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 8121610

GOOLD, WILLIAM CLIFFORD

THE VERDIAN BARITONE: A STUDY OF SIX REPRESENTATIVE OPERAS

University of Kentucky D.M.A. 1981

University
Microfilms
International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106
 DISSERTATION

William C. Goold

The Graduate School

University of Kentucky

1981
 THE VERDIAN BARITONE:

A STUDY OF SIX REPRESENTATIVE OPERAS

DISSERTATION

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Musical Arts at the
University of Kentucky

by

WILLIAM CLIFFORD GOOLD

Wilmore, Kentucky

Director: Dr. Donald Ivey, Professor of Music

Lexington, Kentucky

1981
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the following people without whose help this

study would not have been possible. Dr. Donald Ivey has patiently given

many hours of careful help in editing and guiding writing style. His

persistent effort has been far beyond the call of duty. Mrs. Adelle

Dailey and her staff in the Music Library of the University of Kentucky,

especially Mrs. Kathy Hunt, have been most courteous, gracious, and

helpful at every point in securing materials and sources, including

books, scores, and recordings. Finally, I am deeply grateful to my wife

Thelma and my sons, Mark and Sean, for their patience and understanding

when they were much needed.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II. CRITICS AND THE VERDIAN BARITONE 3

III. NA3UCC0 14

IV. EKNANI 47

V. MACBETH 78

VI. RIGOLETTO 113

VII. OTELLO 161

VIII. FALSTAFF 205

IX. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 230

BIBLIOGRAPHY 238

VITA 243

iv
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

An examination of the "Dramatis Personae" of the 26 operas written

by Giuseppi Verdi reveals a total of 32 baritone roles created by the

composer. Baritones appear in 24 of the operas. A majority of the

operas, 18, employ a single baritone; four require two baritones; two

require three baritones.

These baritone roles make unique vocal and dramatic demands on the

performer and at the same time provide a distinctive listening experi­

ence for the opera enthusiast. The Verdian baritone is regarded as

being a special vocal type with certain capabilities enabling the voice

to infuse special vitality and life into the characters involved.

There is considerable evidence to suggest that the development of

this unique baritone quality was evolutionary. Henry Pleasants, an

American-born writer on music and the author of The Great Singers,"^

suggests that the vocal type now identified as baritone did not exist

even as late as 1816, when Rossini's II Barbiere di Siviglia (The Barber

of Seville) was first performed in Rome.

Modern editions of The Barber are at variance with both

history and earlier examples in listing Figaro as a
baritone. The autograph score does not give .the cast, but
in early published editions Figaro, Dr. Bartolo and Don
Basilio are grouped together as bassi.

^"Henrv Pleasants, The Great Singers (London: Victor Gollancz,

Ltd., 1967).

1
 2

Basses were categorized in those days as basso buffo,

basso nobile and basso cantante. The normal range, regard­
less of category was the two-octave span from F to F [F to
f1]2 as reflected in Mozart's operas. The G [gl] was re­
quired occasionally, but never the prevailing high tessitura
of Figaro's music.3

Robert Rushmore, writing in Opera News, identifies two types of

baritone: lyric and dramatic.

He [the baritone] comes in two varieties, lyric and dramatic,

and tends with other species of singers to favor either the
German or Italian-French repertory. The kind of baritone
voice that sings the latter is a nineteenth century invention.
Before that time there were mainly what we would today con­
sider bass-baritones, who were not expected to go higher than
the F above middle C.

Though the high baritone did not exist as a genre when

Mozart composed operas, there is [today] considerable compe­
tition between baritones and bass-baritones to portray the
attractive, sexy hero of Don Giovanni or his equally delight­
ful counterpart, Figaro in Le Nozze di Figaro.4

The process of establishing the baritone voice as a distinct genre

seems to parallel closely the demise of the castrati. Donald J. Grout

states: "Rossini was the last important composer to write for the
..5
castrato.

Julian Budden in Verdi and the Contemporary Italian Scene takes

much the same view.

The eighteenth-century castrato had become a rarity since

1810 or thereabouts. His place as jeune premier together

"Throughout this study pitches will be identified by representing

C two octaves below middle C with capital letter, one octave below with
lower case, middle c as c^, and one octave higher as c-, etc.
•5
Henry Pleasants, "How High was G?," Opera News, 35 (February 20,
1971), p. 25.
/,
Robert Rushmore, "The Baritone," Opera News, 31 (March 11, 1967),
p. 28.

^Donald J. Grout, A Short History of Opera (New York: Columbia

University Press, 1965), p. 354.
 3

with his familiar title of musico had been taken over by

the female contralto, whose voice is particularly suited
to the cool heroics of Rossinian opera seria. Tenors were
reserved for villains or heavy fathers. From about 1830
on, however, the contralto became relegated to the subhero -
the hero's bosom friend or the heroine's silent adorer.
The tenor with his far greater resources of palpitating
emotion replaced her as the juvenile lead, relinquishing
his villainous functions to the basso cantante, soon to
develop in Verdi's hands into the dramatic baritone.^

The opera's loss of the castrato's combination of facility, range,

and power created a vocal vacuum. That vacuum was filled to a degree by

the appearance of more roles for mezzo-soprano but also in some measure

by virtuoso baritones apparently using a vocal style not unrelated to

that of the castrati.

There have been many stories passed down through the years
describing the extreme range of baritones of the early bel
canto era and their feats of vocal agility and flexibility.
The earlier works of Rossini, Bellini, and Donizetti, which
they sang, abound in high notes for the baritone with a
great deal of fioritura singing; however, the style of
singing upper tones then was much different than what we
hear in our concert hall and opera houses today. Presenc-
day singers are expected to sing their upper tones with a
great amount of resonance from the lower register, which
limits both their upper extension and flexibility. If our
present-day baritones were to sing their upper tones in a
falsetto manner, as was done in the past, their production
would be criticized as being false and unrelated to the
real voice.'

Nineteenth-century opera increasingly combined the musical

elements of subjectivity, heightened emotion, dramatic emphasis, and

more orchestral involvement. This combination provided an opportunity

for a man of Verdi's temperament, for he was able to relate music to

°Julian Budden, "Verdi and the Contemporary Italian Scene," in

The Verdi Companion, ed. by William Weaver and Martin Chusid (New York:
W. W. Norton & Company, 1979), p. 106.

^Antony Frisell, The Baritone Voice (Boston: Crescendo Publishing

Company, 1964), p. 11.
 4

business, politics, and social forces. Composers began to reflect

these factors in the roles written for the male voices.

Of all musical forms, opera is the most immediately sensitive

to changes in political, economic, social and general
cultural conditions. Its very nature as a complex and costly
public spectacle largely dependent on official patronage
or private subsidy makes it especially vulnerable to polit­
ical distastes and economic vicissitudes; its subject matter
reflects positively or negatively, current human preoccupa­
tions; its form, content, and idiom are all affected by
changing ideals of dramatic and musical style.9

Pleasants offers this generalization of the first four decades of

the nineteenth century:

Opera composers of all pertinent nationalities sought

increasingly to achieve a balanced casting. As they came
to rely less on floridity, apparently acknowledging florid
song to be unsuited to male voices, they developed a kind
of writing tailored to the masculine characteristics of
wide-ranged tenors, baritones and basses. The new operas
of Meyerbeer, Verdi and Wagner required a manly kind of
singing appropriate to virile heros and villains, and
audible against big orchestras in big houses.

The male singer, not surprisingly in such circum­

stances, began to achieve parity of a kind with the female
. . . the male singer invaded, although he never occupied
exclusively, what had with the disappearance of the castrati,
threatened to become a female realm, the one area in music
where masculine strength and masculine dexterity, decisive
in the playing of instruments, had not placed the female at
a competitive disadvantage.

Verdi apparently decided that the technical advances being

achieved in the use of instruments could be translated to vocalization.

All around him the instrumental world of the nineteenth century was in

flux. Paganini had dazzled concert goers with the virtuosic

g
George Martin, "Verdi and the Risorgimente," in The Verdi
Companion, ed. by William Weaver and Martin Chusid (New York: W. W.
Norton & Company, 1979), p. 95.
9
Grout, p. 536.

"^Pleasants, pp. 243-44.

 5

possibilities of the violin. Berlioz had succeeded in demanding and

securing more exacting technique for the brass instruments. Verdi's

predecessors (Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, and others) had already

succeeded in creating exacting vocal roles. At the start of the fourth

decade of the century, Verdi's conception of and his writing for the

existing vocal genre were basically unaltered from that of his pre­

decessors in terms of timbre, color, range, and tessitura. His own

concentration and insistence on an increasingly clearer dramatic

characterization served as a catalyst for the further vocal outpouring

of human emotion. It was with the baritone that Verdi took what in many

ways was an autonomous direction.

In the period of Bellini and Donizetti the baritone was still

considered a subspecies of bass and was still called basso
cantante (singing bass). In some of his last operas (in
particular Linda di C'namounix, Maria di Rohan, and the role
of Abayaldos in Pom Sebastien), Donizetti had begun to differ­
entiate between the baritone and the basso cantante, but this
diversification was chiefly the work of Verdi. Verdi not
only pushed the baritone to higher notes than Bellini or
Donizetti called for, but he raised the tessitura of his
roles, systematically obliging him to sing phrases in the
upper reaches of his register. In this way he created a
voice which is halfway between the bass and the tenor and,
in the upper register, brought him close to the tenor.-*-1

Verdi's creation of a high baritone came as a result of need.

The basso and basso-cantante of the preceding eras no longer sufficed

for his musico-dramatic creations. His precision in dramatic character­

ization resulted in a clearer distinction of vocal types.

Hand in hand with the evolution of Verdi's dialectic goes

his sharp characterization of voice-types, and also what
is perhaps his most striking single innovation - the
"discovery" of the high baritone . . . The Germans have
never until recently recognized it as an independent voice

"^Rodolfo Celletti, "On Verdi's Vocal Writing," Weaver and Chusid,

p. 226.
 6

category; their lower male voices are either "bass" or

"high bass." The French "baryton matin" is essentially
a low tenor. The Verdian high baritone, whose range is
similar, needs a much fuller consistency of tone.12

Verdi's writings, letters, biographies, as well as other

"Verdiana," reveal the fact aiat in addition to being a respected

composer, Verdi was pragmatic in terms of finance and politics as well

as having possessed a keen sense of theater. He displayed an awareness

of the demands of the stage and a "sixth sense" for the direction in
13
which public expectation and sentiment was developing. In this sense,

it is possible to suggest that Verdi saw the opening for a new, more

dramatically forceful type of male singer and moved to fill it with what

is now recognized as the "Verdian baritone."

STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

It is the intention of this study to examine the major baritone

roles in the following six operas: Nabucodonosor (hereafter referred to

as Nabucco) (1842), Ernani (1843), Macbeth (1847), Ri.goletto (1851),

Otello (1887), and Falstaff (1893).

The discussion will begin with a brief examination of the comments

of performing musicians and music critics who were contemporaries of

Verdi as well as those who are more recent. The focus here will be on

the quality and vocal demands made upon the baritone by Verdi's music.

The essence of the study will consist of Chapters III through VIII

12
Julian Budden, The Operas of Verdi (New York: Praeger
Publishers, 1973), p. 33.
13
See Franz Werfel and Paul Stefan, Verdi, the Man in His Letters
(New York: L.B. Fisher, 1942) and William Weaver, Verdi: A Documentary
Study (London: Thames and Hudson, n.d.) for further study of Verdi's
pragmatic business acumen and political awareness.
 7

where Verdi's music for baritone in -the operas cited above will be dis­

cussed in terms of quality, range, melodic nature, phrasing, dramatic

characteristics, harmonic implications, and other musical factors.

Finally, an attempt will be made to reveal any evolutionary trends

in Verdi's writing for the baritone voice during the fifty years between

Nabucco and Falstaff.

