AGR2202:I

NTRODUCTI
ON

TOCOMPUTERANDI
TS

APLLI
CATI
ONI
N

AGRI
CULTURE

SecondSemest
er
AGR2202:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERANDI
TSAPLLI
CATI
ONI
NAGRI
CULTURE

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Ourl
i
fest
yleshav
eunder
goneat
remendouschangewi
tht
headv
ancementi
n

t
echnol
ogyespeci
all
yint
hef
iel
dofComput
er.Comput
eri
sani
ntegr
alpar
tofour

l
i
fest
yles t
odayand i
tisf
ound i
n of
fi
ces,homes,school
s,hot
els,super
mar
ket
s,

hospi
tal
set
c.Thi
sadv
ancei
ntechnol
ogyhasmadeourl
i
veseasyandcomf
ort
abl
e.For

exampl
e,wecanper
for
m anumberofact
ivi
ti
esusi
ngcomput
erbasedsy
stems;

-wr
it
eadr
aft(
document
s)onwor
dpr
ocessorandemai
li
t,

-makecal
cul
ati
onsusi
nganel
ect
roni
cspr
eadsheetandi
ncor
por
ategr
aphi
cs,

-cr
eat
e a dat
abase off
ri
ends wi
tht
hei
rphone number
s,addr
esses and e-
mai
l

addr
esseset
c.

Al
ltheseact
ivi
ti
esar
edi
ff
icul
ttoper
for
m usi
ngexi
sti
ngt
radi
ti
onalmet
hods.

Comput
ers can al
so si
mpl
i
fy ot
her t
asks such as wor
d pr
ocessi
ng,web si
te

dev
elopment
,dat
abasemanagementet
c.Ther
efor
e,aComput
ercanbet
ermedt
oasa

‘
dat
apr
ocessor
’.

I
nthebegi
nni
ngofci
vi
li
zat
ionpeopl
eusedf
inger
sandpebbl
es(
stones)f
or

comput
ingpur
poses.I
nfact
,t d'
hewor di
git
us'i
nLat
inact
ual
l
ymeans'
fi
nger
'and

'
cal
cul
us'
means'
pebbl
es'
.Thi
sgi
vesacl
uei
ntot
heor
igi
nofear
lycomput
ingconcept
s.

Wi
tht
he gr
owt
h ofci
vi
li
zat
ion,t
he comput
ing needs al
so gr
ew.The need f
ora

mechani
sm t
oper
for
mlengt
hycal
cul
ati
onsl
edt
othei
nvent
ionoft
hef
ir
stcal
cul
ator

andt
hent
hecomput
ers.

2
I
ntr
oduct
iont
oComput
er

The t
erm '
Comput
er'i
s der
ived f
rom t d'
he wor comput
e'whi
ch means t
o

cal
cul
ate.A Comput
eri
sanel
ect
roni
cmachi
ne,dev
isedt
oper
for
m cal
cul
ati
onsand

cont
roloper
ati
onst
hatcanbeexpr
essedei
theri
nlogi
calornumer
icalt
erms.I
nsi
mpl
e

wor
ds,a Comput
eri
s an el
ect
roni
c dev
ice t
hatper
for
ms mat
hemat
icaland non-

mat
hemat
icaloper
ati
onswi
tht
hehel
p ofi
nst
ruct
ionst
o pr
ocessdat
ato achi
eve

desi
redr
esul
ts.Al
thought
hef
iel
dofappl
i
cat
ionofacomput
erdependst
otal
l
yon

human cr
eat
ivi
tyand i
magi
nat
ion,i
tcov
ersav
astar
ea ofappl
i
cat
ion i
ncl
udi
ng;

agr
icul
tur
e,educat
ion,i
ndust
ri
es,gov
ernment
,heal
th,sci
ent
if
icr
esear
ch,l
awandev
en

musi
candar
ts.

TheComput
ercompr
isedoft
echnol
ogi
cal
l
yadv
ancedhar
dwar
eputt
oget
hert
o

wor
katgr
eatspeed.Toaccompl
i
shi
tsv
ari
oust
asks,t
heComput
eri
smadeupof

di
ff
erentpar
ts,eachser
vingapar
ti
cul
arpur
posei
nconj
unct
ionwi
thot
herpar
ts.I
n

ot
herwor
ds,a'
Comput
er'i
sanassembl
ageofdi
ff
erentmachi
nest
hatwi
l
lbeusedt
o

accompl
i
shdi
ff
erentt
ask.

Comput
eri
s pr
imar
il
ymade up oft
he Cent
ralPr
ocessi
ng Uni
t(CPU)
,the

moni
tor
/vi
sualdi
spl
ayuni
t(VDU)
,the key
boar
d and t
he mouse.Ot
herpi
eces of

har
dwar
ecommonl
yref
err
edt
oasper
ipher
alsofaComput
erl
i
ket
hespeaker
,pr
int
er,

scanner
,camer
a,e.
t.
ccanenhanceori
mpr
ovet
hewor
kabi
l
ityofaComput
er.

Comput
eri
s a machi
ne t
hatcan r
ecei
ve and st
ore,change orpr
ocess

3
i
nfor
mat
ion.AComput
eri
sanel
ect
roni
cdev
icet
hatcanper
for
m act
ivi
ti
est
hati
nvol
ve

mat
hemat
ical
,logi
caland gr
aphi
calmani
pul
ati
ons.Gener
all
y,t
he t
erm i
s used t
o

descr
ibea col
l
ect
ion ofdev
icest
hatf
unct
ion t
oget
herasa sy
stem.A Comput
er

per
for
mst
hef
oll
owi
ngoper
ati
onsi
nsequence;

-I
trecei
vesdat
a&i
nst
ruct
ionst
hrought
hei
nputdev
ices,

-I
tst
oredat
a,

-I
tpr
ocessest
hedat
aasperi
nst
ruct
ions(
per
for
m gi
venoper
ati
onwhi
chcanbe

Mat
hemat
ical
orLogi
cal
),and;

-Pr
ovi
dest
her
esul
t(out
put
)inadesi
redf
orm.

Acomput
eri
sapr
ogr
ammabl
emachi
newhi
chal
l
owsi
tuser
stost
oreal
lsor
tsof

i
nfor
mat
ionordat
aandt
henpr
ocesst
hati
nfor
mat
ionordat
aandcar
ryoutact
ionswi
th

t
hei
nfor
mat
ionordat
asuchascal
cul
ati
onsoror
gani
zi
ngwor
ds.

Char
act
eri
sti
cs/
Adv
ant
age(
s)ofComput
er

Mandev
elopsaComput
ersot
hati
tcoul
dper
for
m di
ff
erentoper
ati
onssuchas

cal
cul
ati
on and dat
a pr
ocessi
ng orev
en ent
ert
ain hi
m.Today
,Comput
ers ar
e

ev
ery
wher
einourof
fi
ces,homes,hospi
tal
sandsuper
mar
ket
sandsoon.Muchoft
he

wor
ld'
sinf
rast
ruct
urer
unsonComput
ersandi
thav
epr
ofoundl
ychangedourl
i
ves

most
lyf
ort
hebet
ter
.Bel
owar
esomeoft
hechar
act
eri
sti
csofaComput
erwhi
chmake

i
tanessent
ialpar
tofev
eryemer
gingt
echnol
ogyandsuchadesi
rabl
etooli
nhuman

dev
elopment
.

-Hi
ghspeed:Comput
erhast
heabi
l
ityt
oper
for
mrout
inet
asksatagr
eat
erspeedt
han

humanbei
ngs.Theycanper
for
m mi
l
li
onsofcal
cul
ati
onsi
nseconds.TheComput
ers

4
pr
ocess dat
a atan ex
tremel
yfastr
atei
.e.i
tcan per
for
m mi
l
li
ons orbi
l
li
ons of

i
nst
ruct
ionsi
nseconds.I
naf
ewseconds,aComput
ercanper
for
m ahuget
askt
hata

nor
malhuman bei
ng mayt
akeday
sorev
en y
ear
sto compl
ete.Thespeed ofa

comput
eri
smeasur
edi
nmegaher
tz(
MHz)
,thati
s,onemi
l
li
oni
nst
ruct
ionspersecond.

