transition Elements
○ Gaseous or solid at room ● Lanthanoids (Z = 58–71) and
temperature. Actinoids (Z = 90–103).
○ Poor conductors of heat ● Found in the f-block of the
and electricity. periodic table, they are often
○ Low melting and boiling referred to as inner transition
points. metals.
○ Brittle in solid state and not
malleable or ductile.
Metalloids
● Examples: Silicon, Germanium,
Arsenic, Antimony, Tellurium.
● Characteristics:
○ Display properties of both Follow us on :
metals and non-metals.
○ Often referred to as
semimetals.
Noble Gases
● Group 18 of the periodic table.
● Characteristics:
○ Gaseous at room
temperature.
○ Highly stable due to filled
valence shells (ns²np⁶).
○ Very low chemical
reactivity, also called inert
gases.

113
 Groups
Periods

114
Lanthanoids
Actinoids
 Trends in the Periodic Table 2. Ionic Radius:
The periodic table is organized by atomic a. Cations (positively charged ions) are
number, and as you move across periods smaller than their atoms because
(rows) or down groups (columns), the they lose electrons.
properties of the elements change in b. Anions (negatively charged ions) are
predictable ways. larger than their atoms because they
Physical Properties Trends gain electrons.
1. Atomic Radius (Size of an Atom): c. Isoelectronic Species: Atoms or ions
a. Definition: The distance from the with the same number of electrons
center of an atom's nucleus to the but different numbers of protons. For
outermost electrons. example, O²⁻, F⁻, Na⁺, and Mg²⁺ all have
10 electrons, but their sizes differ due
b. Types:
to varying nuclear charges.
i. Covalent Radius: Half the
distance between the nuclei of
two atoms connected by a
covalent bond.
ii. Ionic Radius: Distance from the
nucleus to the outermost
electron in an ion.
iii. Van der Waals Radius: Half the
distance between two atoms in
a noble gas.
iv. Metallic Radius: Half the
distance between two metal
ions in a metal.
c. Trends:
i. Across a Period: The atomic
size gets smaller from left to
right because the number of
protons increases, pulling Chemical Properties Trends
electrons closer. 1. Ionization Energy (Energy to Remove
ii. Down a Group: The atomic size an Electron):
gets bigger as you move down a. Definition: The energy required to
because new electron shells remove one electron from an atom.
are added.
b. Trends:
i. Across a Period: It increases
from left to right because
atoms get smaller, and it's
harder to remove electrons.
ii. Down a Group: It decreases as
atoms get bigger and
electrons are farther from the
nucleus, making them easier
to remove.

115
2. Electron Gain Enthalpy (Energy Reactivity of Elements
Released When an Electron is Gained): 1. Reactivity of Metals:
a. Definition: The energy released when ● Trend: Reactivity increases down a
an atom gains an electron. group. As you go down, metals
b. Trends: lose electrons more easily, so they
i. Across a Period: It becomes become more reactive (e.g., alkali
more negative, meaning atoms metals).
are more willing to gain an 2. Reactivity of Non-metals:
electron. ● Trend: Reactivity decreases down
ii. Down a Group: It becomes less a group. As the atoms get larger,
negative because atoms are it’s harder for them to attract
larger and it’s harder to attract electrons.
an electron. Oxide Properties
3. Electronegativity (Attraction for 1. Basic Nature of Oxides:
Electrons in a Bond): ● Trend: Oxides of metals are usually
a. Definition: How strongly an atom basic (like Na₂O), and oxides of
attracts electrons in a bond. non-metals are acidic (like CO₂).
● Central Elements: Oxides of
b. Trends:
elements in the center of the table
i. Across a Period: can be amphoteric (can act as
Electronegativity increases both acidic and basic).
from left to right because
atoms become smaller and 2. Acidic Nature of Oxides:
attract electrons more strongly. ● Trend: Acidic oxides increase from
left to right across a period and
ii. Down a Group:
decrease as you go down a group.
Electronegativity decreases
because atoms become larger Diagonal Relationship
and have less pull on electrons. ● Some elements in the second
4. Metallic and Non-metallic Character: period (like Li, Be, B) show
similarities with elements in the
a. Metallic Character: Increases down a
third period diagonally (like Mg, Al,
group. Metals lose electrons easily, so
Si). This is called a diagonal
their reactivity increases as we move
relationship.
down a group.
b. Non-metallic Character: Increases
across a period. Non-metals gain
electrons more easily, so their
reactivity increases across the period.

116
Mendeleev vs Modern Periodic Law
● Mendeleev’s Periodic Law: Properties of elements depend on their atomic
masses.
● Modern Periodic Law: Properties of elements depend on their atomic
numbers.

Additional Trends
1. Electronegativity: Increases across a period and decreases down a group.
2. Noble Gases: These elements are chemically inert because they have a full
set of electrons in their outer shell.
3. Atomic and Ionic Radii: Both decrease across a period and increase down a
group.
4. Ionization Energy: Increases across a period and decreases down a group.
5. Chemical Reactivity: Reactivity is highest at the extremes of a period (at
both ends) and lowest in the middle.

117