 CHAPTER II
&
4
i CRITICS AND THE VERDIAN BARITONE

Not infrequently the public of Verdi's day responded to his music

more favorably - positively - than did the contemporary press and the

performing musicians. This discrepancy between the press and the public

is verified by comments of musicians and music critics. Although even

in Italy Verdi was not always reviewed favorably, hostility toward his

music was more evident in the foreign press. Marcel Prawy illustrates

this difference of opinion in The Vienna Opera when describing the

Italian repertoire of an opera season (no date given, but approximately

1855) in Vienna:

On the following day the Italians used to take over the Opera
for two or three months and earned frantic applause with a
season of Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti and the latest operas
by Verdi - Rigoletto, II Trovatore, and La Traviata (which
were given an almost unanimous roasting by the Viennese
critics)

Knowledgeable musicians sometimes privately expressed grave con­

cern about the departure from traditional bel canto singing, especially

that which was evident in the music of Verdi. Two quotations will illus

trate, the first by Marie Wieck, sister of Clara Schumann. Miss Wieck

had been spending some time in Italy studying voice in Milan. She wrote

It is surprising how many young songstresses and often those

who possess excellent voices and highly cultivated musical
talents, are assembled in Milan to pursue their studies

"'"Marcel Prawy, The Vienna Opera (New York: Praeger Publishers,

1970), p. 22.
 9

under the tuition of Professor Lamperti (one of the seven

singing-masters of the Conservatoire, and agent for the
Opera). The sole object seems to be sharp, pointed, pass­
ionate, and vehement declamation; which, to produce the
most thrilling and charming effect, must be sung with a
full voice, and, above all, with the most powerful muscular
efforts, with wide open mouth and swelling breast, and all
this at the cost of the delicate throats of the females,
and at a total variance with all rules of art. The natural
blending of the register; the equality and beauty of voice;
the soft and full tone; the correct delivery; the perfect
piano and fine portament, and other attributes to noble
singing, as practised by Lind, Sontag, Persiani, Foder,
Tadolini, and many others, are not taken into consideration.
This style of singing is now seldom heard, and then by old
singers, who speak only of Bellini, Donizetti, and Rossini.
The youthful, vigorous singers of modern days have only one
name upon their lips, and that is "Verdi."2

The celebrated soprano, Jenny Lind, was no less critical of the

new style when she wrote:

My humble opinion is, that the frequently adopted method of

Italian singing is not the most natural and healthy. The
proof thereof is that we see only a few singers in our days
that know how to preserve their voice, having once been in
Italy and there acquired the habit of forcing more sound
out of their lungs than nature intended they should. I am
well convinced that my voice never would have been able to
preserve its natural elasticity and its character of high
soprano, had I undertaken to adopt the same forced style of
singing as is now-a-days almost unavoidable in Italy by the
present performances of Signor Verdi's operas . . . His
music is the most dangerous for all singing artists.^

George Bernard Shaw, never an advocate of Verdi's music, wrote this

sharp denunciation in 1893:

Verdi's worst sins as a composer have been sins against the

human voice. His habit of taking the upper filth of the
compass of an exceptionally high voice, and tr. '.ting that
fifth as the normal range, has a great deal t'- do with the
fact that the Italian singer is now the worst singer in the
world, just as Wagner's return to Handel's way of using the

2
John S. Dwight, Dwight's Journal of Music, VII and VIII (New York:
Johnson Reprint Corp., 1968), p. 7.
3
Ibid., p. 8.
 10

voice all over its compass and obtaining physical relief for
the singer and artistic relief for the audience by the con­
trast of the upper and lower registers has made the Wagnerian
singer now the best singer in the world. Verdi applied his
system with special severity to baritones.4

Not all observers and critics were negative about Verdi's vocal

writing, however. The public as a whole responded enthusiastically. In

the foreign news department of a French musical journal,"' 19 of 23

paragraphs were devoted to operas of Verdi scheduled for production in

1852. By that date the composer had already written 16 operas.

In 1854, a Mr. Harrison filed a report with John S. Dwight, who

was at that time the publisher of Dwight's Musical Journal, in which he

commented on the 1854 carnival season which he had just observed in

Florence. There he had heard a baritone, Signor Massonti, singing an

unnamed Verdi opera.

His voice is all that one could dream of in the human

throat. With power enough to fill the collosseum of Rome,
when he wishes, and seemingly endless breath, he can sing
with the most delicious mezza-voce imaginable, and the
modern school of music written by Verdi, which requires
strong lungs and great sentiment seems to be written

Bernard Shaw, The Great Composers, Reviews and Bombardments by

Bernard Shaw, ed. by Louis Crompton (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1978), p. 214. Shaw further states: "The whole secret of
healthy vocal writing lies in keeping the normal plane of the music, and
therefore the bulk of the singer's work, in the middle of the voice.
Unfortunately the middle of the voice is not the prettiest part of it;
and in immature or insufficiently trained voices it is often the weakest
part. There is, therefore, a constant temptation to use the upper fifth
of the voice almost exclusively; and this is what Verdi did without
remorse. ... He practically treated the upper fifth as the whole voice
and pitched his melodies in the middle of it instead of the middle of
the entire compass. . . . The upshot of that except in the case of
abnormally pitched voices, was displacement, fatigue, intolerable
strain, shattering tremolo, and finally, not, as could have been wished,
total annihilation, but the development of an unnatural trick of making
an atrociously disagreeable noise and inflicting it on the public as
Italian singing."

^Although the French journal is not named, the incident is cited

by John S. Dwight in Dwight's Journal of Music, VII, p. 74.
 11

especially for him. His voice preserves constantly whether

in singing the FFF or the PPP passages, the sympathetic
bright fresh timbre and luscious quality.6

The above described qualities of power, range, and dynamic control

reveal something of the nature of the "modern music written by Verdi."

As early as 1852 there was an awareness of an emerging "Verdi

school" as indicated by this excerpt from a review in Boston: "M.

Genibrel seemed decidedly of the modern Verdi school - a baritone of

very rich and beautiful quality, especially in the upper notes, and of

energetic delivery."7 Unfortunately there is no mention of the composi­

tion that was sung. The comments on "upper" notes and "of energetic

delivery" are significant, however. Verdi demands from the baritone

voice a quality of excitement and passion in the use of the upper

register.

Verdi himself spoke of a young baritone, Delmas, [no first name

given] who auditioned for a role in Giovanna d'Arco (1845) but was not

accepted.

As for Delmas, who was slated to sing the part, with his
powerful young voice it is obvious he can get up to an F
or possibly to G, but he hasn't baritone quality and it
would be difficult for him to join the middle notes to the
high ones.8

In addition to the factors of power and energy mentioned above,

music critics and performers have recognized the need for Verdian

baritones to sing sotto voce, which Verdi called for frequently. Peter

£
Dwight, I, p. 166.

7Ibid.

g
Carlos Gatti, Verdi: the Man and His Music, trans, by Elizabeth
Abbott (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1955), p. 324.
 12

Elvins has discussed this particular aspect of the baritone voice in

Opera News.

A baritone who cannot sing softly for pages, as required in

Simon Boccanegra and Don Carlos, will never make his mark as
a Verdi singer, but one who can combine a powerful voice
with the ability to sustain pianissimo phrases and provide.
varied vocal color will find no great problems with range or
tessitura, despite the exceptional moments that prove the
rule, such as Iago's Brindisi, which requires extraordinary
range and agility.9

In addition to range, power, and the ability to sing sotto voce,

music critics have consistently referred to the demands which Verdi

placed upon his singers in terms of dramatic acting. When Nabucco was

first performed in England, in 1857, the opera as a whole was reviewed

very negatively, but the performance of the baritone role was singled

out as being excellent. From the London Daily News, June 3, 1857, came

this terse review:

The airs are trite. . . . Signor Corsi, the baritone,never­

theless showed that his reputation.is deserved ... he has
great force and energy in the scenes of the Monarch's desola­
tion under the curse of heaven; his acting was feeling and
sympathetic. He has a superb baritone voice, which we hope
to hear employed in better music.10

In 1855, the New York Musical Gazette, reporting performances of

Rigoletto in Italy, Paris, London, and Vienna said, "It has pleased

[opera goers in the above-mentioned cities] especially where the role of

Rigoletto, which requires an actor of first order, has been committed to

able hands.

9
Peter Elvins, "Verdi vs. the Voice," Opera News, 36 (February 5,
1972), 10.
10
Dwig'nt, VIII, p. 37,

11Ifaid., VII, p. 95.

 13

Evidence of public acceptance in spite of negative musical

criticism is found in the inclusion of Verdi operas in the repertoire of

the new "Royal Italian Opera Covent Garden," opened in April, 1847.

Harold Rosenthal in Opera at Covent Garden included the observation that

in spite of the dislike of Verdi's music by the music director, Michael

Costa, Verdi's operas were staged because the public liked them. He

writes: "Grisi and Mario [two of the most famous principals of the

time] regarded Verdi's music as unsingable and a threat to the voice. .

12
. ." However Verdi continued to gain in popularity. From 1847 to

1865 a total of 12 different Verdi operas were staged at the "Covent

Garden," including the six to be considered in the present study.

Verdi was slowly gaining recognition, even if the leading

critics prophesied certain failure for every new Verdi
opera produced in London - proving once more that very
often it is the public, not the critics, who decide the
fate of new works.13

19
"Harold Rosenthal, Opera At Covent Garden, A Short History
(London: Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1967), p. 29.

13Ibid., p. 37.
 CHAPTER III

NABUCCO

Background

Nabucco was Verdi's third.opera. It followed Oberto Conte di San

Bonifacio (1839), and Un giorno di regno (1840). Although the title

given to the opera by Verdi was Nabucodonosor, throughout the libretto

the King of Babylon is called "Nabucco" and that title has become the

commonly-used one. Vincent Godefroy discusses the title.

In the Septuagint and the Vulgate he is Nabuchodonosor.

In the Authorized Version he becomes Nebuchadnezzar; but
our English Apocrypha retains the form of the Vulgate.
Nabucco, if we were not now accustomed to it, might strike
us as quaint and slightly irreverent. We may recall the
late Sir Victor Gollancz's malicious chuckle at the expense
of the Bournemuchisn who called him Nabucker. Yet he was
not so far out. Oriental scholars plump for Nabukudur

The Verdi scholar, Charles Osborne, cites ample reason for

Nabucco as the starting point for a study of the Verdian baritone.

But Nabucco is, after all, an appropriate starting point,

for it is with the eponymous hero of that opera that the
composer takes his first steps towards inventing the
Verdian baritone, who is not only a type of voice, but a
type of character in whose utterances we usually find
somewhere a trace of the personality and the voice of
Verdi himself. Or so I fancy.^

Verdi cast the title role of Nabucco for baritone. In so doing

he created what was co become a succession of baritone roles that have

"'"Vincent Godefroy, The Dramatic Genius of Verdi, I (New York:

St. Martin's Press, 1975), p. 18.

'"Ibid., p. 12,

14
 15

been summarized by Rodolfo Celletti in his article, "On Verdi's Vocal

Writing."

The forces of evil are embodied, in Verdi, by all the other

voices (baritone, bass, mezzo-soprano, and contralto) even
though some of these may, from time to time, side with the
tenor and soprano. Of all the other voices, in any case,
and this is typical of Verdi's operas, preeminence belongs
to the baritone, who usually has the function of a true
deus ex machina of the dramatic events.

It is impossible to give an unequivocal definition of

the psychological position of the Verdi baritone, because
his incarnations are extremely varied. In the general
picture of Romantic opera, the primary function of the
baritone would seem to be that of antagonist to the tenor.
As antagonist he can be either a rival in love or a charac­
ter who, as a symbol of a political force or of social or
racial prejudice, opposes either or both the soprano or
the tenor and plots their ruin.3

The present study begins with Nabucco in which the title role is

best illustrated by Celetti's identification of the Verdi baritone as a

"political force" with both social and racial prejudices.

Synopsis

Nabucco is divided into four acts and each is given a title: Act

I is "Jerusalem"; Act II, "The Unbeliever"; Act III, "The Prophecy";

and Act IV, "The Shattered Idol." Each act is accompanied by either a

quotation or a paraphrase from the Book of Jeremiah. The opera is set

in Jerusalem and Babylon in 586 B.C.

In Act I, "Jerusalem," the Hebrews lament their defeat by Nabucco,

King of Babylon. Zaccaria, the High Priest, enters with Fenena,

daughter of Nabucco. With Fenena as hostage, he reminds them that hope

is still left them. Ismaele, King of Jerusalem, rushes in to announce

that the enemy is close at hand. Zaccaria exhorts Jehovah to defeat the

3
Celletti in Weaver and Chusid, p. 225.
 16

Assyrian hordes. He entrusts Fenena to Ismaele's charge. Alone, the

couple declare their love. They are interrupted by the arrival of

Abigaille, believed to be the elder daughter of Nabucco, with a band of

Babylonians disguised as Hebrews. Abigaille, too, is in love with

Ismaele and offers to save the Hebrews if Ismaele will return her love;

he refuses. The terrified Hebrews, pursued by Nabucco and his troops,

pour into the temple. Nabucco rides to the very threshold of the Holy

Place, and Zaccaria threatens to kill Fenena if the Temple is profaned.

Nabucco hesitates before mocking God by ordering the Hebrews to

prostrate themselves before him; again Zaccaria raises his dagger

against Fenena, but it is snatched from his hand by Ismaele. The King

orders the Temple to be sacked; Abigaille vows to wipe the Jews from

the face of the earth and Zaccaria calls down the curse of heaven on

Ismaele who has betrayed his people.

Act II, "The Unbeliever," is divided into two scenes. Scene i

occurs in the Royal apartments in Nabucco's Palace in Babylon where

Abigaille has discovered a document which reveals that she is not the

daughter of the King, but a slave. She expresses her horror and then

thinks of her love for Ismaele as she vows vengeance on Fenena, her

father, and the whole kingdom. The High Priest of Baal enters and

reports that Fenena, who has been appointed Regent while Nabucco con­

tinues his military campaign, is freeing the Hebrews; Abigaille resolves

to sieze the throne herself.

Scene ii occurs in the hall of the Palace where Zaccaria, now a

prisoner, enters with the tables of the Law, praying to Jehovah. The

Levites assemble round Ismaele accusing him of treason. Hannah

(Zaccaria's sister), Fenena and Zaccaria declare that in fact Ismaele

 17

saved the life of a Hebrew, for Fenena has been converted. Abigaille

and her followers enter and demand the crown from Fenena, but Nabucco

arrives and snatching the crown from Fenena, places it on his head. Ke

orders all to bow down and worship him, saying he is King no more, but

God. At these words he is struck down by lightning, and, showing the

first signs of madness, asks who has snatched the royal sceptre from

him. Abigaille picks up the crown and places it on her head.

