Unit 2
Key terminology
RNA RNA consists of nucleotides
Nitrogenous bases found in RNA are
adenine, uracil, guanine and cytosine
Messenger RNA mRNA carries the code for protein
synthesis from DNA to the ribosome
Ribosomal RNA rRNA forms ribosomes which are the
site of protein synthesis
Transfer RNA tRNA bring amino acids to the
ribosome to form the protein
These are three types of RNA(ribonucleic acid)
- all formed in the nucleus by DNA
They perform different functions in different places in
a cell
The types are:
messenger RNA (mRNA)
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
transfer RNA (tRNA)
The location of RNA
Messenger RNA(mRNA)
- is formed in the nucleus
- but enters the cytoplasm where it attaches to
ribosomes
Ribosomal RNA(rRNA)
- is found in the ribosome in the cytoplasm of the
cell
Transfer RNA(tRNA)
- found freely in the cytoplasm of the cell
The structure of RNA
RNA also consists of monomers (nucleotides)
- which link to form longer chains(polymers)
RNA is a single-stranded structure which is not coiled
Sugar in RNA is ribose
- is attached to a nitrogenous base
Phosphate and sugar molecules
- attached to one another alternately to form the
chains
Structure of RNA
Nitrogenous bases for RNA
Adenine (A)
Uracil (U)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
A-U
C-G
Role of RNA
Three types of RNA
- are very important to the process of protein
synthesis
- with each type playing a unique role
Comparison between DNA and
RNA
DNA and RNA are similar is some respect
- contain sugar alternating with phosphate
- contain the nitrogenous bases
- adenine, guanine and cytosine
- play a role in protein synthesis
Main differences between DNA
and RNA
DNA RNA
Contains deoxyribose sugar Contains ribose sugar
Double helix and coiled Single stranded
Contains the nitrogenous Contains the nitrogenous
base thymine base uracil
Found in the nucleus only Found in the nucleus,
ribosomes and cytoplasm of
cell
Structural differences between
DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
1. Double helix ( two complementary 1. Single-stranded
strands)
2. The sugar group is deoxyribose 2. Sugar is ribose
3. Bases: adenine, thymine, cytosine, 3. Bases: adenine, uracil, cytosine,
guanine guanine
4. Located in nucleus ( extra-nuclear 4. Located in the nucleus and
DNA in chloroplast & cytoplasm
mitochondrion)
5. In the form of chromatin 5. In the form of mRNA, tRNA and
rRNA
6. Fairly stable molecule 6. Very unstable molecule that breaks
down rapidly
Protein Synthesis
How DNA directs how proteins are made
1
The variety of
life on earth is
due to different
proteins.
Key terminology
Amino acids Monomers of proteins
Base triplet Three nitrogenous bases one after the other on
DNA
Transcription 1st stage of protein synthesis
mRNA formed from DNA carrying code of the
protein to be made
Translation 2nd stage of protein synthesis
amino acid combine to form a protein
Codon Three nitrogenous bases one after the other on
mRNA
these are complementary to the triplet on DNA
Key terminology
Codon Three nitrogenous bases one after the
other on mRNA
these are complementary to the triplet on
DNA
Anti-codon Three nitrogenous bases one after the
other on tRNA
these are complementary to the codon on
mRNA
2
Protein Synthesis
You are different
from the people
around you because
your proteins are
different.
3
Protein Synthesis
Your hair, muscles
fibres in your skin
are all made of
proteins.
4
Protein Synthesis
If you have
straight hair, your
protein is slightly
different to
someone who has
curly hair
Protein synthesis
The process in which proteins are made
- protein synthesis
Proteins are made by linking various amino acids
- are present in cytoplasm of cells
There are 20 different amino acids
- they combine in large variety of combinations
The number of amino acids and sequence of amino
acid
- determine type of protein that is fored
Protein with different amino acids
- represented by different shapes and colour
- bond between the amino acids – peptide bond
The genes found in DNA contain code
- which determines which type of protein that will
be formed
The smallest protein contains 50 ammino acids linked
together
Proteins generally contains 300 or more amino acids
Three consecutive nitrogenous bases on DNA strand
- base triplet
The base triplet determine which amino acid
- will be place into the protein
- the sequence in which the amino acids will be
joined
6
Protein Synthesis
Proteins are made up of units called
amino acids.
Amino acids join together to make
proteins.
7
Protein Synthesis
Proteins differ from each other by the type
(different shapes) and sequence (the order in
which the shapes occur) of amino acids.
If this is the
protein for
straight hair
A single amino
acid change
results in curly
hair
8
Protein Synthesis
The proteins are different because the
DNA for curly and straight hair is
different.
There is a THREE letter DNA code
(codon) for each amino acid.
Eg. TGG codes for
9
Protein Synthesis
In this example:
TAC codes for a AGC codes for a
AAA codes for a GGT codes for a
The code for this amino What is the DNA code
acid sequence is : for this sequence?
