International Journal of Education, Social Science & Humanities.

FARS Publishers
Impact factor (SJIF) = 6.786
Volume-11| Issue-1| 2023 Research Article
THE ISLAMIC GOLDEN AGE

https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7512751

Lucy Kamau
an international teacher, PHD Student.
Ahmedov Shamsiddinkhon
Student at the presidential school in Karshi.

Abstract:. This article discusses some key individuals who contributed to the rise of Islam's "Golden Age".
This is a period of development of Islam that spans about five centuries, beginning with the reign of the
Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (c. 786-809). Although it ended with the fall of the Abbasid caliphate
after the Mongol invasion and sack of Baghdad in 1258, some scholars extend the period of the Islamic
Golden Age to cover a longer period. But during the Golden Age, a truly remarkable period in human
history, the arts and humanities, the natural and social sciences, medicine, astronomy, mathematics,
finance, centuries of Islamic and European monetary systems thrived. In addition, this article presents
some examples of the continuing contributions of the Islamic Golden Age from antiquity to the present
day.
Keywords:. Islamic civilization; Islamic Golden Age; Islamic Dynasties; Islamic Sciences; Islamic
Philosophy; Islamic History.
Received: 05-01-2023 About: FARS Publishers has been established with the aim of spreading quality scientific information to
the research community throughout the universe. Open Access process eliminates the barriers associated
Accepted: 07-01-2023
with the older publication models, thus matching up with the rapidity of the twenty-first century.
Published: 22-01-2023

Introduction
The achievements of Islam during the Golden Age (approximately 786–1258),
which lasted nearly five centuries, brought great pride to Muslims around the
world. Even today, many scholars believe Islam is waiting for a resurgence of the
Golden Age and hope to see it resurrected as one of the world's cultural and
religious influences. One such expected result is the development of a common
ideology that transcends linguistic, cultural, and even ethnic differences and
divides Muslims into various, often competing, ethnic and national camps.
Whether the Islamic world will have this opportunity in the near future remains to
be seen, but it certainly depends on the capabilities of countries, especially in the
North Africa and West Asia (MENA) region and end of the political and military
tensions that undermine decades of peaceful development.
Many cultures and societies contributed to the prosperity of the Islamic Golden
Age. Among them, the current leaders of Iran, the Persians, occupied a central
position. The Persians were the driving force behind the founding and Golden Age
of the Abbasids (750–1258), one of the most civilized societies of their time. Like the
modern Abbasid dynasty, the Fatimids (AD 909–1171), the non-Arab Hebels of
North Africa played a key role in the emergence of the Golden Age. In addition,
during this period, Central Asian Muslim scientists discovered various modern
inventions, laid the foundations of many sciences that are still important today, and
contributed to their further development. The Andalusian dynasty (711–1492 AD)
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Impact factor (SJIF) = 6.786
of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) also played an important role in the
emergence of the Golden Age. In fact, the architectural achievements of the
Andalusian dynasty are among the most remarkable, enduring, and internationally
recognized contributions to Islam. During this period, Islam entered the world,
developed its culture, enriched daily life, spread throughout the world, and made
progress in all aspects. This article, will focus on the scientists and their inventions
that helped build this "Islamic golden age."
Language and Education
Arabic is the language of the Quran and the religious language of all Muslims,
but the majority of Muslims cannot understand or write Arabic. Semitic language
and lexicographyes such as Phoenician, Aramaic, Hebrew, and Ugaritic also exist,
but Arabic is the only extant language of the ancient North Arabic dialect group, as
evidenced by pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions from the 4th century. Arabic is written
using the Arabic alphabet, Abujad's script, and is written from right to left. With
the spread of Islam, Arabic became an important language for scholarship and
religious devotion. From the last centuries of the first millennium AD, the language
became a tool for the study of science, especially medicine, optics, astronomy,
astrology, alchemy (the predecessor to chemistry), geography, botany,
mathematics, philosophy, history, ethics, literature, especially wisdom literature,
music theory, jurisprudence, Islamic theology, Arabic grammar, poetry and
Lexicography. The issue of education has been at the forefront of Muslim minds
since the founding of the state of Medina in its early days. Arabic teaching, which
has always been a field of great pride for Muslims and in which successive rulers
established great libraries and learning centers, which have now become
commonplaces. The first educational institutions in Islamic societies were built near
or within mosques to serve as gathering places where people could gather around
scholars. Some Islamic schools continue this tradition of informal education.
However, as time passed, Muslims began to build formal buildings.
Institutions that specialized in education, had dormitories for students and
teachers. The curriculum usually began with reading and writing exercises in
Arabic and with the recitation of the Koran. Grammar, Islamic Law, Mathematics,
and History were part of the course. This is how most of the locals were brought up
since childhood. Numerous universities were subsequently founded throughout
the Islamic world by wealthy men and women through caliphs, sultans, and
personal endeavors.