-Accur
acy
:Comput
eri
susedt
oper
for
mtasksi
nawayt
hatensur
esaccur
acy
.Besi
des

bei
ngef
fi
cient
,thecomput
ersar
eal
sov
eryaccur
ate.Thel
evelofaccur
acydependson

t
hei
nst
ruct
ionsandt
het
ypeofmachi
nesbei
ngused.Si
nceweknowt
hatt
heComput
er

i
scapabl
eofdoi
ngonl
ywhati
tisi
nst
ruct
edt
odo,
faul
tyi
nst
ruct
ionsf
orpr
ocessi
ngt
he

dat
aaut
omat
ical
l
yleadt
ofaul
tyr
esul
ts.Thef
aul
tyr
esul
tsduet
ofaul
tyi
nst
ruct
ionsor

i
ncor
recti
nputdat
aar
eknownasGI
GO,
thati
s,gar
bagei
ngar
bageout
.

-Rel
i
abi
l
ity
:Gener
all
y,r
eli
abi
l
ityi
sthemeasur
ementoft
heper
for
manceofaComput
er

whi
chi
smeasur
edagai
nstsomepr
edet
ermi
nedst
andar
dforoper
ati
onwi
thoutany

f
ail
ure.Themaj
orr
easonbehi
ndt
her
eli
abi
l
ityofaComput
eri
sthat
,athar
dwar
elev
eli
t

doesnotr
equi
reanyhumani
nter
vent
ionbet
weeni
tspr
ocessi
ngoper
ati
ons.Mor
eov
er,

Comput
ershav
ebui
l
t-i
ndi
agnost
iccapabi
l
iti
es,whi
chhel
pincont
inuousmoni
tor
ingof

t
hesy
stem.

-St
orageCapabi
l
ity
:Comput
erscanst
orel
argeamountofi
nfor
mat
ion/
dat
aandi
tcan

r
ecal
lthe r
equi
red i
nfor
mat
ion/
dat
a al
mosti
nst
ant
aneousl
y.The memor
y oft
he

Comput
eri
srel
ati
vel
ysmal
land i
tcan hol
d onl
ycer
tai
n amountofi
nfor
mat
ion

(
meani
ngt
hememor
yofaComput
erhasl
i
mit
).Ther
efor
e,t
hei
nfor
mat
ion/
dat
acanbe

st
oredonext
ernalst
oragedev
icessuchasext
ernalhar
ddr
ive,f
lashdr
ive,magnet
ic

t
apesordi
sk.Thedat
afr
om t
hesedev
icescanbeaccessedandbr
oughti
ntot
hemai
n

5
memor
yoft
heComput
erwhenr
equi
redf
orpr
ocessi
ng.

-Resour
ceShar
ing:I
nthei
nit
ialst
agesofdev
elopment
,Comput
erusedt
obean

i
sol
ated machi
ne.Wi
tht
he t
remendous gr
owt
hin Comput
ert
echnol
ogi
es,t
oday
's

Comput
ershav
ethecapabi
l
ityt
oconnectwi
theachot
her
.Thi
shasmadet
heshar
ingof

cost
lyr
esour
cesl
i
kepr
int
ers,
scanner
s,camer
asandsoonpossi
ble.Apar
tfr
om dev
ice

shar
ing,dat
aandi
nfor
mat
ioncanal
sobeshar
edamonggr
oupofComput
ers,t
hus

cr
eat
ingal
argei
nfor
mat
ionandknowl
edgebase.

- Di
l
igence:Comput
ercanper
for
m t
hesamet
askr
epeat
edl
yandwi
tht
hesame

accur
acywi
thoutget
ti
ngt
ir
ed.Comput
er,bei
ngamachi
ne,doesnotsuf
ferf
rom t
he

humant
rai
tsoft
ir
ednessandl
ackofconcent
rat
ion.I
ffourmi
l
li
oncal
cul
ati
onshav
eto

beper
for
med,
thent
hecomput
erwi
l
lper
for
mthel
astf
our
-mi
l
lonthcal
i cul
ati
onwi
tht
he

sameaccur
acyandspeedast
hef
ir
stcal
cul
ati
on.

-Ver
sat
il
it
y:Comput
eri
sfl
exi
blet
oper
for
m bot
hsi
mpl
eandcompl
ext
asks.Comput
ers

ar
equi
tev
ersat
il
einnat
ure.Theycanper
for
m mul
ti
plet
askssi
mul
taneousl
ywi
thequal

ease.Forex
ampl
e,atonemomenti
tcanbeusedt
opr
epar
eal
ett
er,att
heot
her

momenti
tcanbeusedt
opl
aymusi
candi
nbet
weenonecanpr
intadocumentaswel
l
.

Al
lthi
s wor
kis possi
ble bychangi
ng t
he pr
ogr
am (
sequence ofi
nst
ruct
ions f
or

comput
ers)
.

-Aut
omat
ion:Comput
ercanbei
nst
ruct
edt
oper
for
m compl
ext
asksaut
omat
ical
l
y

(
whi
chi
ncr
easest
hepr
oduct
ivi
ty)
.

-Costef
fect
iveness:Comput
err
educet
heamountofpaperwor
kandhumanef
for
t,

t
her
ebyr
educi
ngcost
s.

6
Li
mit
ati
onsofaComput
er

Comput
erhascer
tai
nli
mit
ati
onsal
so.Asamachi
ne,i
tcanper
for
m onl
ywhati
tis

pr
ogr
ammedt
odo;not
hingmor
eandnot
hingl
ess.I
naddi
ti
on,i
tneedswel
l
-def
ined

i
nst
ruct
ionst
oper
for
m anyoper
ati
on.Ther
efor
e,comput
ersar
eunabl
etogi
veany

concl
usi
on wi
thoutgoi
ng t
hrough i
nter
medi
atest
eps.Somet
imes,a pr
ogr
am i
na

Comput
erwor
kspr
oper
lyf
orsomeper
iodandt
hensuddenl
ypr
oducesi
ncor
rectout
put
.

Thi
shappensbecauseofaner
rori
nthei
nst
ruct
ionpr
ovi
dedbyt
heuser
.Ther
efor
e,

Comput
erpar
tsr
equi
rer
egul
archecki
ng and mai
ntenancet
o gi
vecor
rectr
esul
ts.

Fur
ther
mor
e,Comput
ersneedt
obei
nst
all
edi
nadust
-f
reepl
ace.Gener
all
y,somepar
ts

oft
heComput
ersgetheat
ed up duet
o heav
ypr
ocessi
ng.Ther
efor
e,an ambi
ent

t
emper
atur
eoft
heComput
ersy
stem shoul
dbemai
ntai
ned.Ther
efor
e,t
hel
i
mit
ati
onof

aComput
eri
ncl
udest
hef
oll
owi
ng;

1.Comput
erneedcl
ear&compl
etei
nst
ruct
ionst
oper
for
m at
askaccur
atel
y.I
fthe

i
nst
ruct
ionsar
enotcl
ear&compl
ete,
theComput
erwi
l
lnotpr
oducet
her
equi
redr
esul
t.

2.Comput
ercannott
hink.

3.Comput
ercannotl
ear
nbyexper
ience.

Appl
i
cat
ionofComput
er

I
nthel
astf
ew decades,Comput
ert
echnol
ogyhasr
evol
uti
oni
zedt
hebusi
nessesand

ot
heraspect
sofhumanl
i
feal
lov
ert
hewor
ld.Pr
act
ical
l
y,ev
erycompany
,lar
georsmal
l
,

i
snow di
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
lydependentonComput
ersf
ordat
apr
ocessi
ng.Comput
er

7
sy
stemsal
so hel
pint
heef
fi
cientoper
ati
onsofr
ail
way
sand ai
rway
sreser
vat
ion,

hospi
tal
recor
ds,
account
s,el
ect
roni
cbanki
ngandsoon.Comput
ersnotonl
ysav
eti
me,

butal
sosav
epaperwor
k.Someoft
hear
easwher
eComput
ersar
ebei
ngusedor

appl
i
edar
easf
oll
ows:

Sci
ence:Sci
ent
ist
shav
ebeenusi
ngComput
erst
odev
elopt
heor
iesandt
oanal
yzeand

t
estt
hedat
a.Thehi
ghspeedandaccur
acyoft
heComput
eral
l
ow di
ff
erentsci
ent
if
ic

anal
ysest
obecar
ri
edout
.Theycanbeusedt
ogener
atedet
ail
edst
udi
esofhow

ear
thquakes af
fectbui
l
dings orpol
l
uti
on af
fect
s weat
herpat
ter
n.Sat
ell
i
te-
based

appl
i
cat
ionshav
enotbeenpossi
blewi
thoutt
heuseofComput
ers.Mor
eov
er,i
twoul
d

notbepossi
blet
ogett
hei
nfor
mat
ionoft
hesol
arsy
stem andt
hecosmoswi
thout

Comput
ers.

