EEE223

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

Node-voltage And Mesh-current Analysis

Superposition And Linearity
Wye-delta Transformation
 Circuit Analysis Techniques
(cont.)

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 2

NODE-VOLTAGE AND MESH-CURRENT ANALYSES
• Systematic methods of analysis for solving complicated network problems
• The Node Voltage is based on the KCL equations,
• The Mesh Current is based on the KVL equations.
• A decision to use one or the other method of analysis is usually based on the
number of equations needed for each method.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 3

Nodal-Voltage Method
1. Rename all the nodes of circuit.
2. A reference (datum) node is chosen arbitrarily based on convenience,
3. From each of the remaining nodes to the reference node, the voltage drops are
defined as node-voltage variables.
4. The circuit is then described completely by the necessary number of KCL
equations
5. All voltage sources in series with resistances are replaced by equivalent current
sources with conductances in parallel.
6. Note that the nodal-voltage method is a general method of network analysis
that can be applied to any network.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 4

Nodal-Voltage Method

The voltages VAO, VBO, and VAB satisfy the KVL relation:

VAB + VBO − VAO = 0, → VAB = VAO − VBO = VA − VB

The node voltages VA and VB are the voltage drops from A to O and B to O,
respectively.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 5

Nodal-Voltage Method

With node O as reference, and with VA and VB as the node-voltage unknown

variables, one can write the two independent KCL equations.
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑶 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵
Node A: −𝐼1 + + = −𝐼1 + + = −𝐼1 + + =0
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅3

𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑶 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴
Node B: −𝐼2 + + = −𝐼2 + + = −𝐼2 + + =0
𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅2 𝑅3

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 6

Output currents = Input currents
Nodal-Voltage Method

Node A: VA.G1 + (VA − VB). G3 = I1, → (G1 + G3)VA − G3.VB = I1

Node B: VB.G2 − (VA − VB).G3 = I2 → − G3.VA + (G2 + G3).VB = I2
Output currents = Input currents
Omitting the referance node, total conductance connected to the the main node
difference from the common conductance with neighbour nodes is equal to the
total currents enters the node.
w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 7
 Example 1

Find the current delivered by the 10-V source and the voltage across the 10-Ω
resistance in the circuit shown in Figure by means of nodal analysis.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 8

 Example 1 - Solution

Solution

STEP 1: Replace all voltage sources with series resistances by their corresponding
Norton equivalents consisting of current sources with shunt conductances.
The given circuit is redrawn in the Figure by replacing all resistors by their
equivalent conductances.
w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 9
 Example 1 - Solution

STEP 2: Identify the nodes and choose a convenient reference node O. This is also
shown in the Figure.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 10

 Example 1 - Solution

STEP 3:
Write the
KCL
equations
at all nodes
(except the
VA 𝑉𝐴 −𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐴 −𝑉𝐶 reference
Node A: −I1 + + + + 𝐼2 = 0 node)
R1 𝑅3 𝑅2
𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐵 −𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝐵 −𝑉𝐴
Node B: + + =0
𝑅4 𝑅5 𝑅3
VC 𝑉𝐶 −𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐶 −𝑉𝐵
Node C: − 𝐼2 + + =0
w4 R6 𝑅Dr.2Vedat Tavas (İTİCU𝑅-5EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 11
 Example 1 - Solution

STEP 3: Write
the KCL
equations at all
nodes (except
the reference
node)

Node A: (0.2 + 0.125 + 0.25) VA − 0.125 VB − 0.25 VC = 2 − 5

Node B: −0.125 VA + (0.125 + 0.05 + 0.1) VB − 0.1 VC = 0 Rearrange
Node C: −0.25 VA − 0.1 VB + (0.25 + 0.1 + 0.04) VC = 5
w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 12
 Example 1 - Solution

Node A: (0.2 + 0.125 + 0.25) VA − 0.125 VB − 0.25 VC = 2 − 5

Node B: −0.125 VA + (0.125 + 0.05 + 0.1) VB − 0.1 VC = 0 Rearrange
Node C: −0.25 VA − 0.1 VB + (0.25 + 0.1 + 0.04) VC = 5

0.575 VA − 0.125 VB − 0.25 VC = −3

0.575 −0.125 −0.25 𝑉𝐴 −3
−0.125 VA + 0.275 VB − 0.1 VC = 0 −0.125 0.275 −0.1 𝑉𝐵 = 0
−0.25 −0.1 0.39 𝑉𝐶 5
−0.25 VA − 0.1 VB + 0.39 VC = 5
STEP 4: Solve the independent equations for the unknown nodal voltages

VA = 4.34 V ; VB = 8.43V ; VC = 17.77 V

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 13

 Example 1 - Solution

STEP 5: Using orginal

circuit nodes :
Now one can solve for I,
delivered by the 10-V
source

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 14

 Example 1 - Solution

The voltage across the 10-Ω

resistance is

VB −VC = 8.43−17.77 = −9.34 V.