Act III, "The Prophecy," takes place in the Hanging Gardens of

Babylon. Abigaille is celebrating her accession to the throne; she is

given the death warrant of the Hebrews to sign. Nabucco is led in and

left alone with Abigaille who taunts him with being a coward; he refutes

this by signing the death warrant, which means that Fenena, his own

daughter, must die. He tells Abigaille she is a slave, and in reply she

produces the parchment that contains the proof of her lowly birth and

destroys it. The sound of trumpets, signaling the execution of the Jews

is heard; the King calls for his guards, but when they enter they arrest

him. Nabucco pleads for mercy, but Abigaille is adamant. On the banks

of the Euphrates the Hebrews in chains sing of their longing for their

homeland. Zaccaria enters and prophesies that Jehovah will triumph and

that Babylon will be destroyed.

Act IV, "The Shattered Idol," finds Nabucco in a nightmare, dream­

ing of leading his troops against Zion. Awakening, he hears shouts from

the street below and to his horror, sees Fenena being led to execution.

He rushes to the doors only to find them locked, and finally, realizing

that he is a prisoner, falls to his knees and prays for forgiveness. As

if in answer to his prayer, Abdallo, an old officer in the King's

service, accompanied by soldiers, arrives to defend him and help Nabucco

 18

regain the throne. The king and his followers march out.

Scene ii finds Fenena and the Hebrews being led to execution.

Zaccaria bids her go and win the palm of martyrdom. Cries of viva

Nabucco are heard and the king breaks in with his faithful soldiers and

bids them shatter the idol of Baal - but it falls of itself and breaks

into pieces. Nabucco sets the Hebrews free and tells them to return to

their native land and raise a new temple to Jehovah, the only true and

mighty God. All fall to their knees and praise Jehovah. Abigaille

enters, dying, and confessing her guilt, prays for forgiveness. As she

falls dead, Zaccaria again gives thanks to Jehovah.

Verdi retained in this opera a consistency of Biblical prototypes.

The High Priest, Zaccaria, could easily be Samuel, Elijah, or Isaiah.

One need not stretch the imagination far to see Abigaille as Jezebel.

Ismaele and Fenena experience all the historical burdens of being "cast

out" and "passed over."

However, the King of Babylon alone is based upon a Biblical

character. Godefroy comments:

. . . though his appearances are somewhat disjointed and

episodic, they make up for lack of development by their
emotional variety. He comes through as the first of
Verdi's illustrious line of baritones in whom dignity and
pathos are so intermingled that their villainy (as far as
they are villains) or their failings (as far as they are
failures) cannot but suffuse a glow of tragic nobility.
At the threshold of this gallery stands Nabucodonosor,
Re di Babilonia.5

Harold Rosenthal, program notes to Angel Recording, Nabucco,

SCLV-3850 (New York: Capital Records, Inc., 1978). Although this
synopsis is not quoted verbatum, considerable reference was made to it.

^Godefroy, I, p. 20.
 19

Music of Nabucco

Verdi has carefully built up the dramatic excitement of Nabucco's

first entrance at the Finale to Act I. Six scenes precede his appear­

ance, scenes in which the chorus, Zaccaria, Fenena, Ismaele, and

Abigaille have been introduced with clear indications as to their

individual characters and the roles they will play in the drama.

When Nabucco finally enters, his aggressiveness and kingly

character have been revealed by the Babylonian soldiers pouring into the

Temple and by the playing of the Babylonian ceremonial march. Sacri­

legiously, Nabucco rides his horse to the very threshold of the Temple

as the march ends. It is significant that his first words reveal him

as an infidel. Responding to Zaccaria's warning that this is the House

of God, he sings "Pi Dio che parli" (Who speaks of God?). He dismounts

from his horse, five measures of chromatically descending ^ chords are

heard, possibly as a musical illustration of his action but also per­

haps as a reference to his momentary loss of control over the situation

as the prophet Zaccaria threatens Fenena with a knife.

Nabucco continues with a tuneful aria or cantilena/arietta,

"Tremin gl'insani del mio furore" (Let the madmen tremble at my fury),

of sixteen measures in which he addresses the assembled people (ex. 1).^

Giuseppi Verdi, Nabucco (Milan: G. Ricordi & Co., reprinted,

1945). This and all subsequent examples cited from Nabucco are taken
from this source.
 20

ex. 1

ASDASTE
sottv tor*

^ ^Tre . . rein gl'in. s a . ni del mi . o. del raio f a . r o . re!

The passage, consisting of four four-measure phrases, is typical

of Verdi's regularity of phrase construction during this early period.

The abundance of rhythmic patterns may be

illustrative of militaristic aggressiveness as well as inner pathos.

Harmonically the passage is largely in B major with two measures

shifting to B minor when Nabucco sings of his "victims." The use of

sotto voce is appropriate for the restrained emotions of a King,

accustomed to dominating and controlling every situation but now faced

with events beyond his control, yet struggling to appear otherwise.

Several features in the ensuing ensemble illustrate how Verdi

carefully balanced the rise and fall of the relative strengths of the

two principal aggressors, Nabucco arid Abigaille. Following the sixteen

bars of solo by Nabucco, Abigaille emerges as the dominant voice for 24

measures with the ensemble lending principally chordal support. During

Abigaille's passage Nabucco engages in a call-response pattern with

her (ex. 2).

 21

ex. 2

AB

auo. vasperan-rachearoe rusplendi

AS

Nu . me, soccor - ria not, soccor. ria no. 1 soccor. ria

so no, perte quiso.no, per ce qu;

Nu . me, soccor - ria coi, soccor. ria no.i soccor. ria

l'empiaSion. ne scorrerdo

Later in the passage however, Nabucco assumes the lead with

Abigaille responding (ex. 3).

ex. 3

AS
ca dra, ca

gran Nu . rae.

ra! pie . t i !

gran

inaardisan . guefrapian . ti lai inraardisan-guefra.pian.ti e

 This musical give-and-take is effective in reflecting two strong

personalities in dynamic tension and competition with each other.

The passage clearly calls for a baritone of great vocal power,

capable of being heard against a soprano singing in a high range which

enables her voice to carry. The vocal demands are recognized by

Sherrill Milnes, acclaimed by many as the foremost Verdian baritone of

today.

This method or approach evolved from the fact that Verdi, by

writing heavier orchestration and a higher vocal tessiture,
almost forced the baritone of his time and all subsequent
generations to find a "new" voice, a different technique
involving more stamina and power in the top voice.''

Milnes' view is -supported by the fact that Nabucco must be heard over

the chorus and the orchestra as well. The range, too, is demanding;

Nabucco never sings lower than _e. The majority of his singing

encompasses the fifth from a_ to e^.

G. B. Shaw was not wholly inaccurate in suggesting that Verdi

exploited the top fifth of the baritone range.

Shaw accused Verdi of crimes against the human voice; of

confining the baritone to the top fifth of his range in
contrast to Wagner who distributed his vocal writing much
more evenly. Verdi demanded a true baritone with an area
of comfort roughly a tone higher than that of the old-
fashioned basso cantante; a voice that can move smoothly
and easily above the bass stave and open out round about
F and G. Such singers are rarer than is generally supposed.®

The ensemble follows operatic convention for the period. All

characters participate and are present for the dramatic moment when the

king defies Jehovah. The general scheme of the finale is also

''sherrill Milnes, "The Warren Legacy," Opera News, XXXIX, n. 18

(March 22, 1975), p. 26.

^Budden, p. 33.
 23

traditional with various segments denoted to an arietta, an ensemble, an

arioso, a cabaletta, all climaxed by an extended passage for the entire

group. Two of Nabucco's solo sections bear examination for the dramatic

purposes which they serve. Operatic recitative had long served a

modulatory function, but at Nabucco's "0 vinti, il capo a terra!" (0

vanquished, bow down!) (ex. 4), Verdi employs a declamatory style while

modulating from B major to G major through a series of chromatic move­

ments in preparation for Zaccaria's entrance. The imperious nature of

the king is thus reflected in the melodic style even while a new key is

reached.

ex. 4

ALLEGRO
•VA8.

O vin.ci.il ca.poa ter ra! tl vin.ci . tor son i . o.

ALLEGRO

Ben l'ho chiama . to in guer . ra, raa ven - ne il vo . stro

AS* 7 ^
' 9 9 9 9 * 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

P
j. A • I * 0 V - - - m m - m m \
* V-W U —1

re . si . sterrr.i
 24

ex. 4, cont.

i t.

Shortly after Nabucco orders the Hebrew "slaves" to their knees

he issues a new threat, this time to the temple itself:

Mio furor, non piu My fury, no longer

constretto, constrained
fa dei vinti atroce shall make horrible massacre
scempio. of the conquered.
Saccheggiate, ardete Plunder and burn
xl tempio, the temple!
fia delitto la pieta! Mercy will be a crime!9

The accompaniment figure (ex. 5) is not unlike a trumpet call to

battle, a broken chord outline underlying the martial character of

Nabucco.

ex. 5

(coa gioja fsroce)

Mio fu . ror, aoa piu co - strecto

g
English translation by Peggie Cochrane, cited from program notes
included with Nabucco, OSA—1382 (London: Decca Recording Companv, Ltd.,
 25

Throughout the extended finale, Nabucco repeats his threats to

plunder and burn the temple. A final admonition is given to the doomed

Hebrews: "Delle madri invano il petto scudo ai pargoli sara!" (Mothers

shall interpose their breasts in vain to shield their children!).

Little of dramatic significance is added as all principals and chorus

combine for a rousing finish reflective of the conventional operatic

finale complete with innumerable repetitions of text and music.

Act I serves as a type of Prologue and as such introduces all

characters with their respective loves, hates, and hopes. Nabucco is

strong enough to challenge and profane God. His use of sotto voce

suggests, at times, great self control and also periods of indecision.

Throughout Act I he exposes a large capacity for violence and

vindictiveness.

Nabucco's first appearance in Act II occurs in scene ii. Inter­

posing himself between Abigaille and Fenena, who are struggling for the

crown, Nabucco seizes the crown and sets it upon his own head. He then

issues the challenge, "Dal capo mio la prendi!" (Take it from off my

head!). Verdi emphasizes Nabucco's challenge musically by projecting

the voice to f^ where the word "prendi" (take it) is held for two

measures, i.e., eight beats (ex. 6), at ff.

1966). This and all subsequent translations of the libretto are taken
from this source.
 26

ex. 6

NAB* 1

(Terrore geaerale)

di!

The significance of Verdi using musical means to emphasize the

crown's elevation is seen later in the scene when the same crown is

lifted supernaturally from Nabucco's head.

An ensemble follows in which Nabucco voices his final insult to

the Hebrews. The structural organization of the ensemble is that of a

canon. Nabucco, assuming the position of leading figure, sings a motif

of two ascending leaps, a perfect fourth and major six respectively,

followed by a step-wise descent (ex. 7).

ex. 7

totto voce f eupo »

NABUCCO ^ ^ JL

A SDASTISO
 27

ex. 7, cont.

ra fa.ta . le; sui mu - ti sembian . ti

3

This motif is then repeated in canon,in the appropriate

octaves, by Abigaille, Ismaele, Zaccaria, and the chorus, each with

increased fervor. The imitation seems to heighten the sense of conflict

and adds dramatic value, seen through the "pairings" of the entrances,

i.e., Nabucco and Abigaille, Ismaele and Fenena, and Zaccaria and

chorus. Verdi's dynamic marking of jp and interpretive marking of sotto

voce £ cupo may be related to the dramatic characterization in at least

two ways.

S'appressan gl'instanti The moment of direst wrath

d'un'ira fatale; is fast approaching;
sui muti sembiant upon their silent faces
gia piomba il terror! terror already falls!
Le folgori intomo All about the thunderbolts
gia schiudono l'ale! a day of mourning and
di lutto e squallor! vexation is preparing!

First, Nabucco may again be struggling for control of both the

situation and of his own violent nature. As in Act I, where Zaccaria's

knife held to the throat of Fenena causes Nabucco to feign control

through the use of sotto voce, here he struggles with Abigaille for all

that the crown represents. Second, the continued repetition of the

Budden, p. 104. In his discussion of Nabucco's lines at this

point, Budden deals particularly with the phrase structure and Verdi's
"compression" of Solera's libretto. He calls the canon a "false canon."
 28

final two lines of the passage quoted above may be a visionary foretaste

of his own coming insanity. Zaccaria does, in fact, later call him

"Insano!" (Insane).

The ensemble is interrupted by Nabucco's twenty-one measures of

recitative.

S'oda or me! Babilonesi, Hear me now! Babylonians,

getto a terra il vostro dio! I throw your god to the ground!
Traditori egli vi ha He has rendered you traitors,
resi, voile torvi al he wished to subtract you
poter mio: from my power:

cadde il vostro, yours has fallen,

o stolti ebrei, oh foolish Hebrews,
combattendo contro me. fighting against me.
Ascoltate i detti miei . . . Hark to my words . . .
V'e un sol Nume . . . There is only one God . . .
il vostro re! your King!

The recitative is dramatically functional in that it is one of the

pivotal points of the opera. The God of the Hebrews is denounced,

deposed, and replaced by Nabucco himself. Verdi uses musical means to

illustrate this. The recitative is in secco style and the punctuating

chords are quite restless harmonically, being a series of tonic-

dominant progressions in an ascending chromatic pattern and culminating

in a deceptive cadence at the entrance of the ensemble. References to

God and Nabucco are underlined by a major chord. The single reference

to the "stolti ebrei" (foolish Hebrews) is illustrated by a minor chord.