Educat
ion:Comput
ers hav
e al
so r
evol
uti
oni
zed t
he whol
e pr
ocess ofeducat
ion.

Cur
rent
ly,t
hecl
assr
ooms,l
i
brar
iesandmuseumsar
eef
fi
cient
lyut
il
izi
ngComput
erst
o

maket
heeducat
ionmuchmor
eint
erest
ing.Comput
eri
sext
ensi
vel
yusedasat
ooland

asanai
dfori
mpar
ti
ngeducat
ion.Educat
orsuseComput
erst
opr
epar
enot
esand

pr
esent
ati
onsoft
hei
rlect
ures.Comput
ersar
eusedt
odev
elopComput
er-
basedt
rai
ning

packages,t
opr
ovi
dedi
stanceeducat
ionusi
ngt
hee-
lear
ningsof
twar
e,andt
oconduct

onl
i
neexami
nat
ions.Resear
cher
suseComput
erst
ogeteasyaccesst
oconf
erenceand

j
our
naldet
ail
sandt
ogetgl
obalaccesst
other
esear
chmat
eri
als.Unl
i
ker
ecor
ded

t
elev
isi
onshows,Comput
er-
aidededucat
ion(
CAE)andComput
er-
basedt
rai
ning(
CBT)

packagesar
emaki
ngl
ear
ningmuchmor
eint
eract
ive.

Medi
cineandHeal
thCar
e:Ther
eisbeenani
ncr
easi
nguseofComput
ersi
nthef
iel
dof

8
medi
cine.Now,Doct
orsar
eusi
ng Comput
ersr
ightf
rom di
agnosi
ng t
hei
l
lnesst
o

moni
tor
ingapat
ient
'sst
atusdur
ingcompl
exsur
ger
y.Byusi
ngaut
omat
edi
magi
ng

t
echni
ques,t
heyar
eabl
etol
ooki
nsi
deapat
ient
’sbodyandcanst
udyeachor
gani
n

det
ail(
e.g.CTscansorMRIscans)whi
chwasnotpossi
bley
ear
sback.Ther
ear
e

sev
eralexampl
esofspeci
al-
pur
poseComput
erst
hatcanoper
atewi
thi
nthehuman

bodysuchascochl
eari
mpl
ant
,aspeci
alki
ndofhear
ingai
dthatmakesi
tpossi
blef
or

deafpeopl
etohear
.Medi
calr
esear
cher
sandpr
act
it
ioner
sal
souseComput
erst
o

accessi
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
headv
ancesi
nmedi
calr
esear
chort
oseekopi
nionof

doct
orsgl
obal
l
y.Themedi
calhi
stor
yofpat
ient
sisst
oredi
ntheComput
ers.Comput
ers

ar
eal
soani
ntegr
alpar
tofv
ari
ouski
ndsofsophi
sti
cat
edmedi
calequi
pment
’sl
i
ke

ul
tr
asoundmachi
ne,
CTscanmachi
ne,
MRIscanmachi
ne,
etc.Comput
ersal
sopr
ovi
de

assi
stancet
othemedi
calsur
geonsdur
ingcr
it
icalsur
ger
yoper
ati
onsl
i
kel
apar
oscopi
c

oper
ati
ons,
etc.

Engi
neer
ing/
Archi
tect
ure/
Manuf
act
uri
ng:Thear
chi
tect
sandengi
neer
sar
eext
ensi
vel
y

usi
ngComput
ersi
ndesi
gni
nganddr
awi
ngs.Comput
erscancr
eat
eobj
ect
sthatcanbe

v
iewedf
rom al
lthet
hreedi
mensi
ons(
3D)
.Byusi
ngt
echni
quesl
i
kev
irt
ualr
eal
i
ty,

ar
chi
tect
scanexpl
orehousest
hathav
ebeendesi
gnedbutnotbui
l
t.Themanuf
act
uri
ng

f
act
ori
esar
eusi
ngcomput
eri
zedr
obot
icar
mst
oper
for
m hazar
dousj
obs.Besi
des,

Comput
er-
aidedmanuf
act
uri
ng(
CAM)canbeusedi
ndesi
gni
ngt
hepr
oduct
,or
der
ing

t
hepar
tsandpl
anni
ngpr
oduct
ion.Thus,Comput
ershel
pincoor
dinat
ingt
heent
ir
e

manuf
act
uri
ngpr
ocess.

Ent
ert
ainment
:Comput
ersar
efi
ndi
nggr
eat
erusei
nent
ert
ainmentandi
shav
inga

maj
ori
mpactont
heent
ert
ainmenti
ndust
ry.Theusercandownl
oadandv
iewmov
ies,

9
pl
aygames,chat
,bookt
icket
sforci
nemahal
l
s,usemul
ti
medi
aformaki
ngmov
ies,

i
ncor
por
atev
isualandsoundef
fect
susi
ngcomput
ers,
etc.Theuser
scanal
sol
i
stent
o

musi
c,downl
oadandshar
emusi
c,composemusi
cusi
ngComput
ers,et
c.Theyar
e

usedt
ocont
rolt
hei
magesandsounds.Thespeci
alef
fect
swhi
chmesmer
ize(
exci
te)

t
he audi
ence woul
d nothav
e been possi
ble wi
thoutt
he Comput
ers.I
n addi
ti
on,

comput
eri
zedani
mat
ionandcol
our
ful
graphi
cshav
emoder
nizedt
hef
il
mindust
ry.

Communi
cat
ion:El
ect
roni
cmai
l(E-
mai
l
)isoneoft
hecommuni
cat
ionmedi
ainwhi
ch

Comput
eri
sused.Thr
oughe-
mai
l
,messagesandr
epor
tsar
epassedf
rom oneper
son

t
ooneormor
eper
sonswi
tht
heai
dofComput
erandt
elephonel
i
ne.Theadv
ant
ageof

t
hisser
vicei
sthatwhi
l
etr
ansf
err
ingt
hemessagesi
tsav
est
ime,av
oidswast
ageof

paperandsoon.Mor
eov
er,t
heper
sonwhoi
srecei
vi
ngt
hemessagescanr
eadt
he

messageswhenev
erhei
sfr
eeandcansav
eit
,repl
yit
,for
war
ditordel
etei
tfr
om t
he

Comput
er.

Busi
nessAppl
i
cat
ion:Thi
sisoneoft
hei
mpor
tantusesoft
heComput
er.I
nit
ial
l
y,

Comput
erswer
eused f
orbat
ch-
processi
ng j
obs,wher
eonedoesnotr
equi
ret
he

i
mmedi
ater
esponsef
rom t
heComput
er.Cur
rent
ly,
Comput
ersar
emai
nlyusedf
orr
eal
-

t
imeappl
i
cat
ions(
li
keatt
hesal
escount
er)t
hatr
equi
rei
mmedi
ater
esponsef
rom t
he

Comput
er.Ther
ear
evar
iousconcer
nswher
eComput
ersar
eusedsuchasi
nbusi
ness

f
orecast
ing,t
opr
epar
epaybi
l
lsandper
sonalr
ecor
ds,i
nbanki
ngoper
ati
onsanddat
a

st
orage,i
nvar
ioust
ypesofl
i
fei
nsur
ancebusi
nessandasanai
dtomanagement
.

Busi
nessesar
eal
sousi
ngt
henet
wor
kingofComput
erswher
eanumberofComput
ers

ar
econnect
edt
oget
hert
oshar
ethedat
aandi
nfor
mat
ion.Theuseofe-
mai
landt
he

I
nter
nethaschangedt
heway
sofdoi
ngbusi
ness.

10
Publ
i
shi
ng:Comput
ershav
ecr
eat
edaf
i dknownasdeskt
el oppubl
i
shi
ng(
DTP)
.InDTP,

wi
tht
hehel
pofComput
erandal
esserpr
int
eronecanper
for
mthepubl
i
shi
ngj
obal
lby

onesel
f.Manyoft
het
asksr
equi
ri
ngl
ongmanualhour
ssuchasmaki
ngt
abl
eof

cont
ent
sandi
ndexcanbeaut
omat
ical
l
yper
for
medusi
ngt
heComput
ersandDTP

sof
twar
e.

Banki
ng:
Comput
ersar
eext
ensi
vel
yusedi
nthef
iel
dofbanki
ngandf
inance.Peopl
ecan

uset
heATM (
aut
omat
edt
ell
ermachi
ne)ser
vices24hour
sadayt
owi
thdr
aw cash.

