Engineering Data

Analysis
 PRELIM TOPICS
1. OBTAINING DATA
1.1 Methods of Data Collection
1.2 Planning and Conducting
Surveys
1.3. Introduction to Design
Experiments
2. PROBABILITY
2.1 Relationship among Events
2.2 Rules of Probability
 PRELIM TOPICS
3. Discrete Probability Distribution
3.1 Random Variables
3.2 Cumulative Distribution
3.3 Binomial Distribution
3.4 Poisson Distribution
4. Continuous Probability
Distribution
4.1 Continuous Random Variables
4.2 Normal and Exponential
Distribution
 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Demonstrate an understanding of
the different methods of obtaining
data.
2. Explain the procedures in planning
and conducting surveys and
experiments.
 METHODS OF DATA
COLLECTION

Data collection is the process of gathering and

measuring information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables one to
answer stated research questions, test hypotheses,
and evaluate outcomes.
 TYPES OF DATA
1. PRIMARY DATA
data which are collected a fresh
and for the first time and thus
happen to be original in
character are known as PRIMARY
DATA.
2. SECONDARY DATA
data which have been collected by
someone else and which have already
been passed through the statistical
process.
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION:
PRIMARY DATA

1. Observation
2. Interview
3. Questionnaire
4. Case Study
5. Survey

MATH
019A
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION: PRIMARY DATA

OBSERVATION

Observation method is a method

under which data from the field is
collected with the help of observation by
the observer or by personally going to the
field.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Subjective bias Time consuming
eliminated
Current information Limited information
Independent to Unforeseen factors
respondent’s variable
 TYPES OF OBSERVATION

STRUCTURED and UNSTRUCTURED

1. Structured Observation
when observation is done by characterizing style of
recording the observed information, standardized
conditions of observation , definition of the units to
be observed , selection of pertinent data of
observation.
Example: An auditor performing inventory analysis in store

2. Unstructured Observation
when observation is done without any thought
before observation.
Example: Observing children playing with new toys.
 TYPES OF OBSERVATION
PARTICIPANT and NON-PARTICIPANT
1. Participant
when the Observer is member of the group which
he is observing.
Advantages: 1. Observation of natural behavior
2. Closeness with the group
3. Better understanding

2. Non-participant
when observer is observing people without giving
any information to them.
Advantages: 1. Objectivity and neutrality
2. More willingness of the respondent
 TYPES OF OBSERVATION
CONTROLLED and UNCONTROLLED
1. Controlled
when the observation takes place in natural
condition. It is done to get spontaneous picture of
life and persons.

2. Uncontrolled
when observation takes place according to
definite pre arranged plans , with experimental
procedure then it is controlled observation
generally done in laboratory under controlled
condition.
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION: PRIMARY DATA

INTERVIEW METHOD
INTERVIEW METHOD
This method of collecting data
involves presentation or oral-
verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral-verbal responses.

Interview Method is an oral verbal communication

where interviewer asks questions (which are aimed
to get information required for study) to
respondent.
 TYPES OF INTERVIEW
• Personal interviews : The interviewer asks
questions generally in a face to face contact to
the other person or persons.
• Structured interviews : in this case, a set of pre-
decided questions are there.
• Unstructured interviews : in this case, we don’t
follow a system of pre-determined questions.
• Focused interviews : attention is focused on the
given experience of the respondent and its possible
effects.
• Clinical interviews : concerned with broad
underlying feelings or motivations or with the course
of individual’s life experience, rather than with the
effects of the specific experience, as in the case of
focused interview.
 TYPES OF INTERVIEW
• Group interviews : a group of 6 to 8 individuals is
interviewed.
• Qualitative and quantitative interviews : divided
on the basis of subject matter i.e. whether
qualitative or quantitative.
• Individual interviews : interviewer meets a single
person and interviews him.
• Selection interviews : done for the selection of
people for certain jobs.
• Depth interviews : it deliberately aims to elicit
unconscious as well as other types of material
relating especially to personality dynamics and
motivations.
• Telephonic interviews : contacting samples on
telephone.
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION: PRIMARY DATA

QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
This method of data collection is
quite popular, particularly in
case of big enquiries.