The negative sign indicates that

node C is at a higher potential than
node B with respect to the
reference node O.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 15

Nodal-Voltage Method
Supernode

• If there is voltage source with no serial resistances, the nodes connected by this
voltage source called constrained nodes, that is, the difference in potential
between the two node voltages is constrained by a voltage source. The circle that
has more than one nodes behaves as a node and called a supernode.
Example:

Find the current in each

resistor by means of
nodal analysis

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 16

 Example 2 - Solution

Note that the reference node is chosen

at one end of an independent voltage
source, so node A voltage VA = 12 V.
Current of 24V voltage source can not be
expressedd as a function of VB and VC.

Nodes B and C are constrained nodes and VB and VC are not independent.
VB − VC = 24 V (1)

A supernode, which includes the voltage source and the two nodes B and C, must be
also hold KCL that is, the algebraic sum of the currents entering or leaving the
supernode must be zero
IA − IB − IC + 4 =0
w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 17
 Example 2 - Solution

IA − IB − IC + 4 =0 →

VB + VC = 10 (2)
VB − VC = 24 V (1)
VB = 17 V VC = −7 V
VB + VC = 10 (2)

The currents in the resistors are thus given by:

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 18

Mesh-Current Method
• An elementary loop, or a mesh, is easily
identified as one of the “window panes” of
the whole circuit.
• it must be noted that not all circuits can be
laid out to contain only meshes as in the
case of planar networks.
• A mesh current is a fictitious current,
which is defined as the one circulating
around a mesh of the circuit in a certain
direction.
• Branch currents can be found in terms of
mesh currents

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 19

Mesh-Current Method

• The number of necessary equations in the

mesh-analysis method is equal to the number
of independent loops or meshes.
• All current sources with shunt conductances
will be replaced by their corresponding
Thevenin Equivalents consisting of voltage
sources with series resistances.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 20

Mesh-Current Method
• KVL equations for the two closed paths (loops)
ABDA and BCDB
• Loop ABDA:
I1R1 + (I1 − I2)R2 + V2 − V1 = 0
→ (R1 + R2)I1 − R2I2 = V1 − V2

Total voltage drop in the related • Loop BCDB:

mesh diferenced from the voltage
I2R3 + (I2 − I1)R2 − V2 + V3 = 0
generated by the neighbour mesh
currents is equal to the total → −R2I1 + (R2 + R3)I2 = V2 − V3
voltage generated by the voltage
sources.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 21

 Example 3
By means of mesh-current analysis,
obtain the current in the 10-V source and
the voltage across the 10Ω resistor in the
circuit
Solution:
STEP 1: Replace all current sources with
shunt resistances by their corresponding
Thevenin equivalents
STEP 2: Identify elementary loops (meshes) and choose a mesh-current variable for
each elementary loop, with all loop currents in the same clockwise direction
STEP 3: In terms of unknown mesh-current variables, write the KVL equations for all
meshes by following the rules for mesh analysis.
w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 22
 Example 3 - Solution

Loop 1:
(5 + 8 + 20)I1 − 20I2 − 8I3 = 10
→ 33 I1 − 20I2 − 8I3 = 10

Loop 2:
−20I1 + (20 + 10 + 25)I2 − 10I3 = 0
→ −20 I1 + 55 I2 – 10 I3 = 0

Loop 3: −8I1 − 10I2 + (4 + 10 + 8)I3 = 20 → −8 I1 - 10 I2 + 22 I3 = 20

STEP 4: Simultaneously solve the independent equations
33 I1 − 20I2 − 8I3 = 10
−20 I1 + 55 I2 – 10 I3 = 0 I1 = 1.132 A; I2 = 0.711 A; I3 = 1.645 A
−8 I1 - 10 I2 + 22 I3 = 20
w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 23
 Example 3 - Solution

The current through the 10-V source is

I1 = 1.132 A,

The voltage across the 10Ω resistor is

VBC = 10(I2 − I3)
= 10(0.711 − 1.645)
= −9.34 V.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 24

Mesh-Current Method
Supermesh

• If there is a current source without no shunt resistance, the two mesh currents
are constrained by this current source, then the loop which is combination of the
meshes that contains the current source is called a supermesh.
EXAMPLE

Find the current delivered by the 10-

V source and the voltage across the
3Ω resistor by means of mesh-
current analysis

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 25

 Example 4

We cannot express the voltage across the current

source in terms of the mesh currents I1 and I2.

Constrain the mesh currents by the following

equation:
I2 − I1 = 5
The supermesh, which includes meshes 1 and 2,
KVL equation around the periphery of meshes 1 and 2 combined.