Whendi
ff
erentbr
anchesoft
hebankar
econnect
edt
hroughComput
ernet
wor
ks,t
he

i
nterbr
ancht
ransact
ionssuchaschequeanddr
aftcanbeper
for
medwi
thoutanydel
ay.

Home:Comput
ershav
enow becomeani
ntegr
alpar
tofhomeequi
pment
.Athome,

peopl
e use Comput
erst
o pl
ay games,t
o mai
ntai
nthe home account
s,f
or

communi
cat
ingwi
thf
ri
endsandr
elat
ivesv
iaI
nter
net
,forpay
ingbi
l
ls,
foreducat
ionand

l
ear
ning,et
c.Mi
cropr
ocessor
s ar
e embedded i
n house hol
d ut
il
it
ies l
i
ke,washi
ng

machi
nes,
TVs,
foodpr
ocessor
s,homet
heat
res,
secur
it
ydev
ices,
etc.

Spor
ts:AComput
ercanbeusedt
owat
chagame,v
iew t
hescor
es,pl
aygames(
li
ke

chess,
foot
bal
l
,basket
bal
l
,et
c.)andcr
eat
egames.Theyar
eal
sousedf
ort
hepur
poses

oft
rai
ningpl
ayer
s.

Gov
ernment
:Thegov
ernmentusesComput
erst
omanagei
tsownoper
ati
onsandal
so

f
ore-
gov
ernance.The websi
tes oft
he di
ff
erentgov
ernmentdepar
tment
s pr
ovi
de

i
nfor
mat
iont
otheuser
s.Comput
ersar
eusedf
ort
hef
il
ingofi
ncomet
axr
etur
n,pay
ing

t
axes,onl
i
nesubmi
ssi
onofwat
erandel
ect
ri
cit
ybi
l
ls,f
ort
heaccessofl
andr
ecor
d

det
ail
s,et
c.Thepol
i
cedepar
tmentusesComput
erst
o sear
chf
orcr
imi
nal
susi
ng

11
f
inger
pri
ntmat
chi
ng,
etc.

Adv
ert
isi
ng:Comput
eri
sapower
fuladv
ert
isi
ngmedi
a.Adv
ert
isementcanbedi
spl
ayed

ondi
ff
erentwebsi
tes,di
ff
erentpr
oduct
scanbesentt
hroughemai
landv
iewedby

di
ff
erentcust
omer
s.Comput
ersar
eal
sousedt
ocr
eat
eanadv
ert
isementusi
ngt
he

v
isualandt
hesoundef
fect
s.Fort
headv
ert
iser
s,Comput
eri
samedi
um v
iawhi
cht
he

adv
ert
isement
scanbev
iewedgl
obal
l
y.Webadv
ert
isi
nghasbecomeasi
gni
fi
cantf
act
or

i
nthemar
ket
ingpl
ansofal
mostal
lcompani
es.I
nfact
,thebusi
nessmodelofGoogl
eis

mai
nlydependentonwebadv
ert
isi
ngf
orgener
ati
ngr
evenues.

I
naddi
ti
ont
otheappl
i
cat
ionsoft
heComput
ersdi
scussedabov
e,Comput
ershav
eal
so

pr
oli
fer
atei
ntoar
easl
i
kei
nvest
ment
s,st
ockt
radi
ng,account
ing,t
icketr
eser
vat
ion,

mi
l
itar
y oper
ati
ons, met
eor
ologi
cal pr
edi
cti
ons, soci
al net
wor
king, busi
ness

or
gani
zat
ions,pol
i
cedepar
tment
,vi
deoconf
erenci
ng/t
elepr
esence,bookpubl
i
shi
ng,

webnewspaper
s,i
nfor
mat
ionshar
ingandagr
icul
tur
e.

St
ruct
ure/
Framewor
k(Anat
omy
)ofComput
er

Theanat
omyofComput
eri
sthedet
ail
edanal
ysi
sofi
tsst
ruct
ure.Basi
cal
l
y,t
he

12
Comput
ersy
stem consi
stsoft
hreeuni
tsandt
heyi
ncl
ude:

1.I
nputdev
ice

2.Cent
ral
Processi
ngUni
t(CPU)

3.Out
putdev
ice

Bl
ockdi
agr
am ofaComput
er:

Thev
ari
ousf
unct
ionsoft
heuni
tsi
naComput
ercanbesummar
izedasf
oll
ow:

S/
N UNI
T FUNCTI
ON

13
1 I
nputdev
ice Readsi
nfor
mat
ionf
rom i
nputmedi
aandent
erst
othecomput
eri
na

codedf
orm

2 CPU

a. Memor
yuni
t St
orespr
ogr
am anddat
a

b. Ar
it
hmet
ic Logi
c Per
for
msar
it
hmet
icandl
ogi
cal
funct
ions

uni
t

c. Cont
rol
Uni
t I
nter
pret
spr
ogr
am i
nst
ruct
ionsandcont
rol
sthei
nputand

out
putdev
ices

3 Out
putdev
ice decodesi
nfor
mat
ionandpr
esent
sitt
otheuser

Cent
ral
Processi
ngUni
t

Thecent
ralpr
ocessi
nguni
tist
hepar
toft
heComput
ert
hatcar
ri
esoutt
he

i
nst
ruct
ionsofaComput
erpr
ogr
am.I
tist
heuni
tthatr
eadsandexecut
espr
ogr
am

i
nst
ruct
ions.Hencei
ti he“
sknownast brai
n”oft
heComput
er.TheCPUconsi
stsof

st
orageormemor
yuni
t(MU)
,ar
it
hmet
icl
ogi
cuni
t(ALU)andcont
rol
uni
t(CU)
.

(
a).Memor
yUni
t:

14
I
tisal
soknownast
hepr
imar
yst
orageormai
nmemor
y.I
tst
oresdat
a,pr
ogr
am

i
nst
ruct
ions,i
nter
nalr
esul
ts and f
inalout
putt
empor
ari
l
y bef
orei
tis sentt
o an

appr
opr
iat
eout
putdev
ice.I
tconsi
stsoft
housandsofcel
l
scal
l
ed“
stor
agel
ocat
ions”
.

Thesecel
l
sact
ivat
ewi
th“
offandon”orbi
nar
ydi
git
s(0,
1)mechani
sm.Thusachar
act
er

ei
theral
ett
erornumer
icaldi
giti
sst
oredasast
ri
ngof(
0,1)Bi
nar
ydi
git
s(BI
TS)
.These

bi
tsar
eusedt
ost
orei
nst
ruct
ionsanddat
abyt
hei
rcombi
nat
ions.

(
b).Ar
it
hmet
icandLogi
cal
Uni
t(ALU)
:

I
tist
heuni
twher
eal
lAr
it
hmet
icoper
ati
ons(
addi
ti
on,subt
ract
ionet
c.)andl
ogi
cal

f
unct
ionssuchast
rueorf
alse,mal
eorf
emal
ear
eper
for
med.Oncedat
aar
efedi
nto

t
hemai
nmemor
yfr
om i
nputdev
ices,t
heyar
ehel
dandt
ransf
err
edasneededt
oALU

wher
epr
ocessi
ngt
akespl
ace.Nopr
ocessoccur
sinpr
imar
yst
orage.I
nter
medi
ate

gener
atedr
esul
tsi
nALUar
etempor
ari
l
ypl
acedi
nmemor
yunt
ilneededatl
atert
ime.

Dat
amaymov
efr
om pr
imar
ymemor
ytoALUandbackagai
ntost
oragemanyt
imes

bef
oret
hepr
ocessi
sfi
nal
i
zed.

(
c).Cont
rol
Uni
t:

I
tact
sasacent
ralner
voussy
stem andensur
est
hatt
hei
nfor
mat
ioni
sst
oredcor
rect
ly

andt
hepr
ogr
am i
nst
ruct
ionsar
efol
l
owedi
npr
opersequenceaswel
last
hedat
aar
e

sel
ect
edf
rom t
hememor
yasnecessar
y.I
tal
socoor
dinat
esal
lthei
nputandout
put

dev
icesofasy
stem.

15
 I
nputDev
ices

Thedev
icest
hatar
eusedt
opr
ovi
dedat
aandi
nst
ruct
ionst
othecomput
erar
e

cal
l
edI
nputdev
ices.Somei
mpor
tanti
nputdev
icesar
e:Keyboar
d,Mouse,Scanner
,

Webcamer
a,Mi
crophoneet
c.