The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are

expected to read and understand the questions
and write down the reply in the space meant for
the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The
respondents have to answer the questions on their
own.
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION: PRIMARY DATA

QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Low cost even if the Low rate of return of duly filled

geographical area is too large questionnaire.

Answers are in respondents word Slowest method of data

so free from bias. collection.

Adequate time to think for Difficult to know if the expected

answers. respondent have filled the form
or it is filled by someone else.
Large samples can be used so
results are more reliable.
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION: PRIMARY DATA

SURVEY METHOD
SURVEY METHOD is one of the
common methods of diagnosing
and solving of social problems is
that of undertaking surveys.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Relatively easy to administer Respondents may not feel
encouraged to provide
accurate, honest answers
Can be developed in less time Surveys with closed-ended
(compared to other data- questions may have a lower
collection methods) validity rate than other question
types.
Cost-effective Data errors due to question non-
responses may exist.
 SECONDAY DATA:

SOURCES OF DATA
• Publications of Central, state , local
government
• Technical and trade journals
• Books, Magazines, Newspaper
• Reports & publications of industry ,bank, stock
exchange
• Reports by research scholars, Universities,
economist
• Public Records
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE USING
SECONDARY DATA

• Reliability of data – Who, when , which

methods, at what time etc.
• Suitability of data – Object ,scope, and
nature of original inquiry should be studied, as if
the study was with different objective then that
data is not suitable for current study
• Adequacy of data– Level of accuracy, area
differences then data is not adequate for study
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

Surveys can take different forms. They can be used to

ask only one question or they can ask a series of
questions. We can use surveys to test out people’s
opinions or to test a hypothesis.

When designing a survey, the following steps are useful:

1. Determine the goal of your survey: What question do

you want to answer?
2. Identify the sample population: Whom will you
interview?
3. Choose an interviewing method: face-to-face
interview, phone interview, self-administered paper
survey, or internet survey.
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

4. Decide what questions you will ask in what

order, and how to phrase them. (This is important if
there is more than one piece of information you
are looking for.)

5. Conduct the interview and collect the

information.

6. Analyze the results by making graphs and

drawing conclusions.
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

Example:
1. Martha wants to construct a survey that shows
which sports students at her school like to play the
most.

Step 1: List the goal of the survey

Step 2: What population should she interview?
Step 3: How should she administer the survey?
Step 4: Create a data collection sheet that she
can use to record her results
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

Step 1: GOAL
The goal of the survey is to find the answer to the question:
“Which sports do students at Martha’s school like to play the
most?”

Step 2: POPULATION
A sample of the population would include a random sample
of the student population in Martha’s school. A good
strategy would be to randomly select students (using dice or
a random number generator) as they walk into an all-school
assembly.
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

Step 3: METHODS
Face-to-face interviews are a good choice in this case.
Interviews will be easy to conduct since the survey consists of
only one question which can be quickly answered and
recorded, and asking the question face to face will help
eliminate non-response bias.

Step 4: DATA
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

Example:
1. Juan wants to construct a survey that shows how
many hours per week the average student at his
school works.

Step 1: List the goal of the survey

Step 2: What population should he interview?
Step 3: How should she administer the survey?
Step 4: Create a data collection sheet that she
can use to record her results
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

Step 1: GOAL
The goal of the survey is to find the answer to the question
“How many hours per week do you work?”

Step 2: POPULATION
Juan suspects that older students might work more hours per
week than younger students. He decides that a stratified
sample of the student population would be appropriate in
this case. The strata are grade levels 9th through 12th. He
would need to find out what proportion of the students in his
school are in each grade level, and then include the same
proportions in his sample.
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

Step 3: METHODS
Face-to-face interviews are a good choice in this case since
the survey consists of two short questions which can be
quickly answered and recorded.

Step 4: DATA
 THE BASIS OF CONDUCTING AN
EXPERIMENT
1. With an experiment, the researcher is trying to learn
something new about the world, an explanation of 'why'
something happens.

2. The experiment must maintain internal and external

validity, or the results will be useless.

3. When designing an experiment, a researcher must

follow all of the steps of the scientific method, from
making sure that the hypothesis is valid and testable, to
using controls and statistical tests
PROBABILITY
SAMPLE SPACE
The set of all possible outcomes of a statistical experiment is called the
sample space and is represented by the symbol S.

ELEMENT
Each outcome in a sample space is called an element or a member of
the sample space.