1 I1 + 2 (I1 − I3) + 4 (I2 − I3) + 10 = 0

KVL equation for mesh 3:
3 I3 + 4 (I3 − I2) + 2 (I3 − I1) = 0
w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 26
 Example 4 - Solution

I2 − I1 = 5
1 I1 + 2 (I1 − I3) + 4 (I2 − I3) + 10 = 0
3 I3 + 4 (I3 − I2) + 2 (I3 − I1) = 0

The current delivered by the 10-V source is −I2 = −20/9 A. The 10-V source is absorbing the current
20/9 A.

The voltage across the 3Ω resistor is Vx = 3 I3 = 3 (70/27) = 70/9 = 7.78 V.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 27

Node-Voltage and Mesh-Current Equations with
Controlled Sources

• Source conversion and application of KCL and KVL relations are

treated identically for also dependent sources.
• Because the strength of a controlled source depends on the value of a
voltage or current elsewhere in the network, a constraint equation is
written for each controlled source.
• Combine the constraint equations with the loop or nodal equations
based on treating all sources as independent sources,
• Solve equation system for the unknown current or voltage variables.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 28

 Example 5

Find the current in the 5V source and the voltage across the 5Ω resistor by using
(a) the mesh-current method
(b) the node-voltage method.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 29

 Example 5 - Solution
a. Mesh-Current Method:
• The voltage-controlled current source and its parallel resistance are converted into a
voltage-controlled voltage source and series resistance.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 30

 Example 5 - Solution
a. Mesh-Current Method:

• The chosen mesh

currents I1 and I2.
• The KVL equations are:

For mesh carrying I1: (10 + 4 + 2)I1 − 2I2 = 5 → 16 I1 − 2I2 = 5 (1)

For mesh carrying I2: −2 I1 + (2 + 10 + 5)I2 = −5V1 −2 I1 + 17 I2 = −5(I1 − I2)2
The constraint equation: V1 = (I1 − I2)2
8 I1 + 7I2 = 0 (2)
(1)-(2) → I = I1 = 35 / 128 A = 0.273 A; I2 = −5 / 16 A
Voltage across the 5Ω resistor is V = 5.I2 = 5(−5/16) = −1.563 V.
w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 31
 Example 5 - Solution
b. Node-Voltage Method

The 5-V voltage source with its

10 series resistor is replaced
by its Norton equivalent

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 32

 Example 5 - Solution
b. Node-Voltage Method

The constraint equation:

V1 = VB

The nodal equations are:

A : (0.1 + 0.25)VA − 0.25VB = 0.5 0.35 VA − 0.25 VB = 0.5
B : −0.25VA + (0.25 + 0.5 + 0.1)VB − 0.1VC = 0.5V1 −0.25 VA + 0.35 VB − 0.1 VC = 0
C : −0.1VB + (0.1 + 0.2)VC = −0.5V1 0.4 VB + 0.3 VC = 0
w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 33
 Example 5 - Solution
b. Node-Voltage Method

0.35 VA − 0.25 VB = 0.5

−0.25 VA + 0.35 VB − 0.1 VC = 0
0.4 VB + 0.3 VC = 0

Result:
VA = 2.266V ;
VB = 1.173;
VC = −1.564 V
Voltage V across the 5Ω resistor VC = −1.564 V
The current I through the 5-V source: 5 – 10 I = VA = 2.266 → I = 0.273 A

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 34

SUPERPOSITION AND LINEARITY
• Mathematically a linear function properties:
1. Homogeneity (proportionality or scaling)
2. Additivity (superposition),
• Homogeneity: f (Kx) = K. f (x) K: scalar constant
• Additivity: f (x1 + x2) = f (x1) + f (x2)
• For a linear circuit :
• Input x1 → y1 output
• Input x2 → y2 output
• K1x1 + K2x2 → K1y1 + K2y2, K1 , K2 =Constants.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 35

Superposition And Linearity
• All linear systems satisfy the principle of superposition
• A circuit consisting of independent sources, linear dependent sources, and linear
elements is said to be a linear circuit.
• Note that a resistive element is linear.
• Capacitors and inductors are also circuit elements that have a linear input–output
relationship provided that their initial stored energy is zero.
• Nonzero initial conditions are to be treated as independent sources.
• All circuits containing only ideal resistances, capacitances, inductances, and
sources are linear circuits (described by linear differential equations).
• For a linear network the net response in any element is the algebraic sum of the
individual responses produced by each of the independent sources acting only by
itself.
w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 36
Superposition And Linearity
• The other independent sources are suppressed;
• voltage sources are replaced by short circuits
• current sources are replaced by open circuits,

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 37

 Example 6

Determine the voltage across the 20Ω resistor in the circuit with the application
of superposition.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 38

 Example 6 - Solution

• First, the independent current source

→ cancel the effect → open circuit
• Voltage across the 12Ω resistor and V’ and dependent current source value:
V’/3

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 39

 Example 6 - Solution
At node B:

Left mesh:

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 40

 Example 6 - Solution

• Second, by replacing the independent voltage source with a short circuit.