1.Key
boar
d

TheKeyboar
disusedf
ort
ypi
ngt
exti
ntot
hecomput
er.I
tisal
soknownasst
andar
d

I
nputdev
ice.Acomput
erkey
boar
dissi
mil
art
othatofat
ypewr
it
erwi
thaddi
ti
onal
key
s.

Themostcommonl
yav
ail
abl
ecomput
erkey
boar
dhas104key
s.

Ther
ear
edi
ff
erentt
ypesofkey
sont
hekey
boar
d.Thekey
sar
ecat
egor
izedas:

- Al
phanumer
ickey
s,i
ncl
udi
ngl
ett
ers&number
s

- Punct
uat
ionkey
s,suchascol
on(
:)
,semi
col
on(
;)Quest
ionmar
k(?
),Si
ngl
e&

doubl
equot
es(
‘,
”)

- Speci
alkey
ssuchasar
rowkey
s,cont
rolkey
s,f
unct
ionkey
s(F1t
oF12)
,HOME,

ENDet
c.

16
2.Mouse:

I
tisadev
icet
hatcont
rol
sthemov
ementoft
hecur
soronamoni
tor
.Amousewi
l
lhav
e

2but
tonsoni
tst
op.Thel
eftbut
toni
sthemostf
requent
lyusedbut
ton.Ther
ewi
l
lbea

wheelbet
weent
hel
eftandr
ightbut
tons.Thi
swheelenabl
esust
osmoot
hlyscr
oll

t
hroughscr
eensofi
nfor
mat
ion.Aswemov
ethemouse,t
hepoi
nteront
hemoni
tor

mov
esi
nthesamedi
rect
ion.Opt
icalmousei
sanot
heradv
ancedpoi
nti
ngdev
icet
hat

usesal
i
ghtemi
tt
ingcomponenti
nst
eadoft
hemousebal
l
.Mousecannotbeusedf
or

ent
eri
ngt
hedat
a.I
tisonl
yusef
ult
osel
ectt
heopt
ionsont
hescr
een.

3.Scanner
:

I
tisani
nputdev
icet
hatcanr
eadt
extori
l
lust
rat
ionspr
int
edonpaperandt
ransl
atei
nto

di
git
alf
orm.Themai
nadv
ant
ageoft
hesescanner
sist
hatt
hedat
aneednotbeent
ered

separ
atel
yresul
ti
ngi
nsav
ingl
otoft
ime.

Scanner
sar
eoft
wot
ypes:

i
) Opt
ical
scanner
s

i
i
) Magnet
icI
nkChar
act
erRecogni
ti
onscanner
s

i
)Opt
icalscanner
s:Opt
icalscanner
sar
edi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreeandt
heyi
ncl
udeopt
ical
17
char
act
err
ecogni
ti
onscanner
,opt
icalmar
krecogni
ti
onscanner
sandopt
icalbar
code

r
ecogni
ti
onscanner
s.

a.Opt
icalChar
act
erRecogni
ti
onscanner(
OCR)
:Int
his,char
act
ersar
ereadwi
tht
he

hel
pofal
i
ght
.Thi
sisusedi
nof
fi
ceat
omi
zat
ion,
document
ati
oni
nli
brar
yet
c.

b.Opt
icalMar
kRecogni
ti
onscanner(
OMR)
:Iti
sat
echnol
ogywher
eanOMRdev
ice

sensest
hepr
esenceorabsenceofamar
ksuchasapenci
lmar
k.OMRi
susedi
ntest
s

suchasapt
it
udet
est
s,JAMB,
Obj
ect
ivessect
ionofWAECandNECO.

c.Opt
icalBar
codeRecogni
ti
onscanner(
OBCR)
:Bar
coder
eader
sar
ephot
oel
ect
ri
c

scanner
sthatr
eadt
hebarcodesorv
ert
icalz
ebr
ast
ri
pedmar
kspr
int
edonpr
oduct

cont
ainer
s.Thi
sisusedi
nsuper
mar
ket
s,bookshopset
c.

18
i
i
.Magnet
icI
nkChar
act
erRecogni
ti
onscanner(
MICR)
:Thi
siswi
del
yusedi
nbankst
o

pr
ocesst
hecheques.Thi
sal
l
owst
hecomput
ert
orecogni
zechar
act
erspr
int
edusi
ng

magnet
ici
nk.

19
 Out
putdev
ices

Anydev
icet
hati
scapabl
eofr
epr
esent
ingi
nfor
mat
iononaComput
eri
scal
l
edan

Out
putdev
ice.Out
putdev
icesr
ecei
vei
nfor
mat
ionf
rom t
heCPUandpr
esenti
ttot
he

useri
nthedesi
redf
orm.Somei
mpor
tantOut
putdev
icesar
e:Moni
tor
,Pr
int
er,
speaker

et
c.

1.Ter
minal
/Moni
tor
:Iti
ssi
mil
art
oTVscr
een-ei
theramonochr
ome(
black&whi
te)or

col
our– andi
tdi
spl
ayst
heout
put
.Iti
sal
sor
efer
redasVi
sualDi
spl
ayUni
t(VDU)
.

Sev
eralt
ypesofmoni
tor
sar
einuse.Someoft
hem ar
eCol
ourGr
aphi
cAdapt
er(
CGA)
,

EnhancedGr
aphi
csAdapt
or(
EGA)
,Vi
deoGr
aphi
csAdapt
er(
VGA)andSuperVi
deo

Gr
aphi
csAdapt
er(
SVGA)
.

Thescr
eensi
zesdi
ff
erf
rom sy
stem t
osy
stem.Thest
andar
dsi
zei
s24l
i
nesby80

char
act
ers.Mostsy
stemshav
epr
ovi
sionf
orscr
oll
i
ngwhi
chhel
psi
nmov
ingt
het
ext

v
ert
ical
l
yorhor
izont
all
yont
hescr
een.

2.Pr
int
er:
Apr
int
eri
susedt
otr
ansf
erdat
afr
om acomput
eront
opaper
.Thepapercopy

obt
ainedf
rom apr
int
eri
sof
tenr
efer
redas“
pri
ntout
”.

20
Ty
pesofMemor
y:

AComput
ermemor
yisoft
wot
ypes

1.Pr
imar
yMemor
y(I
nter
nal
stor
age)

2.Secondar
yMemor
y(Ext
ernal
stor
age)

Pr
imar
yMemor
y:

Pr
imar
ymemor
yisal
socal
l
edi
nter
nalmemor
yandi
sani
mpor
tantpar
tofa

Comput
er.I
tist
hemai
nar
eai
naComput
erwher
ethedat
aisst
ored.Thest
oreddat
a

canber
ecal
l
edi
nst
ant
lyandcor
rect
lywhenev
erdesi
red.Thi
smemor
ycanbequi
ckl
y

accessedbyt
heCPU f
orr
eadi
ngorst
ori
ngi
nfor
mat
ion.Pr
imar
ymemor
yisf
urt
her

cl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypes:Random AccessMemor
y(RAM)andRead-Onl
yMemor
y

(
ROM)
.

RAM

RAM i
sal
soknownasr
ead/
wri
tememor
yasi
nfor
mat
ioncanber
eadf
rom and

wr
it
tenont
oit
.RAM i
sapl
acei
naComput
ert
hathol
dsi
nst
ruct
ionsf
ort
heComput
er,

i
tspr
ogr
amsandt
hedat
a.TheCPUcandi
rect
lyaccesst
hedat
afr
om RAM al
most

i
mmedi
atel
y.Howev
er,
thest
orageofdat
aandi
nst
ruct
ionsi
nRAM i
stempor
ary
,ti
l
lthe

t
imet
heComput
eri
srunni
ng.I
tdi
sappear
sfr
om RAM assoonast
hepowert
othe

Comput
eri
sswi
tchedof
f.i
.ei
tisv
olat
il
ememor
y.

21
ROM:I
tiscal
l
edRead-
onl
ymemor
yasi
nfor
mat
ioncanonl
yber
eadf
rom andnot

wr
it
tenorchangedont
oROM.ROM i
sthe‘
bui
l
t-i
n’memor
yofaComput
er.I
tst
ores

some basi
cinput– out
puti
nst
ruct
ions putbyt
he manuf
act
urert
o oper
atet
he

Comput
er.Thest
orageofdat
aandi
nst
ruct
ionsi
nROM i
sper
manent
.Itdoesnot

dependont
hepowersuppl
y.i
.ei
tisnon-
vol
ati
l
ememor
y.