Science
Science was born and developed in the same context as philosophy but did not
face the same opposition. Several verses of the Quran already urge Muslims to seek

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science and knowledge. Initiated by the last ruler of the Umayyad dynasty and
carried on over the following centuries by the Abbasid dynasty, the scientific
movement spread throughout the Islamic lands. Muslims have amassed a
considerable legacy in countries where Islam was adopted. They not only
translated these works but also enriched and expanded them with new discoveries.
Massignon & Arnaldez explained: "The Arabs did better than transmit science, they
awakened the taste, and they begun to confront the Greek concepts with
experience...‟‟ they took on a large project.
Based on the activity of critics and observations, we can see a tremendous
awakening of scientific reason everywhere we look (quoted in Burlot 1982:
10). In the field of mathematics and astronomy, during the 9th and 10th centuries,
Greek scientists such as Euclid, Archimedes, and Apollonius were influenced by
Indian sources such as Aryabhata. Such intellectual encounters resulted in
significant developments such as the decimal place-value system, the first
systematized study of algebra (named after the work of scholar al-Khawarizmi, a
scholar of Baghdad's House of Wisdom), and many other advances in the study of
geometry and trigonometry (Van Sertima 1992:394). In 770, the Abbasids adopted
the decimal system and created "Arab" numbers. They used the number zero (sifr:
empty), which enormously facilitated operations in comparison to the Roman
numerals. The word "algorithm" comes from the great mathematician Al-
Khwarizmi (780–846 CE), who was born in Kharazm, Uzbekistan, and published in
Baghdad in 825 CE for his famous treaty on Indian calculation known by its Latin
name, "Algorithmide numero Indorum" . He then published his famous book Kitab
al Jabr, which made him the "Father of Algebra" by giving solutions to quadratic
equations. These findings had direct practical applications. Al Khwarizmi himself
said: "In practice, these concepts are required in work aimed at assessing surfaces,
raising river flows, drawing up building floor plans, and other practical methods of
all kinds and disciplines."

The mathematician Abul Wafa Bujani (940 AD–998 AD) move to Baghdad and
made important innovations in spherical trigonometry, and his work on arithmetic
for businessmen contained the first examples of the use of negative numbers. He is
also known for editing his table of signs and his table of tangents and introducing
the "sec" and "co-sec" functions. He also studied the relationships of six
trigonometric functions connected by arcs. His Almagest was widely read by
medieval Arab astronomers in the centuries after his death. Unfortunately, many of
his works have not survived.
A great scientist, Sufi mystic, and theologian, the great poet Omar al-Khaiyam
(1048 AD–1131 AD) published an influential treatise on the demonstration of

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algebraic problems in 1070 AD. and laid down the principles of algebra. the part of
Islamic mathematics that was eventually taken over by Europe (Allard 1997). In
particular, he derived a general method for solving his cubic equations as well as
several higher orders. In his paper, he wrote about the triangular arrangement of
binomial coefficients, currently known as Pascal's triangle. In 1077 A.D., another
major work was published by al-Khayyam named as “Sharh ma ashkala min
musadar atkitab Uqlidis” meaning Description of the Difficulties of Euclid's
Postulates.
Political leaders actively supported scientific efforts. For example, Caliph al-
Mamun, a keen philosopher and scientist, built an observatory as part of his
"House of Wisdom." Islamic astronomy later had a great influence on Byzantine,
European, and Chinese astronomy . For example, Al Ferghani (d. 861 AD) was an
astronomer from Damascus who calculated the Earth's longitude and wrote down
astronomical elements. Al Battani (d. 930 AD) discovered the precession of the
vernal equinox and the tilt of the ecliptic, and Abd-Rahman al-Sufi (903 AD–986
AD) wrote about 965 stars. The greatest astronomer, Ali ibn Yunus (950–1009 AD),
worked in Cairo, where the Fatimid caliph al-Hachem built an observatory for him.
In the 12th century, Nur al-Din al-Bitorji (d. 1204 AD) established the theory of
planetary spiral motion, paving the way for modern astronomy. Trigonometry was
initially considered a subfield of astronomy but was later established as an
independent science. They borrowed sine and cosine from Native Americans but
developed tangent and cotangent .
Medicine
Islamic medicine is one of the most famous and well-known aspects of Islamic
civilization and one of the areas of science in which Muslims excelled most during
the Golden Age. Their medicine and technology were part of medical school
curricula around the world until about a century ago. Today, despite the rapid
spread of Western medical education, Islamic medicine continues to be studied and
practiced in its home country rather than being merely a matter of historical
interest.
According to the Qur'an's global vision of a health system and the many hadiths
advocating cleanliness and a good diet, scholars such as Ibn Qayim al-Jawziyah
(1292-1350) and al-Asfahani (d. 1038) wrote "Prophetic Medicine." It is a kind of
prevention derived from the Sunnah that protects body and soul. In addition, the
Abbasid family had a particular interest in supporting medical research. Harun al-
Rashid founded the first hospital in Baghdad under the guidance of several
Christian scholars trained at his Gundaishapur Hospital, a 6th-century Persian
research institution. By the end of the 9th century, several other hospitals in Cairo,
Mecca, and Medina, as well as mobile medical units, were well established in rural