Phrase by phrase Nabucco increasingly asserts his position until his

final pronouncement, "V'e un sol Nume . . . il vostro Re!" (There is

only one God . . . your King!). The melodic line ascends chromatically

in conformity to the harmony until the highest point, e^^, where Nabucco

equates himself with God. The ascending pitches may be interpreted as

balancing Nabucco's earlier forced descent from his horse (Act I), which
 29

was accompanied by five measures of chromatically descending chords.

In rapid exchanges between Nabucco and Zaccaria, and Nabucco and

Fenena, Verdi dramatizes the moment when Nabucco scorns the now con­

quered Jehovah and announces himself to be the one God: "Non son piu

re, son Dlo!" (I am king no more, I am God!) (ex. 8).

ex. 8

F
Ioso . r.oE-bre ipreadsadcla perua braccio)
* « 4 *
N
mi • Giulprostrati!... aonsonpiu

) W
/

(Ua fu 'ffiiae seoppU sul capo del Se.— Nabucodomsora:;

Cerrito seetestrapparsila corona dauoaforra sopraanatu.
f rale;la follla appareia tutti i suoiUaeacectLA fcxcto scocs•
^ M. ~"",-**-svp«glIo succ«de tasto ua profoado jileniio)

dim

On the word "Dio" (God), the voice ascends again to e^"*" as when

Nabucco earlier equated himself with God. The orchestra dramatizes the

moment with twelve measures of descending chromatics, encompassing four

octaves, possibly illustrating musically Nabucco's coming fall from

power. During this interlude the crown is supernaturally lifted from

Nabucco's head. The dynamic marking of ff_ rapidly diminishes to pp,

followed by a brief unison chorus section.

Nabucco here begins his first full-length aria, "Chi me toglie il

 30

regio scettro?" (Who takes my royal sceptre from me?),

Chi mi toglie il Who is it takes my

regio scettro? royal sceptre from me?
Qual m'incalza orrendo What horrid spectre is
spettro? pursuing me?
Chi pel crine, ohime, Who seizes me, alack,
m'afferra? by the hair?
Chi me stringe? Chi Who is crushing me?
m'atterra? Who lays me low? •
Chi, chi m'atterra? Who? Who is destroying me?
Chi? Chi? Who? Who?
0 mia figlia! E tu Oh my daughter! Do you
pur anco non even not
soccorri al debil fianco? help to support me?
Ah, fantiasmi ho sol Alas, I am surrounded by
present! . . . hanno phantoms . . . they have
acciar fiamme ardenti! flaming swords of fire!
E de sangue il ciel And the blood-red sky
vermiglio sul raio has fallen upon
capo si verso! my head!
Ah, perche, perchS, Alas, it has fallen.
sul ciglio una Why, oh why did a tear
lagrima spunto? start from my eye?
Ah, perche, ecc. Why, oh, why, etc.
Chi mi regge? Who will support me?
Io manco . . . I faint . . .

The aria contains great emotional variety, some of which is

occasioned by relatively rapid alterations of tempo.

Previously, Nabucco had scornfully referred to the "foolish

Hebrews," an indictment underlined by an F minor chord. This aria,

revealing his sudden madness, begins in that key. The aria vacillates

between F minor and A^ major, the latter appearing at the two points

appropriate to that color: Nabucco's weeping and his reference to his

daughter. This same spirit of tenderness recurs in Act IV, scene i, as

Nabucco awakens from his deep sleep to hear Fenena's name on the lips

of his subjects.

Throughout the aria, Nabucco's sudden emotional shifts are

mirrored in the music, as in this distraught line (ex. 9a), where the

eighth-note rests may possibly reflect Nabucco's frantic gasps:

 31

ex. 9a

zaorrendo spet tro?...Chi pel crine, ohime,

Nabucco's sudden cry of alarm (ex. 9b) is carried by the syncopa'

tion of the descending melodic line:

ex. 9b

chi mi. strin . ge chi mat . terra, chi, chi m'at

inealz.

rip mi.
. ter.ra, chi, chi m'at. terra? chi? chi?Oh! mia

IP Aalrr Sfcondando
^ !

ADAGIO

it canto
 32

Nabucco's humanity is expressed in this sentimental passage, now

in Ab major. At the words "0 mia figlia" (Oh my daughter), the poignant

moment is heightened by the introduction of a d^. The passage serves

•J^
also to prepare for the key of A major.

In this aria Verdi uses a version of the mad scene, inaugurated

during the Baroque period and continuing in popularity to the present

day. It is unusual, however, to find this type of aria assigned to a

baritone. Vincent Godefroy makes an interesting comment:

He is out of his mind - not coloratura straws-in-the-hair

mad, but schizophrenically deranged, carpet-chewing perhaps,
self-pitying certainly. His aria contains within its
framework a fine emotional display.H

Throughout this aria Nabucco's basic character undergoes continuous

alteration. In the course of the opera Nabucco appears in four con­

trasting ways: in self-worship, as schizophrenically deranged, as a

convert to Jehovah, and as magnanimously forgiving. This aria is one of

the means by which Verdi musically illustrates the changing character of

Nabucco. The insertion of gasping eighth-note rests after single words,

the use of nonsymmetrical phrasing, and rapid shifts of tempo are all

useful devices for the projection of schizophrenia through music.

Act III opens with a brief march, followed by a chorus section in

tribute to Abigaille who has usurped Nabucco's throne. During the

extended recitative which ensues, Nabucco enters and challenges

Abigaille's right to the throne. She dismisses her subjects and engages

the deposed and insane king in a long dialogue during which she asserts

her right to rule and her intention to destroy Fenena and the Hebrews.

"'""'"Godefroy, I, p. 27.
 33

The allegro vivo tempo reflects the intensity of the developing

conflict. The duet is not a static moment of reflection, but rather a

quick moving succession of events. Dyneley Hussey holds that this duet

is indeed Nabucco's finest scene in the entire opera.

Nebuchadnezzar himself is less clearly defined than the

later baritone parts. Although his entry on horseback at
the climax of the splendid and turbulent choruses of Act I
is finely contrived, he has, indeed, a poor and vacillating
part to play. His best music is contained in the scene with
Abigaille in Act III, a duet which already shows Verdi's
skill in handling a conflict of wills and emotions. The
wretched king's alternations of mood between impotent fury
and supplication are admirably portrayed.12

Nabucco is maneuvered into signing a death warrant for all

Hebrews, including his daughter, Fenena, who has been converted to that

faith. The _f^ employed on the word "tutto" (all) (ex. 10), sung forte

over the orchestra, serves to further emphasize the strength of

Nabucco's pronouncement.

ex. 10

. (poneilsii^eiloerende
- ^ , * . . ia carta ad Abigail!-J
m T- p ^ JK. m
X -J":/. I | f o y ' r \ s—i - ! 'r »< t -

rnar.te tuttoI.sra-el sia trattol

, 2- djtmpo

f col ennto

Nabucco's pathetic concern over Fenena's fate is expressed in the

b . b
movement to E minor and the following chromatic slide into F major

(ex. 11). The succeeding harmonic restlessness further emphasizes the

12
Dyneley Hussey, Verdi (London: J. M. Dent & Sons. Ltd.. 1973).
p. 22.
 34

mood of frustration.

ex. 11

Nabucco sings two short arietta-type solos within the larger

framework of the duet. The first is delivered as an aside. Nabucco

ponders his present state as Abigaille's prisoner.

(Oh, do qual onta aggravasi (Oh, what deep shame afflicts

questo mio crin canuto! my grey hairs!
Invan la destra gelida In vain my failing
corre all'acciar hand flies to my
temuto! once-feared sword!
Ahi, miserando veglio! Oh, wretched old man!
L'ombra tu sei del re!) You are but the shadow
of the King!)

The accompanying rhythmic ostinato persists throughout the solo

(ex. 12).

vasi

Although the pattern is consistent, the fluctuating key centers

reflect Nabucco's growing instability. The chromaticism leads, under

 35

insistent text repetition, to a deceptive cadence at Abigaille's

entrance. Unlike the conflicting emotions found in the mad aria at the

end of Act II, the music here underlines a single emotion, that of

frustration. The accompaniment pattern is indicative, however, of

Verdi's tendency at this point in his career, to use what many critics

have called "hurdy-gurdy" music.

Significant in terns of Verdi's increasing demands on the baritone

voice is the punishing tessitura. Within Nabucco's first solo section,

of eighty-three notes sung, forty-three lie at c' or above.

Abigaille's joy at gaining the throne is now expressed in an

outburst of fioratura. Nabucco inserts numerous repetitious expressions

of regret and remorse. The repetitions serve to relegate him to a

secondary position at this point in the duet.

Deh, perdona, deh, perdona Oh, pardon, oh, forgive

ad un padre che delira! a father who runs mad!
Deh, la figlia mi ridona, Oh, give me back my daughter,
non orbarne il genitor! do not bereave a father!
Te regina, te signora Let the people
chiami pur la gente of Assyria, lady and queen
assira; then call you;
questor veglio this old man asks
non implora nothing of you
che la vita but the life of
del suo cor! his heart's delight!

It should be noted here that when Nabucco asserts himself so

strongly in the beginning of the opera, he does so in theoretically

"bright" (sharp) keys, such as B major, D major, and E major. But

beginning with his mad scene and throughout the duet with Abigaille,

with its resulting humiliation, he sings in "darker" (flat) keys, F

minor and A^ major.

Throughout the extended duet the leading voice constantly changes

from Nabucco to Abigaille with first one and then the other dominating
 36

the texture.

The section is repeated with only minor variations and extended

through much text repetition. The nature of the vocal line and the

sonority of the baritone voice at this tessitura result in a psychologi­

cal alteration in Nabucco's character. His violent nature of Acts II

and III is gone. In its place is a melodic line revealing the fatherly

qualities of pity and grief. William Weaver's statement, "Actually, in

a Verdi opera, it is not the plot that counts . . . what matters is

character. From the characters comes the drama, and indeed, the
13
music." is certainly applicable here.

The words "perdona" (forgive) and "invano" (it is useless), sung

respectively by Nabucco and Abigaille, are broken by rests for musical

emphasis, illustrating the instrumental character of the melodic lines

(ex. 13). Verdi's use of the voice in an instrumental fashion is

further evidenced in the occurrence of turns and roulades on unimportant

ex. 13

me, no,
!>2

cor! deh per. do . na, deh per. do.ca. a

(Ute $
0 V. "*• ST V? /T\ U „ S. „

v r' ~ ( -| ^
r\ /f— —
i ....
ft. f* j """ - —" 1 11 -« j"-""" j

13,
'William Weaver, "Aspects of Verdi's Dramaturgy," Weaver and
Chusid, p. 141.
 37

words and syllables such as "che," "del," "nel." Rather than function­

ing solely as text these words become the means for instrumental

ornamentation.

Throughout Act III the king has been humiliated, but musically the

dignity of the king has been preserved. Although Nabucco has been

dethroned and denigrated, these characteristics are not reflected in his

music. On the contrary, Nabucco remains on an equal vocal plane with

Abigaille even though the latter is the dominant character at this

point.

As the curtain rises Nabucco is "immerso in profondo sopore"

(immersed in deep sleep). The orchestral themes suggest that Nabucco is

dreaming of the successive conflicting events of losing his crown, the

love of Fenena and Ismael, and the memory of his own military march.

During the recitative-arioso that follows, Nabucco relives his

conquest of Zion, unaware of his true status, that of prisoner. The

off-stage chorus sings "Fenena a morte!" (Death to Fenena!) as the

pronouncement is underscored by a funeral inarch played by the orchestra.

The threat to Fenena brings Nabucco to the threshold of his conversion

to the "Dip degli ebrei" (God of the Hebrews).

In a flash of regained sanity Nabucco pleads for forgiveness with

a sudden awareness of his past transgressions against God. Verdi

provides the dramatic/musical context for Nabucco's plea. Four measures

of allegro, during which Nabucco rushes frantically from door to door

finding each locked, precedes his statement, "ah, prigione io sono!"

(ah, I am a prisoner!). Two measures of ascending chromatics in the

bass give way to a piano "religious-like" unison string tremolo (ex. 14).
 38

ex. 14

Ah, prr.gio.nie - ro io

, (ritoraa. alia loggia,tiene !o sjuardo fisso verso U

7A pubblica Tia,indi sitocca.la. frocite ed esctaraa )

so . no! Di - o de - gli E -

| "" " P l*gg*Ti\un"»

I

The effect is a dramatic change of character for Nabucco. The

infidel is now the believer, the mad-man is now rational, the prisoner

has taken the first step towards freedom.

Nabucco falls to his knees to sing his longest and final aria of

the opera. Whereas Nabucco's first aria in Act I lauded himself, this

final one calls upon God for forgiveness.

Dio di Giuda! Judah's God!

L'ara, il tempio The temple sacred to
a te sacro, sorgeranno . , Thee shall rise again . . .
Deh! me togli a tanto Oh, rescue me from this
affanno terrible anguish
e i miei ritti struggero. and I will destroy my rites.
Tu m'ascolti! Gia dell' Thou hearest me! The
empio wicked wretch's sick
rischiarata e l'egra and sinful mind is clearing
menta! Ah! already! Ah!
Dio verace, omnipossente True and omnipotent God.
adorarti ognor sapr<?! I will worship Thee
from henceforth alwavs.