Secondar
ymemor
y:

Thepr
imar
ymemor
ywhi
chi
sfast
er(
andhenceexpensi
ve)i
sgener
all
ynot

suf
fi
cientf
orl
argest
orageofdat
a.Asar
esul
t,addi
ti
onalmemor
y,cal
l
edt
he“
aux
il
iar
y”

or“
secondar
ymemor
y”i
sused.I
tisal
sor
efer
redas“
backupst
orage”asi
tisusedt
o

st
orel
argev
olumeofdat
aonaper
manentbasi
swhi
chcanbet
ransf
err
edt
othe

pr
imar
ymemor
ywhenev
err
equi
red f
orpr
ocessi
ng.Dat
a ar
e st
ored i
n secondar
y

st
oragei
nthesamebi
nar
ycodesasi
nthemai
n(pr
imar
ymemor
y)st
orage.Someoft
he

dev
icesofsecondar
yst
oragesar
eFl
oppyDi
sk,
Har
dDi
sk,
CD-
ROM,
DVDandFl
ashdr
ive

1.Fl
oppyDi
sk:I
tisal
sor
efer
redas“
Disket
te”andi
smadeoff
lexi
bleVi
nylmat
eri
al

(
plast
icmat
eri
al)
.Ithasasmal
lhol
eononesi
decal
l
ed“
Rightpr
otectnot
ch”
,whi
ch

pr
otect
sacci
dent
alwr
it
ing/
del
eti
ngt
hei
nfor
mat
ionf
rom t
hedi
sk.Ther
eisahol
eint
he

cent
ret
hroughwhi
cht
hespi
ndl
eofdr
iveuni
trot
atest
hedi
sk.Thedi
sksar
eav
ail
abl
ein

22
t
wosi
zesof5.
25and3.
5inchesandt
hesecoul
dbeei
therl
owdensi
tyorhi
gh-
densi
ty

f
loppi
es.St
oragecapaci
tyoff
loppi
esar
emeasur
edi
nki
l
oby
tes(
KB)andmegaby
tes

(
MB)
.

Thedet
ail
saboutt
hest
oragecapaci
ti
esoft
hef
loppi
esar
epr
esent
edbel
ow:

2.Har
dDi
sk:Thehar
ddi
skcanhol
dmor
einf
ormat
iont
hant
hef
loppydi
skandt
he

r
etr
iev
alofi
nfor
mat
ionf
rom har
ddi
ski
sfast
erwhencompar
edt
ofl
oppi
esort
apes.A

har
ddi
ski
sfi
xedi
nsi
det
heCPUandi
tscapaci
tyr
angesf
rom 20MBonwar
ds.Thehar
d

di
ski
smadeupofacol
l
ect
ionofdi
scs(
onebel
ow t
heot
her
)knownaspl
att
erson

whi
cht
hedat
aisr
ecor
ded.Thesepl
att
ersar
ecoat
edwi
thmagnet
icmat
eri
al.I
tisl
ess

sensi
ti
vet
oext
ernalenv
ironment
aldi
sor
der
sandhencet
hest
oragei
nhar
ddi
ski
ssaf
e.

Asmal
lhar
ddi
skmi
ghtbeasmuchas25t
imesl
argert
hanaf
loppydi
sk.St
orage

Capaci
tyofhar
ddi
sksv
ari
esf
rom 20MBt
osev
eral
Gegaby
tesl
i
ke80GB,
160GB.

23
3.CD-
ROM:CD-
ROM st
andsf
orCompactDi
sk–ReadOnl
yMemor
y.I
tisusedt
ost
orea

wi
dev
ari
etyofi
nfor
mat
ion.I
tsmai
nadv
ant
agei
sthati
tispor
tabl
eandcanhol
dal
arge

amountofdat
a.Thest
oragecapaci
tyofmostCD-
ROMsi
sappr
oxi
mat
ely650MBor

700MB.CD-
ROMshav
ethef
oll
owi
ngv
ari
ati
ons:

(
i)CD-
R(Compactdi
scRecor
dabl
e):Dat
acanbewr
it
tenont
oitj
ustonce.Thest
ored

dat
acanber
ead.Dat
aoncewr
it
tenont
oitcannotbeer
ased.

(
ii
)CD-
RW (
Compactdi
scRewr
it
abl
e):I
tisal
socal
l
eder
asabl
eCD.Dat
aoncewr
it
ten

ont
oitcanbeer
asedt
owr
it
eorr
ecor
dnewi
nfor
mat
ionmanyt
imes.TouseaCD-
ROM,

adev
icecal
l
edCDdr
ivei
sneeded.

4.DVD:DVDst
andsf
orDi
git
alVer
sat
il
eDi
sc.I
tissi
mil
art
oaCD-
ROM,exceptt
hati
t

canst
orel
argeramount
sofdat
a.Thest
oragecapaci
tyofaDVDi
satl
east4.
7MB.

DVDst
hatcanst
oreupt
o17GBsar
eal
soav
ail
abl
e.Becauseoft
hei
rcapaci
ty,
DVDsar
e

gener
all
yusedt
ost
oreav
eryl
argemul
ti
medi
apr
esent
ati
onsandmov
iest
hatcombi
ne

hi
ghqual
i
tysoundandgr
aphi
cs.

24
5.Fl
ashDr
ive:I
tisasmal
l
,por
tabl
edev
icet
hatcanbeusedt
ost
ore,accessand

t
ransf
erdat
a.Duet
oit
ssmal
lsi
ze,
iti
scommonl
ycal
l
edPendr
ive.I
tisal
socal
l
edUSB

dr
ive.Wecanr
ead,
wri
te,
copy
,del
ete,
andmov
edat
afr
om comput
ert
opendr
iveorpen

dr
ivet
ocomput
er.I
tcomesi
nvar
iousst
oragecapaci
ti
esof2GB,4GB,8GBet
c.I
tis

popul
arbecausei
tiseasyt
ouseandsmal
lenought
obecar
ri
edi
napocket
.Thi
s

dev
icei
spl
uggedi
ntot
heUSBpor
toft
hecomput
erandt
hecomput
eraut
omat
ical
l
y

det
ect
sthi
sdev
ice.

HARDWAREandSOFTWARE

Har
dwar
e:

Thephy
sicalcomponent
soft
heComput
erar
eknownas“
Har
dwar
e”.I
tref
erst
o

t
heobj
ect
sthatwecanact
ual
l
ytouch.Exampl
e:i
nputandout
putdev
ices,pr
ocessor
s,

ci
rcui
tsandt
hecabl
es.

Sof
twar
e:

Sof
twar
eisa pr
ogr
am orsetofi
nst
ruct
ionst
hatcausest
he Har
dwar
eto

f
unct
ioni
nadesi
redway
.Thebasi
cdi
ff
erencebet
weent
heHar
dwar
eandSof
twar
eis

j
ustt
hesameast
hatex
ist
sbet
weenTVandTVst
udi
o.Wi
thoutTVst
udi
o(sof
twar
e)

f
rom wher
ethepr
ogr
amsar
etel
ecast
,theTV(
Har
dwar
e)i
sadeadmachi
ne.

Ther
ear
efi
vecat
egor
iesofsof
twar
e.Theyar
e:

25
1.Oper
ati
ngSy
stem

2.Tr
ansl
ator
s

3.Ut
il
it
ypr
ogr
ams

4.Appl
i
cat
ionpr
ogr
ams

5.Gener
alpur
posepr
ogr
ams

1.Oper
ati
ngSy
stem (
OS)
:

Thesof
twar
ethatmanagest
her
esour
cesofacomput
ersy
stem andschedul
es

i
ts oper
ati
on i
s cal
l
ed Oper
ati
ng sy
stem.The oper
ati
ng sy
stem act
s as i
nter
face

bet
weent
hehar
dwar
eandt
heuserpr
ogr
amsandf
aci
l
itat
est
heexecut
ionofpr
ogr
ams.

Gener
all
ytheOS act
sasani
nter
facebet
weent
heuserandt
heHar
dwar
eoft
he

comput
er.i
.eI
tisabr
idgebet
weent
heuserandt
heHar
dwar
e.

TheUseri
nter
facepr
ovi
dedbyt
heOScanbechar
act
erbasedorgr
aphi
cal
.