AAA GGT GGT TAC AGC GGT
10
Protein Synthesis: Overview of the Process
DNA RNA Protein
G C C
A T U
C G G
T A makes A makes
T A A
A T U
G C C
C G G
T A A
A T U
11 Protein Synthesis: A closer look
Firstly, part of the
DNA is copied into
messenger RNA
(mRNA)
This is called
TRANSCRIPTION
12 Protein Synthesis: A closer look
The mRNA carries
the message to
make the protein to
the cytoplasm and
attaches to the
ribosome
13 Protein Synthesis: A closer look
tRNA collects amino
acids in the cytoplasm
14 Protein Synthesis: A closer look
TRANSLATION: tRNA
brings amino acids to
the ribosome which
link and form proteins
DNA
UNIT 5
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
The Process in Detail
Protein Synthesis
The Detailed Process
1
TRANSCRIPTION
A piece of DNA that codes for a
protein is copied into mRNA
Transcription
Happens in nucleus
Messenger RNA strands are transcribed from DNA
- by an enzyme named RNA polymerase
New mRNA sequences are complementary to their
DNA template
- rather than identical copies to the template
Transcription happens in
nucleus as follows:
Double helix DNA strands unwind and unzip
Hydrogen bonds break to from two separate strands
One strand is used as a template
to form mRNA
using free nucleotides from the nucleoplasm
The mRNA is complementary to the DNA
mRNA now has the coded message for protein synthesis
mRNA moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm
And attaches to the ribosome
The mRNA moves out of nucleus through a
nucleopore
mRNA carries triplet codes for DNA (e.g. ATG)
- called codon
mRNA attaches itself to a ribosome
2
T
R
A
N
Part of the S
DNA C
molecule is R
unzipped by I
an enzyme P
T
I
O
N
3
T
R
A
N
S
C
DNA R
separates I
P
T
I
O
N
4
T
R
A
N
T A S
A U
C G
A piece of C
A U DNA from R
A U
A U one side is I
A U copied into P
G C
C G mRNA T
G C
G C
I
T A O
N
5
T
R
A
mRNA N
T A separates S
A U
C G from DNA C
A U R
A U
A U A U G U U U U C G C C A I
A
G
U
C
P
C G T
G C
G C
I
T A O
N
6
T
A
C
A
A
A A U G U U U U C G C C A
A
G
C
G
G
T
7
mRNA moves
out of the
nucleus to a
ribosome in
T
A
the cytoplasm
C
A
A
A A U G U U U U C G C C A
A
G
C
G
G
ribosome
T
8
mRNA attaches to a ribosome
G C C A A U G U U U U C G C C A
9
TRANSLATION
The ribosome encodes
mRNA to form a new
protein
Translation
Happens in the cytoplasm
Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid
When the anticodon on the tRNA
Matches the codon on the mRNA
Then tRNA brings the required amino acid to the
ribosome
Amino acids become attached to each other by peptide
bonds
To form the required protein
10
tRNA brings a specific
Amino amino acid which links
Acid mRNA
tRNA
U A C
A U G U U U U C G C C A
mRNA
11
The tRNA with its specific
Amino amino links to mRNA
Acid according to its specific
three letter code
tRNA
U A C
A U G U U U U C G C C A
mRNA
mRNA three letter
Corresponding tRNAcode
code(codon)
(anticodon)
12
tRNA
The
tRNAribosome
brings
moves inmoves
into
the
The
next
the amino
along the acids
cytoplasm
amino mRNA
acidto
combine
molecule
according
collect another
exposing
to the
next
theamino
mRNA
next acid
codon
codon
U A C A A A
A U G U U U U C G C C A
13 tRNAs bring in another amino acids to extend
the protein chain
A A A A G C
A U G U U U U C G C C A
The process continues as the ribosome moves along
mRNA exposing the next codon
14 tRNAs bring in another amino acids to extend
the protein chain
A G C G G U
A U G U U U U C G C C A
The process continues as the ribosome moves along
mRNA exposing the next codon
15 TERMINATION: Ribosome and mRNA
separate
NEW “Protein” is formed
G G U
A U G U U U U C G C C A
16
In Summary …
DNA T A C A A A A G C G G T
makes
RNA A U G U U U U C G C C A
makes
Protein
tRNA structure
The genetic code
Is a set of instructions in mRNA for amino acid
sequences of proteins
The genetic code
- is contained in mRNA codons
The tRNA molecules have
- complementary anti-codons
- carry a specific amino acids
Table shows the 64 possible nucleotide combinations
of the mRNA & amino acids they code for
The different nucleotides coding for about 20 different
amino acids
- can produce thousands of proteins
Depending on nucleotides of codon
- different amino acids will coded for
Abbreviations of amino acids names
- are given in table
- full name is given below
Note that more than one codon
- can code for a single amino acids
- example GUU, GUA, GUG and GUC
- all code for VAL= valine
No codon codes for more than one amino acid
Stop codons signal the end of polypeptide chain
The effect of mutation on protein
structure (DNA sequence)
A mutation is a change in the nitrogenous base
sequence of a DNA molecule
Since mRNA is copied from the DNA molecule during
transcription
This will result in change in the codons
As a result, different tRNA molecules carry different
amino acids will be required
The sequence of amino acids change
- resulting in the formation of a different protein
If the same amino acid is coded for
- there will be on change in the protein structure