Standing in a long line of preghiere (prayer) arias, this one is

preceded by the cello and flute playing the same music which introduced

a prayer aria sung earlier by Zaccaria in Act II, scene ii. The result
 39

is a "holy" atmosphere within Nabucco's prison cell, during which he

prays to God with promises of reform. The use of the reiterated

introductory material suggests an affinity between Zaccaria and Nabucco

and may possibly be taken as Verdi's musical means of relating Nabucco

to the Hebrews.

The aria is in F major until the moment when Nabucco recognizes

his restored senses, "Gia dell'empio reschiarata e l'egramenta!" (The

wicked wretch's sick and sinful mind is clearing already!). At this

point there are brief excursions to F minor and major before

returning to F major (ex. 15). This seems to recall the tonalities

used previously when Nabucco pleaded before Abigaille in his wretched

ex. 15
 40

state, Nabucco's excitement at his healing is evident in the measured

intensity of the spirit, mood, and rhythmic motion of the orchestral

accompaniment for this passage.

The aria as a whole is an example of the traditional Italian

ornamentation of the melodic line now under the careful control and

precise writing that reflected the composer's wishes, rather than those

of the singer (ex. 16). The inherited influence of Rossini, as

explained by Hussey, seems to be evident:

Compared with that of Mozart and Cimarosa, as set down on

paper, his [Rossini's] writing may seem exceedingly ornate;
but that is to leave out of account, as all modern singers
do out of a misguided and pedantic regard for the written
note, all the ornaments and cadenzas with which the composers
expected singers to embellish the plain facts of their vocal
melodies. This freedom of the singers to improvise inevita­
bly led to abuse by performers who had more self-conceit than
taste, and Rossini set himself to put a check on their vanity
by writing down exactly what he wanted them to sing. In his
insistence that they should carry out his intentions he set
a precedent which Verdi was to follow . . .14

ex. 16

vcra-ce t onm. pis

</•
• •Jt = r

Cot Clfttri

Unlike the turns and roulades mentioned previously which occurred

on unimportant words and syllables, in this aria the elaborations, turns,

extensions, and other ornaments in the vocal line are consistently given

to important words. For example, the word "adorarti" (we adore, or

14
Hussey, p. 231.
 41

adoration), is extended with an ornamented cadenza (ex. 17). The word

is repeated four times, emphasizing Nabucco's acknowledged submission of

himself to the God of the Hebrews. The result is a fine combination of

vocal eloquence and textual integrity with dramatic appropriateness.

ex. 17

f. —r-
pro, a . do. rar „ ti ognor sapro, a . do. rar ti o - gnorsa
4 " .... . ,, —
zthrz > J 1

.* •#. •+ ,JLAJLL.
^== rf*-* .[?***
111 •£=3

Nabucco's final singing is a call to his soldiers to join their

newly-converted king in regaining the throne. "With the timing of the

rescue party in an old fashioned Western, Nabucco and his men arrive on
1.15
the scene.

The orchestra employs conventional military patterns (identical

to those used in the vendetta aria of Don Carlos in Ernani, to be dis­

cussed below) (ex. 18).

ex. 18

ALLEGRO

"'"^Budden, p. 110.
 42

They serve as a transition from prayer to pursuit and to revital­

ize the character of Nabucco.

In the thirty measures which follow, Nabucco alternates his

singing with that of the male chorus. The key is major, with an

intermediate cadence on D^. Again, in conventional style, the final

line of text, ". . . di_ mia corona al sol" (in the refulgence of my

crown) is repeated numerous times to the ending. Of special effect is

Verdi's use of the one The word is "corono" (crown), and may

possibly be taken as a final reference to the residue of personal

vanity in the converted king (ex. 19).

ex. 19
/r\_
* /. Jt Jt± JL •+. ~t
' " f • - j r f' - • —

sol, dimia co. rasa., corona al sol, ah! diniaco.ro nsal

y f\ 1

perte, per te ve . arena

perte, perte, per te ve - drea

As noted previously, here is an example of the baritone singing the

tenor's pitch.

In a final passage of twenty-eight measures, Nabucco calls for the

return of the Hebrews to Israel, "Ah, torna Israello" (Oh, return

Israel).

Ah, torna Israello, Oh, return once more, Israel,

torna alle gioie del return to the delights
patrio suol! of their native land!

Sorga al tuo Nume Let a new temple be raised

 43

tempio novello ... to thy God!

ei solo e grande, He alone is great,
e forte ei sol! mighty is He alone!

The vocal style is declamatory and involves extensive text repe­

tition. Terse one-measure or two-measure phrases are used in a march­

like framework. Although Nabucco has just referred to the beauty of

his own crown, he here again acknowledges the supremacy of Jehovah.

The key, A major, underscores a return to the brightness of Nabucco's

self-assertiveness.

Throughout the opera Verdi uses Nabucco nine times in a real solo

capacity. All the arias are quite tuneful. Often they introduce an
16
ensuing ensemble and recapitulate the preceding action.

Nabucco is used also in the large ensembles, always with a careful

preservation of his identity.

Abigaille, with her fury . . . and Nabucco with his threats

are most clearly differentiated from the rest by their very
individual contributions to the ensemble, echoing or
imitating each other in phrases which have a character of
their own.l?

The baritone tessitura lies mostly within the general area of the

fifth from a_ to e\ The lowest tone is _c. Thus, most of the singing

is concentrated in the vocal area of greatest dramatic power.

Opera choruses are better now than they were a hundred

years ago; and the title role, though it marks the begin­
ning of Verdi's love affair with the high baritone voice
is not beyond the reach of most members of the species.
It is far less exacting than Macbeth or Rigoletto.l®

"^Ibid., p. 74. Budden here relates this common formula, "scena

ed aria," to Rossini as his "most cherished formulae."

"^Spike Hughes, Famous Verdi Operas (New York: Chilton Book

Company, 1968), p. 25.

"^Budden, p. 112.
 The recitatives are inconsistent. They tend to show a Verdi who

hasn't made up his mind whether to go backwards to a secco recitative,

or to move forward to a full-blown arioso type. They do, however,

carry considerable dramatic action; this is especially true in relation

to some of Nabucco's arias which are rather static at times.

Dramatically, the strength of Nabucco's character rises and falls

conversely with that of Abigaille. He is strong and dominant in Act I.

With Abigaille's rise to the throne, the character of Nabucco subsides

in strength. This strength is restored in part through the use of the

prayer aria in Act IV. It is significant that at Nabucco's initial

involvement in the drama, when he is in control and asserting his

power, he sings in the "bright" keys of 3 major, D major, E major, and

A major. When confounded by Abigaille's usurption of his rule,

however, he uses the "darker" keys of F minor and A^ major, and others.

His regaining of self-control and sanity is underlined by a section in

A major.

It is part of Verdi's genius that his characters are sometimes

wicked without being repulsive. Consistent throughout is the tender­

ness expressed by Nabucco towards his daughter, Fenena. "Most of the

characters in Nabucco are thoroughly alive, and it is typical of Verdi

19
that none of them ... is odious, though they may be wicked."

The predominance of brass in much of Verdi's orchestration

presents a particular challenge to the baritone voice. There is little

melodic doubling, but rather a harmonic and rhythmic support of the

vocal line.

19
Eric Blom, "Giuseppi Verdi," Grove's Dictionary of Music and
Musicians, fifth ed., VIII (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1954), p. 728.
 45

Verdi always wrote mainly for the voice, treating even the
orchestra as a blend of human voices. While developing
his melodies he may have subsequently strained his vocal
chords, without even singing.20

Three dramatic elements have been suggested as being those

closest to Verdi's own temperament. These are: the "feminine" element

of love, the "masculine" element of activism, and the element of

21
patriotism. These are identified in the character of Nabucco. Verdi

has infused this king with a redeeming love and tenderness when refer­

ring to his children (which could offer psychoanalytical implications

22
in light of Verdi s own early family losses), an activism, both anti-

God and later pro-God, and finally a deep undercurrent of patriotism

culminating in his final aria, "Ah, torna Israello" (Oh, return Israel).

There is much in Nabucco's vocal lines that is almost pure folk

material. The regularly repeated 1 II 1 I and £ 1 I «T^FI 1

patterns are very dance-like. When these folk-rhythms are infused with

the emotional singing of Italian pure vowel sounds and the nuances of

ornamentation, they are particularly attractive. Again, Verdi knew his

audience. He was a composer who seems to have been able to reconcile

audience expectations and his own standards as a composer. As Verdi is

20
Joseph Wechsberg, Verdi (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1974),
p. 44.
?1
Pierre Waleffe, Verdi (Paris: Editions Hermes, 1966), p. 26.
79
Biographers of Verdi are quick to point out the deep grief
suffered by the composer over the deaths of his first wife and two
children within the short space of two years. "Neither is anything
definitely there that might betray his innermost humanity, the heart of
his heart, which never wept openly except in melody. This veiling of
himself was not intentional, it was an organic characteristic, not a
virtue, but an instinct of the first order. Giuseppi Verdi was that
very rare thing among artists, a dissembler, a person who made small
ado about himself and his sufferings." Werfel and Stefan, p. 14.
 46

often quoted as recognizing, it was the "box office that counted.'

This Milanese public, who he wished to reach, composed of

artisans, lower bourgeois and laborers, rebelled against
the presence of the Austrians. He would do well to please
them. By chance, on the first stroke, Verdi touched the
sensitive spot. 3

The converted king, called passionately to his followers as

picked up the fallen crown, struck the nerve center of Austrian-

dominated Milan.

93
Werfel and Stefan, p. 14.
 CHAPTER IV

ERNANI

Background

With the success of Nabucco followed closely by that of _I Lombardi

(1843), Verdi was flooded with offers of opera contracts. After con­

sideration he decided to accept a commission from Count Mocenigo,

director of the Gran Teatro la Fenice in Venice. With his astute sense

of business Verdi negotiated seriously the specific terms of the con­

tract. Among others, four major stipulations were demanded and granted.

Verdi would not accept less than 12,000 Austrian lire; the singers were

to be chosen by Verdi himself from the season's roster; the choice of

subject was to be Verdi's responsibility entirely; he was to choose and

pay the librettist himself after having decided on the subject.^

As a result of these terms Verdi's choice of subject matter for

his fifth opera was the play Hernani (later to be changed to Ernani),

written by the French playwright, Victor Hugo. Verdi's choice of

2
librettist was Francesco Maria Piave.

After numerous discussions and arguments with his librettist, all

of which were a matter of course for Verdi, the title role was changed

from a contralto to tenor for the premier performance. Don Carlos was

changed from tenor to baritone to accommodate the resident baritone at

''"These terms are cited in Verdi's letter to Count Mocenigo, dated

May 25, 1843. The entire letter is quoted in Stefan and Werfel, p. 99.

47
 48

the Fenice theatre, Antonio Superchi. Antonio Selva was cast as the

bass, Di Silva. Although both Verdi and Piave made conscious efforts

towards fidelity to Hugo's play, the dramatic aspect suffers in that

Ernani is consistently a lesser figure when compared vocally to the

?
Verdian baritone and bass."

Ernani premiered on March 9, 1844. Verdi's reaction is recorded

in his letter to Giuseppina Appiani on March 10, 1844.

Ernani, performed last night, was a pleasant success. If

I had had singers who were, I won't say sublime, but at
least able to sing in tune, it would have gone as well as
Nabucco and I_ Lombardi did in Milan. Every number, big or
little was applauded, with the exception of [Carlo?] Guasco's
cavatina.3

The demanding role of Carlo caused considerable difficulty for

4
the baritone, Antonio Tamburini (1800-1876), who was contracted to

perform the role at the London premiere of Ernani, three years later.

?
"Budden, p. 139. Verdi had briefly toyed with the idea of pro­
ceeding with Shakespeare's King Lear which had been much on his mind.
His reason for not choosing it for the Venice contract was purely a
practical one. The title role would surely have been written for bass
or baritone. The Fenice opera house had no really first-rate bass or
baritone on its roster. Verdi at this time preferred to write for the
specific voices available so he decided to shelve King Lear until he
received a commission from a theatre with an adequate singer for the
title role. Verdi never wrote that opera.

"^Budden, p. 147.
4
Pleasants, pp. 184-85. The author deals at length with the life
and career of this great baritone. "Its [Tamburini's voice] range was
variously given as from C to G and from F to F. Both may be correct,
the first applying to his youth, the latter to his maturity. As a
young man his voice may, for a time, have had some of the character­
istics of today's high baritones . . . Later on, it must have been
closer to what we now call a bass-baritone. An illustrative fact is his
declining to sing the role of Don Carlo in Ernani on the grounds that it
was too high for him. That was in 1347, when Tamburini was forty-seven,
an age when most true baritones still have a G. It is also significant
that the part was ultimately sung by Alboni, a mezzo-soprano."
 49

Synopsis of Ernani

The opera is sec in Argon, Spain, 1519. Ernani consists of four

acts, the first with two scenes, and the remaining three with one scene

each.

Act I, scene i, is a mountain retreat in Aragon. Here Ernani,

really Don Juan of Aragon, deprived of his wealth and now under ban by

the king, is in his mountain camp gloomily brooding over the approaching

marriage of Elvira, the woman whom Ernani loves, to her elderly uncle,

Don Ruy Gomez de Silva. Ernani and his band of followers pledge to

prevent the marriage by abducting Elvira from her apartment in Silva's

castle.