CUI-
-Char
act
eruserI
nter
face

GUI-
-Gr
aphi
cal
userI
nter
face

CUI
:Iti
soper
atedwi
thkey
boar
donl
y.Ex:
MS-
DOS,
UNI
X

GUI
:Thesy
stem canbeoper
atedwi
thmouseandkey
boar
d.Ex:Wi
ndows95,
Windows

XPet
c

-Di
skOper
ati
ngSy
stem (
DOS)
:Itwasdev
elopedasear
lyas1980byBi
l
lGat
esatt
he

ageof

26
19.I
tissui
tedf
orper
sonalcomput
ers.DOSi
sasi
ngl
euserandsi
ngl
etaskoper
ati
ng

sy
stem

-WI
NDOWS:I
twor
kswi
thDOSandi
tsuppor
tssi
ngl
euserandmul
ti
tasksy
stem.I
t

r
equi
resapower
ful
PCwi
thami
nimum RAM of8MB.

-UNI
XANDXENI
X:I
tissui
tedf
ormul
ti
-userandmul
ti
-t
asksy
stem

2.Tr
ansl
ator
s:

Comput
erscanunder
standi
nst
ruct
ionsonl
ywhent
heyar
ewr
it
teni
nthei
rown

l
anguage“
themachi
nel
anguage”
.Ther
efor
e,apr
ogr
am wr
it
teni
nanyot
herl
anguage

shoul
d be t
ransl
ated i
nto machi
ne l
anguage.The sof
twar
ethat“
transl
ates”t
he

i
nst
ruct
ionsofdi
ff
erentl
anguagesi
sknownast
ransl
ator
s.Ther
ear
etwot
ypesof

t
ransl
ator
s.Theyar
ecompi
l
ersandI
nter
pret
ers

-ACompi
l
ercheckst
heent
ir
euser–wr
it
tenpr
ogr
am (
knownast
hesour
cepr
ogr
am)

andi
fiti
ser
rorf
ree,pr
oducesacompl
etepr
ogr
am i
nmachi
nel
anguage(
knownas

obj
ectpr
ogr
am)
.The sour
ce pr
ogr
am i
sret
ained f
orpossi
ble modi
fi
cat
ions and

cor
rect
ionsandt
heobj
ectpr
ogr
am i
sloadedi
ntot
hecomput
erf
orexecut
ion.I
fthe

sour
cepr
ogr
am cont
ainser
ror
s,t
hecompi
l
erspr
oduceal
i
stofer
ror
satt
heendoft
he

execut
ionoft
hepr
ogr
am.i
.eacompi
l
ert
ransl
atest
hewhol
epr
ogr
am bef
oreexecut
ion.

-Ani
nter
pret
erdoesasi
mil
arj
obbuti
nadi
ff
erentst
yle.Thei
nter
pret
ert
ransl
atesone

st
atementatat
imeandi
fiti
ser
ror– f
ree,execut
es.Thi
scont
inuest
il
lthel
ast

st
atement
.Thusani
nter
pret
ert
ransl
atesorexecut
est
hef
ir
sti
nst
ruct
ionbef
orei
tgoes

t
othesecond,whi
l
eacompi
l
ert
ransl
atest
hewhol
epr
ogr
am bef
oreexecut
ion.The

27
maj
ordi
ff
erencebet
weencompi
l
erandi
nter
pret
eri
s:

1.Er
rorcor
rect
ioni
sver
ymuchsi
mpl
eri
nthecaseofi
nter
pret
erasi
ttr
ansl
atest
he

st
atement
sinst
ages.Thecompi
l
erpr
oducesaner
rorl
i
stoft
heent
ir
epr
ogr
am att
he

end.

2.I
nter
pret
ert
akesmor
eti
mef
ort
heexecut
ionoft
hepr
ogr
am compar
edt
ocompi
l
ers

asi
ttr
ansl
atesonest
atementatat
ime

Pr
ogr
ammi
ngLanguages:

Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofpr
ogr
ammi
ngl
anguages.

1.Machi
neLanguages:Comput
ersr
espondonl
ytomachi
nel
anguage.Thi
slanguagei
s

i
nter
msofbi
nar
ycodes(
0,1)
.i.
e.al
lpr
ogr
amsshoul
dbewr
it
tenwi
tht
hesecodes,

whi
chi
sdi
ff
icul
t,t
imeconsumi
ngandl
eadi
ngt
oer
ror
swhi
l
ewr
it
ingt
hepr
ogr
ams.

Ther
eis no uni
que st
andar
d machi
ne l
anguage.Rat
hert
her
e ar
e manymachi
ne

l
anguages.Thesear
emachi
nedependent
.

Thesear
eref
err
edast
hef
ir
stgener
ati
onl
anguages.

2.Assembl
yLanguages:I
tusesmnemoni
ccodesr
athert
hannumer
iccodes(
asi
n

machi
ne l
anguages)
.Ex.Add orA i
s used as a sy
mbolf
oraddi
ti
on.I
trequi
res

t
ransl
ator
stoconv
erti
ntomachi
nel
anguage.Li
kemachi
nel
anguage,wr
it
ingpr
ogr
am

i
nassembl
ylanguagei
sal
sot
imeconsumi
ng.Thesear
eal
somachi
nedependent
.

3.Hi
ghLev
elLanguages(
HLL)
:Thesear
eref
err
edaspr
obl
em or
ient
edl
anguages

(
POL)
.Thesear
eref
err
edast
hir
dgener
ati
onl
anguages.Theadv
ant
agesoft
hese

l
anguagesar
e

28
-Thehi
ghl
evell
anguagesar
econv
eni
entf
orwr
it
ingpr
ogr
amsast
heycanbewr
it
ten

wi
thoutanycodes.Thesel
anguagesf
oll
owr
ulesl
i
ke―Engl
i
sh‖l
anguage.

-Becauseoft
hei
rEngl
i
shl
i
kenat
ure,
lesst
imei
srequi
redt
owr
it
eapr
ogr
am.

-Theyar
emachi
nei
ndependent
.Apr
ogr
am wr
it
teni
nanyHLLcanber
unoncomput
ers

ofdi
ff
erentt
ypeswi
thoutanymodi
fi
cat
ions.

Sev
eral
HighLev
elLanguageswhi
char
eincommonuse:

FORTRAN:
FORmul
aTRANsl
ati
on

COBOL:
CommonBusi
nessOr
ient
edLanguage

BASI
C:Begi
nner
’sAl
lpur
poseSy
mbol
i
cInst
ruct
ionCode

PROLOG:
PROgr
ammi
ngi
nLOGi
c

ALGOL:
ALGOr
it
hmi
cLanguage

4.Ut
il
it
yPr
ogr
ams:Thesear
epr
e-wr
it
tenpr
ogr
amssuppl
i
edbyt
hemanuf
act
urerf
or

mai
ntai
ningdayt
odayact
ivi
ti
esofcomput
ersy
stem.Exampl
e:COPY,SORT,MAI
LING,

v
irusscanni
ngsof
twar
eet
c.,

5.Appl
i
cat
ionPr
ogr
ams:Thesear
euserwr
it
tenpr
ogr
amst
odoaspeci
fi
cjobwhi
ch

canbechangedt
omeett
hei
ndi
vi
dualneeds.Thesepr
ogr
amsar
ewr
it
teni
ndi
ff
erent

l
anguagessuchasBASI
C orC orbyusi
ngdat
abasepackagesl
i
kedBASE,Or
acl
e.

Exampl
e:Pay
rol
l
,Bi
l
li
ng,
Rai
l
wayReser
vat
ionet
c.

6.Gener
alPur
posePackages:Thesepackagesar
edev
elopedt
osui
ttheneedsof

r
esear
chwor
ker
s/sci
ent
ist
sindi
ff
erentf
iel
ds.Thesepackagesar
ecat
egor
izedas:

i
) Dat
aAnal
ysi
s

29
 i
i
) Wor
dPr
ocessi
ng

i
i
i) Spr
eadSheet

i
v) Gr
aphi
csand

v
) Dat
abases

Dat
aAnal
ysi
s

Exampl
e:SPSS(
Stat
ist
ical
Packagef
orSoci
alSci
ence)
,MSTAT,
MICROSTAT,
GENSTAT,

SAS,
STATAet
c.

Wor
dPr
ocessi
ng

e:
Exampl WORDPERFECT,
WORDSTAR,
MS-
Wor
d,CHI
RATOR,
NORTONEDI
TORet
c.

Spr
eadSheet

Exampl
e:LOTUS,
Qpr
o,VP-
PLANNER,
SYMPHONY,
MS-
Excel
etc.

Gr
aphi
cs

Exampl
e:LOTUS,
STORY-
BOARD,
POWER-
POI
NTet
c

Dat
abases

Exampl
e:dBASE,
FOX-
BASE,
FOX-
PRO,
ORACLE,
MS-
Accesset
c.