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areas. These hospitals treated men and women, had outpatient facilities, and served
the poor. Many hospitals had psychiatric wards, libraries, and classrooms. Cairo's
Mansuria Hospital, built in the 13th century, still treats the blind. By the 14th
century, many hospitals were also established in Muslim India. As in the Arab
world, medical care was free and supported by Waqf foundations and government
patronage.
Ophthalmology
Ophthalmology was then considered the most successful branch of medical
research, and Ibn al-Haytham's work remained an authority in this field right up to
the early modern period. Al-Razi (Rhazes, born in 865) was one of the greatest
Islamic physicians. He wrote his Kitab al-Mansuri (Latin: Liber Almartsoris) in ten
volumes as a treatise on Greek medicine and also published works on smallpox and
measles. The work of the ancient Greek and Roman physicians Hippocrates, Galen,
and Dioscurides is well integrated into Islamic medicine. Al-Razi's texts have been
reprinted all the way back to the 19th century. Ibn Sina (born in Uzbekistan, Central
Asia) was also known in the West as the "Prince of Physicians." His compendium of
Islamic medicine, the al-Qanun fi'l tibb (Code of Medicine), was the ultimate
authority on medical issues in Europe for centuries. Although Ibn Sina made
progress in pharmacology and clinical practice, perhaps his greatest contribution
was to the philosophy of medicine. He combined physical and psychological
factors, medications, and diet in treating patients to create a system of medicine
now called holistic. Another example of his success was his description of the
pulmonary circulation.
Ibn Al-Nafis, a 13th-century Arab physician, his Tasrif, written by the surgeon
Al-Zahrawi (936–1016), was translated into Latin and became the leading medical
text in European universities in the late Middle Ages. Al-Zahrawi was also a noted
pathologist, describing hydrocephalus and other congenital disorders and
developing new surgical techniques such as intestinal suturing.
Philosophy
One of the famous names is al-Farabi (870–950), and although he made
considerable contributions to other areas of knowledge, his most important
additions concerned philosophy, logic, and sociology, and the encyclopedia which
served as a dictionary. For Berger (1983), al-Farabi was the first scholar to separate
philosophy from theology in the Middle Ages. He believed in a supreme being who
created the world through the exercise of a balanced intellect. He also contended
that the same rational capacity is the only source of man's immortality, and thus
established the development of this rational capacity as the highest human goal. He
paid far more attention to political theory than Islamic philosophers. In a platonic
way, he laid down the necessary qualities of a ruler as, those that tend to dominate

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by virtue of their natural good character and must shows the right attitude towards
such dominance. Central to Al-Farabi's political philosophy is the concept of
happiness, in which people work together to achieve happiness (Tiliouine 2014a). 9.
Farabian epistemology has both Neoplatonic and Aristotelian aspects. The best
source for Al-Farabi's taxonomy of knowledge is his Kitab ihsa al-ulum. This work
embodies his esoteric and heretical beliefs. Running through them all is Aristotle's
primary emphasis on the importance of knowledge. Al-Farabi was also involved in
writing a book on early Islamic sociology and a prominent book on music titled
Kitab al-Mushiqa (The Book of Music).
History
History (Tarikh) is one of the most developed fields of Islamic civilization. It
was more original in that it was less influenced by foreign science. First, it served as
a mediator between religious studies and true history because it informed Muslims
through the writings of people like Ibn Ishaq (d. 767 AD) and al-Wakidi (748–922
AD). A list of pensioners and new converts to Islam was then recorded for
administrative purposes. For example, Al-Baladhuri (d. 892 AD) tells the history of
Islamic expansion through land conquest. In addition, Kalbi Mohammed (d. 763)
and his son Hisham (d. 819 AD) devoted themselves to the study of pre-Islamic
Arabia and Islamic beginnings. They criticized The Book of Kings, which was a big
hit at the time. Among them, the author, Ibn al-Mucaffa (d. 757 CE), has been
accused of trying to revive the pre-Islamic culture of ancient Persia.
Muhammad ibn Jalil al-Tabari (AD 839–AD 922) was a master Muslim
historian whose history took a step toward universalism. Tabari studied and
traveled before settling in Baghdad to pursue his intellectual life. He was a
polymath and is famous for writing one of the most important commentaries on the
Qur'an and for compiling a huge universal history in 13 volumes. He tried to be as
neutral as possible, collecting all knowledge and publishing it uncritically. He
wrote his universal history so that each ethnic group investigated could find a more
or less glorious past. Burlot (1982) argued that Tabari worked to achieve unity of
ethnic groups in Islamic society, following Abbasid aspirations. Additionally,
Rashid al-Din Hamadani (1247 AD–1318 AD) wrote his Jami al-Tawarikh, "The
Collector of Chronicles," a truly universal history.
It also included data on European popes and emperors, Mongolia, and China
(which had spread from Spain to northern India during that time).
Geography
The expansion of the Islamic territories made traveling possible from the
Atlantic to the Pacific oceans without having to cross any real frontiers. The annual
pilgrimage to Mecca, the 5th pillar of Islamic faith, allowed thousands of ordinary
Muslims as well as highly educated people to travel long distances and, in their