Scene ii is in Elvira's apartment in Silva's castle. She is

alone and brooding over her coming marriage to Silva. Grief-stricken,

she calls out to Ernani to come and rescue her; however, it is Don

Carlo, King Charles I of Spain, who enters the room and expresses his

deep love for her. Elvira spurns his advances and he is about to carry

her off by force when Ernani arrives. Carlo and Ernani recognize each

other at once. Carlo expresses a contemptuous pity for Ernani and bids

him flee and save his life. Silva suddenly enters and challenges both

men. The arrival of the royal esquire, Don Riccardo, reveals to all the

presence of the king, and though still enraged, Silva bows in deference.

Carlo ensures Ernani's escape by referring to him as a "trusted man."

Ernani expresses his hatred for Carlo but is urged by Elvira to flee and

does so.

Act II takes place in a magnificent hall in the castle where

Elvira and Silva are soon to be married. Elvira now believes Ernani to

be dead. At this moment a squire announces a pilgrim to be at the door

 50

seeking refuge. Silva, believing an honored tradition that the pilgrim

will bring happiness to those sheltering him, orders him admitted.

Upon Elvira's entrance in bridal attire, the pilgrim throws off his

cloak, revealing himself to be Ernani. He promptly offers his life as a

wedding gift. His followers are scattered and the king has put a price

on his head. Silva assures him protection in accordance with Castilian

tradition of hospitality, and goes to prepare for the defense of the

castle. Upon returning, he finds Elvira and Ernani embracing; before he

can do anything the king approaches. Code of honor demands that Silva

honor his pledge of hospitality so he hides Ernani in a secret passage­

way. When the king demands the fugitive, Silva offers his own head as

forfeit; Carlo then threatens Silva with execution, and Elvira rushes

forward to beg mercy. Silva's resolution to protect Ernani is nearly

broken when Carlo takes Elvira as a hostage; Silva regretfully lets

Elvira go. Silva then challenges Ernani; the bandit agrees to fight but

asks to see Elvira once more. Learning of her departure with the king,

Ernani exclaims, "He is our rival!" Ernani persuades Silva to let him

join him in his fight against the king, and as a token of faith gives

him his hunting horn, with the promise to kill himself whenever the old

man blows the horn.

Act III takes place at the tomb of Charlemagne at Aix-la-C'napelle.

Carlo is awaiting the decision of a group of electors who have met to

choose a new Holy Roman Emperor. Aware that a band of conspirators

intends to meet here, Carlo hides in the tomb hoping to learn the

identity of the conspirators. As the conspirators arrive, Carlo

observes that Ernani and Silva are among them. Lots are drawn by the

conspirators to choose which one has the honor of assassinating the

 51

king; Ernani is selected. A prearranged signal of three cannon shots

announces that Carlo has been elected Emperor. As Elvira enters with a

crowd of courtiers, electors and soldiers, Carlo, newly elected Charles

V, steps forth from hiding and orders the conspirators taken captive.

Sentence is pronounced, with the nobles to be executed and the others

imprisoned. Ernani then declares his true identity to be Don Juan of

Aragon, whereupon Elvira once again begs Carlo for mercy. In the spirit:

of Charlemagne, Carlo grants clemency to all conspirators and gives

Elvira to Ernani as wife. All proclaim the magnanimity of the new

Emperor; Silva alone broods on revenge.

Act IV is set on a terrace at Don Juan's palace in Aragon. The

ball in progress celebrates the coming marriage of Ernani to Elvira. As

the lovers come onto the terrace and embrace they are interrupted by the

sound of a distant horn. In great horror Ernani realizes what it means.

As the sound of the horn comes closer Ernani feigns illness and sends

Elvira for medicine. Silva enters and demands that Ernani honor and

fulfill the oath he made earlier. Deaf to the pleas of Ernani, Silva

offers the young nobleman the choice of a dagger or poison. Elvira, who

has returned, adds her pleas to those of Ernani, but Silva will not hear

of sparing him. After a touching farewell, Ernani seizes the dagger

and, honoring the promise made, stabs himself.^

The Music of Ernani

Richard Kohr has recognized the dramatic logic in the way Verdi

treats the four principals, Carlo, Ernani, Silva, and Elvira.

Charles Osborne, The Complete Operas of Verdi (New York: Alfred A.

Knopf, 1979), pp. 85-88. Considerable reference was made to this
synopsis.
 Act I runs slightly under an hour and introduces first the
tenor and then the soprano in arias establishing their
personalities and the emotions motivating them. With the
arrival of the baritone and the bass, the story begins to
move.^

As with Nabucco, each act is shorter than its predecessor, each

utilizing less chorus, focusing instead on the principals.

Don Carlo's first appearance in Act I is preceded by nine bars of

agitato string music. He enters following Elvira's revelation of love

for Ernani. His first words of recitative, addressed to Giovanna, who

accompanies him, serve to identify the brusque, imperious character

which Verdi assigns to him musically (ex. 1).^

ex. 1

' T' i

IUVANNA

Signor, dalunghi giomi pensosaog-nora.ogniconsorzio;.

CARLO

Fa che a me venga...e tosto.

REcrr:

£
Richard Mohr, cited from notes to Ernani, recording JSC-6183
(New York: RCA, Colombia Records, 1968).

^Giuseppi Verdi, Ernani (Boston: Oliver Ditson and Company, n.c.).

This and all subsequent musical examples from Ernani are taken from this
source.
 53

Throughout the opera Don Carlo is characterized as demanding,

occupying a position of strength. In this first passage the lines are

delivered secco, in quick parlando; the order given is quickly obeyed.

In a short soliloquy, the style changes from secco to accompagnato

recitative and finally to cantabile for the reflection, "Quel cor

tentiamo uno sol volta ancora" (Let us try that heart just one more

time) (ex. 2).

ex. 2

cnntnhile "' "s,

,7# I','' .^ .
- k f c — , L| • • A

.diero... Qoelccrxen .t:a . mo.... a . na sol vol. ta an.CO.

A
' U,
9o v> ^ .
tf
fA'inftct PP ^
• .... . 2.' 1

ALL1MOSSO

Si. rel... fia ver?.. voistes

The range of an octave f_ to _f and an ornamental turn all reveal

that Verdi xvas not hesitant to place vocal demands on the baritone.

Following a succession of rapidly-delivered words, the vocal line

becomes more melodic in nature. Verdi does not hesitate to voice the
bl
highest note of the phrase, d_ , on the unimportant word "un." The

highest note of the entire passage, f\ occurs on "una," accenting the

final, weak syllable of the word. Verdi is here again treating the

voice as a vocal instrument rather than observing conventional rules of

declamation. Carlo's final word, "ancora," (again), decorated with the

 54

turn so often used by Verdi at this period, ends on a deceptive cadence;

he is suddenly interrupted by Elvira who perceives her visitor to be the

king.

The ensuing dialogue between Elvira and Carlo further contributes

to the early dramatization of the character of Carlo. In a succession

of rapid exchanges Carlo is revealed as being demanding, in love with

Elvira, enraged at Ernani, all with impetuously quick changes of mood.

Sudden orchestral changes of dynamics and tempo serve to sharpen the

focus on Carlo's character. Illustrative of this is the passage, "Qui

mi trasse amor possente" (Powerful love drew me here) (ex. 3).

ex. 3

Qui mi tras . seamor pos.

brillnM*

Here the tutti-brillante, with brass doubling the vocal line, and

the crisp rhythmic pattern serve to underscore the fierce passion which

Carlo expresses for Elvira. The intensity with which Carlo presses his

demands is thus identified early in the opera and remains consistent

through the end of Act III. Of the ninety notes sun.g, fully a third

lie at the pitch of c^ and above, further contributing to the expression

of passion already mentioned.

This duet is very similar to that of Abigaille and Nabucco in

Nabucco. Carlo's demands and Elvira's refusals grow in passion.

 55

VO
Elvira's b_ on the word "cessate" (cease or stop) is followed

immediately by Carlo's outraged question, "E un masnadiero fai superbo

del tuo cor?" (And you allow a bandit to boast of your heart?) (ex. 4)

ex. 4
f.

No!.. cessa.£e...No!.. ces . sa -

fjt i. •

c unrnasna.
8-
% SAizteSJtAiL

797777777 7

O-gai

By projecting the baritone's pitch to _f on the word "cor"

(heart), Verdi has enabled Carlos to sing over the _ff orchestral

dynamics. The heightened drama rapidly leads to Carlo's love aria which

comprises the second movement of the duet proper.

Da quel di cne t'ho Since that day when I

veduto bella come un saw you, beautiful as a
primo atnore, first love,
la mia pace fu perduta, my peace of mind has been
tuo fu il palpito del lost; the beat of my
core. heart is yours.
Cedi, Elvira, a'voti Give way, Elvira, to my
miei; wishes;
puro amor da te sesio; I want pure love from you;
 56

ah, gioia e vita esser ah, you must be the joy and
tu dei del tuo life of your lover, of
amante, del tuo re. your king.®

In this first real set-aria for baritone, Verdi has kept the

melody, tuneful as it is, centered in the upper third of the baritone's

range. The result is a sonority which is particularly reflective of the

impassioned text. The phrasing is very conventional. Sixteen measures

1 2
are symmetrically divided into four-bar divisions, a - a - b_ - a_ , x-;ith

each phrase punctuated at mid-point by rests (ex. 5).

ex. 5

AXDAHTIKO tantabilf

Daqueldi.~.._...che t'ho ve.du . . ta beiJa

rf-''. j i v ,

" 4J '
7LI!
p 'LL1
r\ i * m. m •
\ 1 |
' J ' <w
[1
»
i j
' .m.,-n

yTryrr 7TVYTT

IStni.

co.me unprimoa.roo re, lamiapa . . ce fiiper.du . - ta, tuofti:1

L
\/mV „ - ~ .—.

V LLJ UJ
Uli col LU ' Ll! ' i r 1
i j i
canto
, - T> -r T' .m.n I« 1 » • >

~p~t p7i V? J' im '^rrryr V'i V IT

The emotional content is heightened by vocal ornaments, sustained

g
William Weaver, cited from the libretto accompanying Ernani,
JSC-6183 (New York: RCA, Columbia Records, 1968). This and all sub­
sequent translations of the libretto are taken from this source.
 57

high notes, reinforced with brief melodic doubling by the strings and

winds. The precision of Verdi's writing eliminated any need or oppor­

tunity for decorative improvisations on the part of the performer, again

demonstrating the growing control of composer over singer. The aria,

in B major, is almost completely diatonic except for a conventional

movement to the dominant for section b. Accompaniment is mostly in the

often-criticized Verdian "grind-organ style." Melismas or illustrative

figures that do occur are reserved for emotionally connoted words like

"amore" (love), "palpito" (palpitate or beat), "pace" (peace) and "core"

(heart). In contrast to some of the barbarisms used on such words as

"un" and "una" mentioned above, Verdi's ornaments here are used with

greater textual justification. A full half of the 102 notes sung are
1 1
scored at c_ or above. Four times the baritone must sing _f in full

voice, justification enough for substituting a contralto for the

baritone when the opera was first staged at Covent Garden.

Carlo is interrupted by Elvira at the conclusion of his outpouring

of love. There is an abrupt change to the parallel minor key of B

minor as the two proceed in a florid and passionate duet. Once again we

see Verdi's fondness for soprano-baritone duets, a vocal combination

that he exploits in many of his operas. The excitement of this and

subsequent soprano-baritone duets is intensified by pressing the

baritone into a high tessitura, enabling him to sing on equal vocal

terms with the soprano. Passages of parallel thirds, sixths, and tenths

are frequent. Textual repetition is epidemic; Carlo repeats the final

two lines of his text in twenty of the thirty-one measures sung.

Much of the duet reflects Verdi's identification with operatic

conventions of the period. For him, at this point, the music is the
 58

drama and vice-versa. Illustrating this is the passage for both singers

leading to the first high sung by Carlos in the opera (ex. 6).

ex. 6

sunt.

. ta del tuo a . man - . te, deltuoaman . te.del tuo

An ornamental cadenza concludes the duet. Although one may sus­

pect improvisation the score reveals that Verdi has again written the

ornamentation rather than leaving it to the whims of the performers.

Verdi's treatment of the melodic lines achieves the baritone-soprano

sonority which he evidently admired (ex. 7), adding dramatic intensity

as well as vocal opulence.

ex. 7

re, ah! gio.jae vi . . . . ta es . ser tu dei

A • -g- V I
 59

ex. 7, cont.

ah! ah! del tuo

Following the duet, Carlo's mood turns from polite entreaty to

imperious demand and Elvira becomes openly defiant. This change in

dramatic direction is effected by dialogue in recitative leading to

Ernani's entrance. The three characters become involved in a typical

Verdian trio.