Funct
ionsofOper
ati
ngSy
stem:

Todaymostoper
ati
ngsy
stemsper
for
mthef
oll
owi
ngi
mpor
tantf
unct
ions:

1.Pr
ocessormanagement
:Itmanagest
heassi
gnmentofpr
ocessort
odi
ff
erentt
asks

bei
ngper
for
medbyt
hecomput
ersy
stem.

2.Memor
ymanagement
:Itmanagest
heal
l
ocat
ionofmai
nmemor
yandot
herst
orage

ar
east
othesy
stem pr
ogr
ammesaswel
lasuserpr
ogr
ammesanddat
a.

3.I
nput/Out
putmanagement
:Itmanages t
he co-
ordi
nat
ion and assi
gnmentof

di
ff
erentI
nputandOut
putdev
iceswhi
l
eoneormor
epr
ogr
ammesar
eexecut
ed.

30
4.Fi
l
emanagement
:Ital
l
owsal
lfi
l
est
obeeasi
l
ychangedandmodi
fi
edt
hrought
heuse

oft
extedi
tor
sorsomeot
herf
il
emani
pul
ati
onr
out
ines.

5.Est
abl
i
shmentandenf
orcementofapr
ior
it
ysy
stem:I
tdet
ermi
nesandmai
ntai
nst
he

or
deri
nwhi
chj
obsar
etobeexecut
edi
nthecomput
ersy
stem.

6.I
nter
pret
ati
onofcommandsandi
nst
ruct
ions.

7.Faci
l
itat
eseasycommuni
cat
ionbet
weent
hecomput
ersy
stem andt
hecomput
er

oper
ator
.

Gener
ati
onofComput
er

S/
N Gener
ati
on ComponentUsed

1 Fi
rstGener
ati
on Vacuum t
ubes

(
1946-
1954)

2 SecondGener
ati
on Tr
ansi
stor
s

(
1955-
1965)
31
3 Thi
rdGener
ati
on I
ntegr
atedCi
rcui
ts(
IC)

(
1968-
1975)

4 Four
thGener
ati
on Ver
yLar
geScal
eInt
egr
atedCi
rcui
ts

(1976-
1980) (
VLSI
)

5 Fi
ft
hGener
ati
on Ul
tr
aScal
eInt
egr
atedCi
rcui
ts(
ULSI
)

(
1980–t
odat
e) Mi
croPr
ocessor(
SILI
CONCHI
P)

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofComput
ers

Comput
ersar
ecl
assi
fi
edaccor
dingt
othest
oragecapaci
ty,
speedandt
he

pur
posef
orwhi
cht
heyar
edev
eloped.Thesecanbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hreet
ypes:

1.Anal
ogComput
es

2.Di
git
alComput
ers

3.Hy
bri
dComput
ers

32
1.Anal
ogcomput
ers:

Theyoper
ateby“
measur
ing”i
nst
eadof“
count
ing”
.Theyar
especi
almachi
ne

t
hatmeasur
ephy
sical
quant
it
iesusedf
orcont
rol
l
ingmachi
neandpr
ocessest
hatr
eact

di
rect
lyt
ochangei
nphy
sical
sit
uat
ions.

Exampl
e:

- Ther
momet
er

- Carspeedomet
er

- Vol
tmet
er

- Pet
rol
Dispenser

2.Di
git
alComput
ers:

TheseComput
ersoper
ateby“
count
ing”
.Al
lquant
it
iesar
eexpr
essedasdi
scr
ete

di
git
sornumber
s.Thesear
eusef
ulf
orev
aluat
ingar
it
hmet
icexpr
essi
onsand

mani
pul
ati
onsofdat
a.Theyar
efast
erandmor
efl
exi
blet
hananal
ogComput
ersbut

maynotbeaccur
ate.

3.Hy
bri
dComput
ers:

Comput
erswhi
chcombi
net
hef
eat
uresofanal
oganddi
git
alComput
ersar
e

knownasHy
bri
dComput
ers.Theyar
especi
alpur
posecomput
ersandhence

uncommon.Exampl
eispr
ogr
ammi
ngamoder
ndayt
elev
isi
onsetwhi
chi
nvol
vesbot
h

anal
oganddi
git
alpr
ocedur
es.Channel
sel
ect
ioni
sdi
git
alwhi
l
epr
ocessi
ngt
hechannel

f
orcl
earr
ecept
ioni
sanal
ogandf
ormal
l
ysav
ingt
hechannel
forf
utur
eusei
sal
so

33
di
git
al.

Amaj
ori
tyoft
heComput
erst
hatar
einusear
edi
git
al.TheseComput
erswer
e

essent
ial
l
ydev
elopedf
orcomput
ati
ons.Lat
er,
thedev
elopment
sint
heComput
ersl
ed

t
otheuseofdi
git
alcomput
ersi
nvar
iet
yofappl
i
cat
ions.Dependi
ngont
heuseof

appl
i
cat
ions,
thedi
git
alcomput
ersar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
nto:

1)Speci
alPur
poseComput
ersand

2)Gener
alPur
poseComput
ers

1.Speci
alPur
poseComput
ers:

Thesear
eComput
ersdev
elopedf
oraspeci
fi
cpur
pose.Someoft
hear
easwher
e

t
heseComput
ersar
ebei
ngusedar
e–soi
ltest
ing,
dri
pir
ri
gat
ion,
medi
cal
scanni
ng,

t
raf
fi
csi
gnal
s,spacecr
aft
,rockett
echnol
ogyet
c.

2.Gener
alPur
poseComput
ers:

Thesear
edev
elopedt
omeett
her
equi
rement
sofsev
eral
areassuchas

si
mul
ati
on,
sol
vi
ngmat
hemat
ical
equat
ions,
pay
rol
landper
sonnel
dat
abase.These

comput
ersar
eav
ail
abl
eindi
ff
erentsi
zesandcapabi
l
iti
esandar
efur
thercl
assi
fi
ed

(
basedonmemor
y,speedandst
orage)asf
oll
ows:

a)SuperComput
ers

b)Mai
nfr
ameComput
ers

c)Mi
niComput
ers

d)Mi
croComput
ers

34
a)SuperComput
ers:

Thesehav
eext
remel
ylar
gest
oragecapaci
ti
esandcomput
ingspeedswhi
char
e

at
least10t
imesf
ast
ert
hanot
hercomput
ers.Thesear
eusedf
orl
argescal
enumer
ical

pr
obl
emsi
nsci
ent
if
icandengi
neer
ingdi
sci
pli
nessuchasel
ect
roni
cs,
weat
her

f
orecast
inget
c.,
.Thef
ir
stsupercomput
erwasdev
elopedi
nU.
S.A.byCRAYcomput
ers.

I
nIndi
athei
ndi
genoussupercomput
erwasdev
elopedundert
henamePar
am.

b)Mai
nfr
ameComput
ers:

Theyal
sohav
elar
gest
orageandhi
ghcomput
ingspeed(
butr
elat
ivel
ylowert
han

t
hesupercomput
ers)
.Theyar
eusedi
nappl
i
cat
ionsl
i
keweat
herf
orecast
ing,
space

appl
i
cat
ionset
c.,
theysuppor
tal
argenumberoft
ermi
nal
sforusebyav
ari
etyofuser
s

si
mul
taneousl
y,butar
eexpensi
ve

c)Mi
niComput
ers:

I
tisamedi
um si
zedcomput
erwi
thmoder
atecost
,av
ail
abl
eindi
genousl
yand

usedf
orl
argev
olumeappl
i
cat
ions.I
tcanser
vemul
ti
-user
ssi
mul
taneousl
y

d)Mi
croComput
ers:

Ami
crocomput
eri
sthesmal
l
estgener
alpur
posepr
ocessi
ngsy
stem.Mi
cro

Comput
ersar
eal
sor
efer
redas“
Per
sonal
Comput
ers”(
PC)
.Thesear
esel
f-
cont
ained

uni
tsandusual
l
ydev
elopedf
orusebyoneper
sonatat
imebutcanbel
i
nkedt
over
y

l
argesy
stems.Theyar
echeap,
easyt
ouseev
enathomesandcanber
eadf
orv
ari
etyof

35
appl
i
cat
ionsf
rom smal
ltomedi
um r
ange.Thesear
eav
ail
abl
eint
hreemodel
s:

1.PC:
Per
sonal
Comput
er

2.PC-
XT:
PCwi
thExt
endedTechnol
ogy

3.PC-
AT:
PCwi
thAdv
ancedTechnol
ogy
.

36