• Voltage across the 12Ω resistor and V’’ and dependent current source value:
V’’/3

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 41

 Example 6 - Solution

Node A:

Node B:

Result:

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 42

WYE-DELTA TRANSFORMATION

 To Y Y to 

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 43

 Example 7

Use delta–wye transformation for

network reduction and determine the
current through the 12 resistor in the
given circuit.
Solution
 To Y:

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 44

 Example 7 - Solution
 To Y:

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 45

 Example 7 - Solution

KVL:

Req1 = R2 + 12
Req2 = R3 + 2 Current division:

Req = Req1 || Req2

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 46

 Example 8

Use the mesh-current method to find the power dissipated in the 2

resistor

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 47

 Example 8 - Solution

Since there is a current source on the perimeter of the i3 mesh, we

know that i3 = -16 A.
i3 = -16 A.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 48

 Example 8 - Solution

Other two mesh equations:

Simplified version of these two mesh equations

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 49
 Example 8 - Solution
Utilizing these three equation:
i3 = -16 A.

The current in the 2 resistor:

Power dissipated by the 2 resistor:

P = V. I =V2 / R = I2. R
w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 50
 Example 9

Use the mesh-current method to find the mesh current ia in the circuit.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 51

 Example 9 - Solution

There are current sources on the

perimeters of both the ib mesh and
the ic mesh

Mesh a:
−75 + 2 𝑖𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏 + 5 𝑖𝑎 − 𝑖𝑐 = 0
(1)

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 52

 Example 9 - Solution

The dependent source requires the following constraint equation:

(2)

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 53

 Example 9 - Solution

The equation system:

(1)
(2)

Solving the equation system:

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 54

 Example 10

Use the mesh-current method to find the power dissipated in the 1

resistor in the circuit shown.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 55

 Example 10 - Solution

The 2A current source is shared by the

meshes ia and ib. Thus we combine
these meshes to form a supermesh
and write the following equation:

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 56

 Example 10 - Solution

Mesh c:

The supermesh constraint equation

Now we have. P = V. I =V2 / R = I2. R

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 57

 Example 11

Use the node voltage method to find the power dissipated in the 1
resistor in the circuit given in Example 10.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 58

 Example 11

• The 6V source has serial

resistance so that using
source transformation, it
can be transformed to a
current source with a
parallel resistance as done
in Example 1.
• Lets use supernode instead
of source transformation.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 59

 Example 11 - Solution

• First sellect one of the

node as a reference node.
• Second give names to the
rest of nodes.
• Because 10V source has
no serial resistance and
one of its terminals is
connected to reference
(0V), the node A voltage
must be 10V.
VA=10V

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 60

 Example 11 - Solution

• Other node equations.

• Node B:
𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐶
−2 + + =0
2 2

𝑉𝐵 − 0.5𝑉𝐶 = 2

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 61

 Example 11 - Solution

• Supernode:
𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
+ + =0
2 2 1

𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐶 − 10 𝑉𝐷 − 0
+ + =0
2 2 1

𝑉𝐶 − 0.5𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷 = 5

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 62

 Example 11 - Solution

• Supernode constrain:
𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝐶 = 6𝑉

• The equations:

𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝐶 = 6𝑉 𝑉𝐵 = 2𝑉
𝑉𝐶 − 0.5𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷 = 5 𝑉𝐶 = 0

𝑉𝐵 − 0.5𝑉𝐶 = 2 𝑉𝐷 = 6𝑉

𝑉𝐷2ൗ
P1 = V. I = I2. R= V2 /R= 1 = 36𝑊

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 63

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Obtaining Thevenin equivalent circuit for a two-terminal (or one-port) network with or
without dependent sources.
• Obtaining Norton equivalent circuit for a two-terminal (or one-port) network with or
without dependent sources.
• Nodal-voltage method of network analysis, including the concept of a supernode.
• Mesh-current method of network analysis, including the concept of a supermesh.
• Node-voltage and mesh-current equations with controlled sources and their constraint
equations.
• Analysis of linear circuits, containing more than one source, by using the principle of
superposition.
• Wye–delta transformation for resistive network reduction.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 64

 Sources
• Introduction to Electrical Engineering, M. S. Sarma, Oxford, 2001.
• Electric Circuits, 10E – Nilsson-Riedel, Pearson, 2015.

w4 Dr. Vedat Tavas (İTİCU - EEE223 Electronic Circuits) 65