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own unique ways, discover other places, cultures, and exchange ideas with people
from nearly every part of the known world at the time. Such ease of travel
contributed to the enrichment of Islamic geography beyond what was known to the
Ancient Egyptians, Sassanids, Greeks, and Romans, or medieval Latin authors.
The most famous Muslim geographer was al-Idrisi, who added many details
to the world's maps known at his time, such as the Tabula Rogeriana. Meanwhile,
other geographers such as Yaqut al-Hamawi, Abu Rayhan Biruni (who was born in
Uzbekistan, Central Asia), Ibn Battuta, and Ibn Khaldun provided detailed
accounts of their journeys and the geography of the regions they visited. One of the
earliest geniuses during the Abbassid Dynasty was al-Balkhi, who founded the
"Balkhi School" of terrestrial mapping in Baghdad. Suhrab, a late 10 th-century
Muslim geographer, published a book of geographic coordinates with instructions
for constructing a rectangular map of the world using the isosceles or equidistant
cylindrical projection.
Muslim geographer Mahmud al-Kashgari (1005 AD–1102 AD) also created
world maps based on language. During the same period, Abu Rayhan Biruni (born
in Uzbekistan, 976 AD–1048 AD) first described the polar, square, and equidistant
projections of the celestial sphere (David 1997:173). He combined astronomical
measurements and mathematical formulas to develop a method of determining
location by recording latitude and longitude. He also developed similar techniques
for measuring mountain heights, valley depths, and horizon widths. His discussion
continued, addressing issues of human geography and the planetary habitability of
the Earth.
The Decline of the Islamic Golden Age
Numerous foreign invasions attacked the heart of Islam, resulting in the slow
decline of an unprecedented multicultural and multiethnic civilization. For
example, in the 11th century AD, Muhammad's Crusades in the 12th century put
pressure on Islamic society, mainly through aggression. But a much greater threat
arose from the east in the 13th century. In 1206 AD, Genghis Khan established a
powerful dynasty among the Mongols in Central Asia. The Mongol Empire
conquered much of Eurasia, including China in the east and many of the ancient
Islamic caliphs in the west. The destruction of Baghdad and the House of Wisdom
by Hulagu Khan, the Mongol leader, in 1258 CE has been seen by some historians
as the end of the Islamic Golden Age. Later Mongol leaders completed that
destructive mission in many other cities, slaughtered hundreds of thousands of
people, and did irrevocable damage to the ancient irrigation systems of
Mesopotamia and to major economic infrastructure. This, in turn, had a negative
impact on the lives of the people of the entire region, gradually eroding many of
the civilizational gains of previous periods.

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Further to the west, the Catholics completed the Christian Reconquista in the
Iberian Peninsula with a war against the Emirate of Granada that started in 1482 CE
and ended with Granada's complete annexation in early 1492 CE, which also
marked, for some historians, the end of the Islamic Golden Age.
There is little agreement on the precise causes of the decline, but in addition to
invasions by the Mongols and crusaders and the destruction of libraries and
madrasas, it has also been suggested that political mismanagement and the stifling
of ijtihad (independent reasoning) in the 12th century CE in favor of
institutionalized taqleed (imitation) led to that decline.
Al Hassan et al rejected the thesis that a lack of creative thinking was the main
cause, arguing that science has always been cut off from religious debate. It
analyzes the decline and draws on the works of 14th-century authors such as Ibn
Khaldun al-Hassan extended the Golden Age to the 16th century AD, finding that
scientific activity continued to thrive until then. Several other contemporary
scholars have also extended it from the 14th to the 16th century AD, analyzing the
decline in terms of political and economic factors.

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