Duets which end as trios are not so uncommon in Italian

opera, but Verdi's treatment of this one is quite out of
the ordinary. First, there is a verse for Don Carlo in
measured, declamatory style, each phrase in a dialogue
with the orchestra. This type of verse half-way between
recitative and formal aria-movement is to serve Verdi
often in the future and in some of his strongest situations.
(Precedents abound in Donizetti, but rarely with the
orchestra playing so bluntly assertive a role as here.)^

Carlo is now pitted against Elvira and Ernani; the allegro

vivacissimi tempo results in great energy and intensity. Again Carlo is

required to sing seven times in the course of the trio. Taken as a

whole, the ensemble suggests that Verdi was striving for more musical

excitement and emotion than for textual clarity. Twice Carlo is pro­

jected to ^ (ex. 8) as he sings unison with tenor and soprano. As

observed by Donald J. Grout, Verdi's employment of unison here results

9
Budden, 152. In the first two chapters of his work, titled
"Verdi and the World of the Primo Ottocento" and "Characteristics of the
Early Opera" respectively, the author deals at length with the histori­
city of the various aria and recitative forms and the vocal pairings
and combinations used and adapted by Verdi.
 60

in considerable excitement.

Another common device, heard sometimes in Spontini and

increasingly often in Rossini, Donizetti and later com­
posers is the declaiming of a salient melodic phrase in
unison or octaves by both singers of a duet or by a whole
ensemble or chorus, an electrifying effect at high moments
in a scene.10

ex. 8

al pie. No, no, que . st' alma, in si

AT 2* • =- >•
KK. _ j-- 1 " 1 : j " " j " ^ =j

V 0 re. Ah! s»,in o . diarciein a.

# £ £ ii ~ £
C V: ' i - 1 - i —— 1 3
: " • 1
stol . _ . to. Ad un m:o cen -no per.
6

>-
A >• ts-

SL. & 0 " '' J ' * ' j f •—*=• ' 1 " -=j

fj i
fie.ro rr . o . m e n t o . . . . . . . . . non.... CO . . n o . s c e l'a . m a r . t.e ne il
•=- re.
A*
.a_
£K.

mor pa . ri sia-mo vie . nt a -dunque, di . sfi . doti.o re.

£. £ •£ *
hk • .

.du .to sa . resti...- va... ti.... sprezzo. pie ta . dehodi te.

No, cue . st alma in si fie.ro mo. memo aon... co . . nosce la.

** In o- - diarcieirs a . mor pa . ri sia.mo vie ., n: a . dunque, di.

Through the quantity of singing and the vocal range demanded of

the baritone, Verdi delineated the dramatic character of Carlo musicall

in such a way that throughout the stretta he assumes complete vocal

equality with both tenor and soprano.

The finale of Act I, succeeding the trio and beginning with the

10Grout, p. 357.
 61

entrance of Silva, is quite extended. Silva surmises that Carlos and

Ernani have expressed their separate love for Elvira, his own fiancee.

Failing to recognize Carlo as king, Silva promises to vindicate Elvira's

honor and his own in separate duels with the two guilty men. Carlos is

offered first duel whereupon he reveals his identity. In a massive

«

outburst, all but Elvira and Ernani confirm the presence of the king

(ex. 9).

ex. 9

sot io per te!

? ' W. JT

£ K .\* e des.so il re!!!

/*'• pp JL.
F .mo
sol io per te! tre.
KF'J *

. mag* . gio al re:!!..

S 2

Io
sn.. PP JL* s o . . n o 11 re!!!.,

^e des.so u re!!!
rAc pp

t des.so (1 re!!!

des . . so il re!!!

The _ff dynamic level serves to emphasize the contrast of the sotto

voce which immediately follows. In the 13 measures of the ensuing

unaccompanied full ensemble, it is Carlo who dominates, detached from

the main ensemble. Each principal now reveals his own reaction to the

presence of the king. For the first time in the opera Carlo sings sotto
 62

voce, in a hushed undertone, alternating with the ensemble. Verdi has

thus revealed a new facet of Carlo's character, that of respect for

Silva's age and his own sensitivity as king.

Through the following full ensemble Carlo's identity and voice are

drawn into the greater whole of the ensemble. All individual texts are

swept into the musical texture and individual character delineation is

momentarily lost. It is a typical operatic vocal and instrumental dis­

play with almost no advancement of plot.

Verdi restores the identity of each principal with an intermediate

passage of recitative-arioso during which Carlo reveals for the first

time his own designs on the coming electorate. Forgiving Silva's

threat, Carlo sings:

Morte colse l'avo Death took my august

augusto, ancestor,
or si pensa al now they are thinking of
successore. . his successor.
La tua fe conosco I know your loyalty and your
e il core, vo'i heart; I want
consigli a faithful man's
d'un fedel. counsel.

Verdi has set the first two lines, references to Carlo's deceased

ancestor, in G minor with a descending melodic direction (ex. 10). The

two lines referring to Silva and his needed counsel are in G major.

Verdi may be resorting to the use of minor to reflect sadness and

solemnity at the memory of a dead ancestor and major to reflect tran­

quility and trust in Silva, a practice which would follow the

conventions of the period.

 63

ex. 10

r—
na .to Mor-te col se sto or

JL

pen.saal sue . ces so re... La tua fe CO

After offering to "save" Erna .i, Carlo is once more drawn into a

massive, musically-oriented finale, during which he voices his designs

on the Imperial Crown.

Piu d'ogni altro More than any other I aspire

vagheggio io to the glory with which
fulgore di che the imperial crown
splende cesarea corona shines:
se al mio capo destino if destiny places it on
la dona, my head, I will be able
d'essa degno mostrarmi to show myself
sapro. worthy of it.
La clemente giustizia I'll make clement justice
e il valore, and merit
meco ascendere in trono ascend the throne
faro, ecc. with me, etc.

Carlo's appearance in Act II occurs at Silva's castle where

preparations are underway for the coming marriage of Silva and Elvira.
 64

Carlo's entrance is heralded by a march-like melody. The ensuing sixty-

eight measures of exchange between Carlo and Silva alternates between

recitative and arioso. It is the most extended such passage of the

opera. Carlo accuses Silva of betrayal by hiding the bandit, Ernani,

and Silva counters with claims of honoring his word to protect Ernani.

In contrast to Silva's former challenge to a duel, it is now Carlo who

demands Silva's head. Verdi's use of the orchestra to create and build

the mood is evident in this arioso. Throughout Carlo's mounting

indignation over Silva's hiding of Ernani, the orchestra continues to

build in intensity and dynamic level (ex. 11). Carlo's final threat is

to burn Silva's castle.

Vedremo - We shall see -

De'ribelli 1'ultima The last horde of rebels,
torma vinta, fu defeated, was
dispersa; scattered;
il capo lor bandito, their bandit chief,
Ernani, Ernani,
Al tuo castello ebbe was given refuge in your
ricetto. castle.
Tu me'l consegna, o il Deliver him to me, or
foco, ti prometto, qui fire, I promise you,
tutto appianera! will raze all!
S'io fede attenga, I keep my word,
tu saper be puoi. as you will know.

ex. 11

1. •. -*•
4 ^ —•» - — ~r : j , ? 'r - r - ' r 7= ^ • - **

.dre. . mo... de fi . bel - li lul.ti.rna torma vir.ta, fu di .

ALLEGRO *

e.
' i j~- r i
.sper . - sa'; il ca . po lor ban .

1 M. & . i..
! * - r * •'
-di . to, Er.na . tuo ca .
 65

ex. 11, cont.

n trmpo

gna, o il fo . - co, ti pro.

Verdi here employs a device which he frequently uses to emphasize

key words, that of the descending octave leap (ex. 11). This device is

used five times, on the words "dispersa" (dispersed), "Ernani,"

"consegna" (consign or give up), "foco" (fire) and "prometto" (promise).

The orchestra underlines each occurrence with an increase in tempo and/

or a sudden change of texture. The threat is intensified by the use of

1 bl 1
semi-tones d. , e culminating in _e for the word "appianera" (will

burn). The chromaticism never allows the key center to stabilize in

spite of the preponderance of dominant - tonic progressions in a

variety of tonal areas.

Carlo's aria, "Lo Vedromo" (We shall see), which follows, provides

a moment of focus and reflection on the confrontation between him and

Silva.

Lo vedremo, We shall see,

veglio audace, bold old man,
se resistermi potrai if you can resist me,
se tranquillo sfiderai, if you will calmly
la vendetta del tuo re. challenge your king's
Essa rugge sul tuo vengeance.
capo; It is roaring over your
pensa pria che tutta head; think, before every­
scenda, piu feroce, thing comes down, more fierce,
piu tremenda d'una more terrible than a
folgore su te. thunderbolt, on you.

The aria is set ina - a "" jl form- It grows into a duet

with Silva, a section which serves as vehicle for extensive text

 66

repetition and vocal histrionics. As in so many similar scenes from

operas of the period, the fireworks culminate in a brief but impressive

cadenza.

Whereas Verdi has pitted baritone against soprano several times

previously, he here uses a clash of similar vocal types, baritone

against bass. In a "set" aria mold Verdi employs at least three musical

devices which illustrate Carlo's wrath, frustration, and indignation

(ex. 12). First is the ostinatj rhythmic pattern, occurring in twenty

of the thirty-two measures. It conveys a spirit of aggression and

illustrates Carlo's position of offense. The second factor involves the

ascending leaps in the vocal line. Words such as "lo_ vedremo" (we shall

see), "se tranquillo" (if calmly . . .), "piu feroce" (more fierce), "il

tuo capo" (your head . . .), all serve to convey agitation. Third are

the many syllabic passages of accented sixteenth-notes (i.e., / J

y 7 v 7 s
JT j J $ ) which achieve a rhetorical effect appropriate to Carlo's

aggressive spirit.

ex. 12

( c o a fuocoiSuv.-ii
dfc/>nnnf>t

Lo ve. - dre , _ mo.ve. gtioau.da - . . ce.

 67

ex. 12, cont.

ia vendetta del tuo

re, Zavendet ta,la vendetta del tub re

The contrast between characters is emphasized by the totally con­

junct melody of Silva as opposed to the disjunct angularity of Carlos.

Throughout the passage Verdi has balanced orchestral strength with

the baritone's tessitura. An example is the _ff_ marking when Carlo sings

e^" on the word "la vendetta." Also, the melodic doubling by trumpet

always occurs at the baritone's area of greatest vocal projection. The

need for a strong upper range is evidenced in the _f#^ which occurs

three times.

During the entire section Carlo has undergone a subtle alteration

in character. Silva's calm retorts have made Carlo appear completely

frustrated. This frustration is now lessened by the appearance of

Elvira. Carlo's momentary fixation with Elvira may possibly be

reflected in the rather static lines which he sings:

Tu me'1 chiedi? You ask it of me?

Ogni rancore .per Elvira All rancor will be silent
tacera. for Elvira.
Delia tua fede statico, Let this maiden
questa donzella sia. be hostage for your loyalty.
 68

Misegua, o del Let her follow me, or the

colpedole - guilty one's -

In nineteen measures Carlos sings only five different pitches

(ex. 13); the great majority of them are c^". The reiterated c_^'s in the

voice and the pedal-point C in the orchestra, together with the chords,

all combine to create the need for some kind of musical action. It

comes with Silva's outburst on "No!"

ex. 13

j a ttmpH

si - - - - a... Mi se . . gua... o del col-

When Silva refuses,-j for honor's sake, to exchange Ernani for

Elvira, Carlo sings a folk-like serenade of invitation to Elvira. The

accompaniment figure may represent a strummed instrument, possibly a

lute, mandolin, or guitar. During this time the passion with which he

reveals his love to Elvira is transformed into pure Italianate melody.

T 1 b
Again the form is a - a ~ Jl ~ ,5. with an extension. The key is B

major with a movement to the relative minor key for the _b section,

appropriate to the words, "tergi il pianto giovanetta" (dry your tears

 69

young maid) (ex. 14).

ex. 14

it/nt.

In spirit the aria is one of love and it employs a very light

accompaniment; in dramatic function it reveals yet another aspect of the

constantly changing character of Carlo. The four-bar phrases, repeated

rhythms and step-wise melody all seem to hark back to basic Italian

folk-song.

The movement is a concession partly to musical form, partly

to a beautiful baritone voice. The structure required a
piece of importance here to which the preceding formally
incomplete movements could lead up. The solution, however
unlikely its text, does at least convey the ambivalence of
Carlo's character. For while the melody itself is full of
charm there is menace in the minor key ritornello . . .13

Though the aria is not highly dramatic, it does reveal Verdi's

increasing demands upon the baritone voice. This is particularly true

"^Budden, p. 159.
 70

of the lightly scored semi-staccato _d pitches marked piano, followed by

the high _fP", also at piano. Throughout the 276 notes which the baritone

sings in the entire movement (identified by Budden as "cabaletta and

chorus"), 162 are or higher. No less than 13 times the baritone must

A.
smg f_

The full ensemble reveals the reactions of the principals. It is

significant to note that in the many ensembles of this type written by

Verdi the contrasting texts sung by the principals are such that no one

can possibly understand them. The result is pure music rather than

textual communication. After repeating the entire aria, Carlo joins the

ensemble for its finish. He then leads Elvira off stage with no further

appearances in Act II.

Act III occurs in a subterranean vault containing the tomb of

Charlemagne. A somber prelude of fifteen measures precedes Carlo's

entrance. The strong mood of mystery and foreboding is created by

clarinets and bassoon.

Following Riccardo's dismissal Carlo addresses God in an outpour­

ing of his inner self.

Gran Dio! Great God!