Example #1:
Consider the experiment of tossing a die. If we are interested in the
number that shows on the top face, the sample space would be

S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
PROBABILITY | Sample Spaces & Events
Example #2:
An experiment consists of flipping a coin and then flipping it a second time
if a head occurs. If a tail occurs on the first, flip, then a die is tossed once.
To list the elements of the sample space providing the most information, we
construct the tree diagram
S = {HH, HT, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6}
PROBABILITY | Sample Spaces & Events
EVENT
Is any collection of sample points called subset of a sample space

Example #3:
An experiment that tosses a coin 3 times.
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
A = event that has at least 1 head
B = event that has at most 1 head

EA = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH}

EB = {HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
PROBABILITY
Probability is simply defined as the numerical assessment of
likelihood. It is expressed as a number between 0 and 1,
where 0 means an event is impossible while 1 means it is
surely or certainly to occur or happen. The total probability of
favorable and unfavorable outcome is 1.
If an experiment has a set of distinct outcomes, each of
which is equally likely to happen, then the probability of an
event E, is the ratio of the number of outcomes to the total
number of possible outcomes.

𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
𝑃𝐸 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
PROBABILITY | Sample Spaces & Events
Example #4:
Two coins are tossed 500 times, and we get:
Two heads: 105 times
One head: 275 times
No head: 120 times
Find the probability of each event to occur.

Example #5:
Find the probability of getting a numbered card when a card is
drawn from the pack of 52 cards.
PROBABILITY | Sample Spaces & Events
Example #6:
There are 5 green 7 red balls. Two balls are selected one by
one without replacement. Find the probability that first is green
and second is red.

Example #7.
In a throw of two dice, what is the probability of obtaining a total
of 10 or 12?

Example #8
A bag contains 14 blue, 6 red, 12 green, and 8 purple buttons.
25 buttons are removed from the bag randomly. How many of
the removed buttons were red if the probability of drawing a red
button from the bag is now 1/3?
PROBABILITY | Counting
COUNTING: Fundamental Principle of Counting
- If a thing can be done in m different ways and another
thing can be done in n different ways, then two things
can be done ‘one after the other’ in m times n different
ways.
𝑁 =𝑚×𝑛

- If a thing can be done in m different ways and another

thing can be done in n different ways, then ‘either’ of
these two things can be done in m plus n different ways.

𝑁 =𝑚+𝑛
PROBABILITY | Counting
Example #8:
A dice is a six-faced cube, with the faces reading
1,2,3,4,5,6. When two dices are thrown, we add the digits
they show on top and take the sum as the result of the
throw. In how many different ways the first throw of the two
dice shows a total of 5, and second throw of the two dice
shows a total of 4?
PROBABILITY | Permutation
- Permutation helps us to know the number of ways
an object can be arranged in a particular manner.
- Permutation is an ‘ordered arrangement’ of a finite
number of elements, either all of the available n element
or of a part of them.
- Permutation of n distinct objects taken n at a time.
𝑛𝑃𝑛 = 𝑛!

Example #9:
In how many ways can 5 children be arranged in a line
such that a) two particular children of them are always
‘together’ and b) two particular children of them are ‘never
together’.
PROBABILITY | Permutation
Example #10:
Three married couples are to be seated in a row having six
seats in a cinema hall. If spouses are to be seated next
to each other, in how many ways can they be seated?
Find also the number of ways of their seating if all the
ladies sit together.
PROBABILITY | Permutation
Permutation: The number of permutation of n distinct
object taken r at a time is:
𝑛!
𝑛𝑃𝑟 =
𝑛−𝑟 !

Example #11:
In one year, three awards (research, teaching, and service)
will be given for a class of 25 graduate students in a
statistics department. If each student can receive at most
one award, how many possible selections are there?
PROBABILITY | Permutation
The number of distinct permutations of n things of which n1
are one of a kind, n2 of a second kind, …, nk of nth kind is
𝑛!
𝑛1! 𝑛2! … 𝑛𝑘!

Example #12:
In a college football training session, the defensive
coordinator needs to have 10 players standing in a row.
Among these 10 players, there are 1 freshman, 2
sophomores, 4 juniors, and 3 seniors, respectively. How
many different ways can they be arranged in a row if only
their class level will be distinguished?