Costor sui sepolcrali They, on these sepulchral
marmi affilano il pugnal marbles, sharpen the dagger
per trucidarmi. to slaughter me.
Scettri! Dovizie! Scepter! Riches!
Onori! Bellezze! Honors! Beauties!
Gioventu! Che siete Youth! What are you?
voi? Barks floating upon the sea
Cimbe natanti sovra of the years, which waves
il mar degl'anni, strike with constant
cul l'onda batte troubles, until reaching
d'incessanti affanni, the tomb's reef, your name
finche giunte alio plunges with you
scoglio della tomba to
con voi nel nulla il nome nothingness!
vostro piomba!
 71

Oh, de'verd'anni miei Oh, dreams and lying form

sogni e bugiarde larve, of my youthful years,
se troppo vi credei, if I believed in you too much,
l'incanto ora disparve. the spell now has vanished.
S'ora chiamato sono, If now I am called to the
al piu sublime trono, most sublime throne,
della virtu com'aquila like an eagle I will rise
sui vanni m'alzero, ah, on the pinions of virtue,
e vincitor de'secoli ah, and I will make my name
il nome mio faro. conqueror of the centuries.

The text as a whole typifies the type of psychological intro­

spection which Verdi seems to have associated with the baritone voice

in several of the roles included in this study. The recitative, echoing

the despair of the text, is impulsive and rhythmically erratic. When

the mood changes to one of contrition and a pledge of virtue, the

musical material of the cavatina is suitably lyric. The use of brass

to support the recitative is in contrast with the chamber-like style of

the cavatina. Carlo's random shifts in thought are punctuated by rests

and orchestral chords (ex. 15).

ex. 15

darmi!. Scet.tri!.. do.vi . zicl., o.no.ri!.. bellez.ze!.. gioven.

 72

ex. 15, cont.

tu!~ chesiete vo . i?.. cimbe r.a.ianti sovrailmarde.jlia.n_ni, cui 1'en.da

Again the descending octave is employed on the first and final

b i b 1
words of the recitative, e_ to e on "Dio" (God) and c_ to c (not

cited in ex. 15) on "piomba" (fall). These two words serve as a paren­

thesis for the arioso section.

The cavatina which follows employs a consistently high tessitura.

Throughout the 26 measures the voice is centered in the area of the

b bl
fifth from a_ to e_ The use of the baritone voice in this range

creates a particularly sonorous blend with the solo viola which plays a

repeated pattern throughout (ex. 16).

ex. 16

Cflttfnbif*
CARLO AXDAyTE COS MOTO

ASDASTE COS MOTO

strut.
» § *.9

so.gnie bugiar . de lar . . . ve, se trop.povi ere . .

 73

ex. 16, cont.

Vrr-r r'rr.

I'incan. to, l'iscan.toora dl.sparve.

Carlo repeats the final two lines of text three times, each time

emphasizing his promise to achieve fame as the soon-to-be chosen

Charles V. Verdi underscores Carlo's boast by adding brass to the

orchestra, doubling the melodic line. This doubling, combined with the

orchestral crescendo from piano to fortissimo, serves to add great

dramatic impact to Carlo's extension of the word "secoli" (centuries)

(ex. 17). Through this means Verdi effectively communicates Carlo's

strong belief of his own boast.

ex. 17

vin - d.tor co.li II nomentofa.

This repeated boast is the final reference to Carlo as king.

Unlike his aria "Lo Vedremo," this one contains no cadenza.

Verdi's telescoping process, which accelerates the action, is

evident in the Act III finale. He expressed his own wishes at this

point in a letter to his librettist, Piave.

 74

I would say that from the moment when Carlo appears and
surprises the conspirators the action should move swiftly
right up to the end of the act. A scene change would
worry the audience and interrupt the dramatic flow.-^

Carlo reappears as Charles V (announced by bursts from an off­

stage cannon); he orders the arrest and execution of the conspirators;

he then pauses in response to the pleas of Elvira who begs Charles to

offer forgiveness to all.

The pleas of Elvira lead to a final aria for Charles in which

Verdi reveals yet another insight into the character of Carlo, now

Charles V: that of the generous, forgiving monarch.

0 sommo Carlo, piu 0 great Charles, more

del nome than your name
le tue virtudi aver I want co have your
vogl'io saro, lo virtues; I shall be -
giuro a te ed a Dio I swear to you and to God -
delle tue gesta imitator. imitator of your achievements.
(to the conspirators)
Perdono a tutti. I forgive all.
(to himself)
Mie brame ho dome. I have mastered my desires.
(leading Elvira to Ernani)
Sposi voi siate, You shall marry; love each
v'amate ognor. other always.
A Carlo Magno sia Glory and honor to
gloria e onor! Charlemagne!

The accompanying harp arpeggios create an aura of solemnity and

spirituality during which Charles addresses the tomb of Charlemagne.

Forgiveness is offered to all. The fifteen measures of F minor contain

uneventful singing but do serve to emphasize the contrast of modulation

to F major which immediately follows with the entrance of the chorus.

The great harmonic stability in this aria creates a sense of calm and

14Ibid., p. 142.
 75

helps relax the dramatic tension that has preceded it.

In a fortissimo outburst of orchestra and chorus Verdi alternates

Charles with the tutti in a manner that maintains his identity through

the remaining thirty-two measures. As the chorus lauds Charles V, he in

turn interjects his praise of Charlemagne (ex. 18), each time with the

contrast of harp and baritone against tutti. The dialogue between

Charles and the ensemble continues to the end of Act III. Carlo has no

involvement in Act IV of the opera.

ex. 18

pp

perche I'offe.sa
VP

perche i'offe.sa

EH.

vv

perche I'offe.sa

Sa ro a te
 76

ex. 18, cont.

copri dobli.o,
3 3

r f. h . . , r
copri dobli.o, perche pcrdo - m a.gli of . Ten.

3 3

rr r r r
copri d'obU.o, perche perdo - ni a.gli of - fen -
3 3
//— F , *N
~ r , ,
copridobli.o, perche perdo . m a.gli of . fen .

.sta

p r? f iT; f-r p-? F~

. det.ta, per I'odio mio a.vra solvi . . ta inse . . no il
.?•••? il

T~r T7 »•
coprid'ofcli.o, perche perdo . ni agli of . . fen .

The role of Carlo in Ernani is a panorama of continuous character

transformation. His several arias allow him to be seen in varying

relationships with each principal. The aria-duet-trio sequence of Act

clearly establishes separate reactions to the appearances of Elvira and

Emani. The vendetta aria of Act II reveals a disdain for Silva.

Carlo's love aria in Act II portrays a certain amorous nature. Two

additional aspects of Carlo's character occur in Act III via personal

reflection, "Gran Dio" and his offer of forgiveness, "0 sommo Carlo."

The only consistent factor in Carlo's character is that of change.

Verdi's pattern throughout is to enact the change through the dynamics

of the recitative and arioso and then to reflect the character change

through aria.

Ernani seems to be both progressive and static in terms of Carlo'

recitative and arias. Increasingly the action flows by means of the

 77

inclusion of larger segments of recitative, many of them delivered with

increased color in the orchestral support. Biographers and Verdian

scholars hold varying views as to Verdi's effectiveness in condensing

Hugo's massive text into musical drama, but it is evident that he did

capture the changeable nature of Carlo. This is particularly true in

the Act III dialogue where the distinct colors of winds, brass, and

string are each employed separately with great, effectiveness. As the

orchestra assumes increasing prominence, Verdi seems to project the

baritone voice consistently higher and it is in Ernani that this

enlarged view of vocal capabilities becomes evident for the first time.

Verdi does continue to retain the concept of the set-aria. The

arias in general still reflect a single affect. With the exception of

the Act III aria, "Gran Dio," they are rather stable tonally and utilize

many ornaments, turns, and portamentos, all reflecting some continued

adherence to operatic conventions of the period. Carlo's Act III

reflective aria, "Gran Dio," is especially significant for the increased

amount of text delivered arioso style. Verdi seems to display a

readiness at this point to derive the particular style and form from

the text.

Ernani did serve to further secure a place for the baritone as a

member of the principal virtuoso singers in Verdian opera.

 CHAPTER V

MACBETH

Background

Verdi's tenth opera, Macbeth, is the third opera for consideration

in this study. The premier of Macbeth was on March 14, 1847, at the

Teatro della Pergola, Florence. Following Ernani, Verdi had composed

I_ due Foscari (1844), Giovanna d*Arco (1845), Alzira (1845) and Attila

(1846).

During the autumn of 1846 Verdi was again faced with numerous

offers of contracts, each in various stages of negotiation. His thoughts

and efforts finally crystalized simultaneously around I masnadieri

(later to become his eleventh opera, 1847) and Macbeth.

He began to work upon both. Maffei produced his libretto

for _I masnadieri and Verdi started to compose the music, at
the same time writing the Macbeth libretto himself in prose,
and sending it to Piave [the librettist for Ernani] to be
turned into verse.1

Ten years later, in a letter to his publisher, Tito Ricordi, Verdi

discussed his approach to Macbeth.

Ten years ago I took it into my head to write Macbeth; I

drew up the plot myself - indeed, I did more than that, I
laid out the xraole drama in prose with the division into
acts, scenes, numbers, etc. . . . Then I gave it to Piave
to put into verse.-

Osbornes p. 146.

2Budden, p. 274.

78
 79

In 1864 Verdi was approached by the Theatre-Lyrique in Paris

about the possibilities of staging a new production of the 1847 version

of Macbeth. Verdi was not given to revision but in this case he did

request from the Ricordi firm in Milan a full orchestral score for

further consideration. Verdi found Macbeth needed considerable altera­

tion to prepare it for the proposed Paris version. His subsequent

letter to his French publisher, Leon Escudier, revealed his suggested

changes:

To put it in a nutshell, there are various pieces in it which

are either weak, or lacking in character, which is worse
still. We shall need:
(1) An aria for Lady Macbeth in Act II
(2) To rewrite various passages in the hallucination scene
in Act III
(3) To rewrite completely Macbeth's aria in Act III
(4) To revise the opening scenes of Act IV (the exiles'
chorus)
(5) To compose a new finale to Act IV removing the death
of Macbeth.3

By spring of 1865 the "Paris" Macbeth was ready for production.

The score under examination for this study is that published by G.

4
Ricordi and Company, first dated April 21, 1865.

The Verdian scholar William Weaver is of the opinion that the

work remains basically that of the 1847 version.

This letter [Verdi's letter to Escudier], quoted often,

gives a mistaken impression of the extent of Verdi's
revisions in 1864-5. The Paris Macbeth - the Macbeth we
hear today - is substantially the young Verdi's 1847 opera.
The most important changes are those indicated by the
numbers 1, 3, and 5 . . . the original baritone area in Act
III was "Vada in fiamme," a violent cabaletta in the "Di

3Ibid., p. 276.
4
Giuseppi Verdi, Macbeth (Milan: G. Ricordi and Company, reprinted,
194S). All musical examples cited from Macbeth are taken from this
source.
 80

quella pira" manner (Verdi replaced it with the duet, "Ora

di morte"). In the 1847 version, Macbeth died on stage and
with some moving music, though not effective as a finale.
In some modern productions, this early number is restored,
inserted into the great Fugue which Verdi composed to end
the Paris version . . . The retouching here and there in
other scenes undeniably improves the work, but the basic
musical ideas are still those of 1847.5

Of the six operas selected for this study, Macbeth, Otello, and

Falstaff are adaptations of plays by Shakespeare. In four of the six

operas, Nabucco, Macbeth, Rigoletto, and Falstaff, Verdi cast a baritone

in the title role. The character of Macbeth is categorized by Budden in

this manner:

Verdi was drawn to complex personalities; to men in whom an

inner conflict between good and evil soars and plummets with
each new situation. Such characters yielded the kind of
variety which he knew so well how to draw from the baritone
voice.®

Verdi's decision to postpone I Masnadiere and pursue Macbeth

instead was motivated by very practical reasons. He was under contract

to the Florence opera. He needed a strong tenor for the leading role in

I_ Masnadieri and there was no such singer in the Florence company. On

the other hand, he conceived Macbeth as a baritone and a good one was

available.

The last thing Verdi asked of his two principal characters

was that they should have "beautiful voices." Felice Varesi,
the original Macbeth in Florence, was chosen by the composer
because he suited the part, "Both as to figure and style of
singing; it did not matter that he tended to sing out of
tune.

5
William Weaver, "Macbeth and Macbet," cited from Macbeth, OSA-
13102 (London: Decca Record Company, Ltd., 1971.
£

Budden, p. 279.

^Hughes, p. 48. Verdi's own v;ords, cited by Hughes, are show in

quotation marks.
 81

William Weaver offers this portrait of Varesi:

The first Macbeth, in Florence, was Felice Varesi, "short,

squat, a bit lopsided" (as he was described by a contem­
porary), another of the new Verdian generation of singers.
One critic wrote of him: "He didn't possess an exceptional
voice, but his power of expression and the intensity of his
phrasing gave him a great dramatic force. ..." Except
for his first opera and his last two, Verdi always composed
on commission, usually for specific singers. . . .®

Verdi's personal advice to Varesi was to study the dramatic

situation and the words, and to place preeminence on the poet before

the composer. Verdi was apparently more deeply committed to Macbeth

than to its immediate predecessors. In dedicating the vocal score to

his father-in-law and benefactor, Antonio Barezzi, he wrote: "Here is

now this Macbeth which is dearer to me than all my other operas, and
9
which I therefore deem more worthy of being presented to you."

Verdi's intense involvement with historical accuracy, scene

design, costumes, chorus, stage machinery, and adequate rehearsing by

singers and orchestra for Macbeth are all a matter of record. The

latter fact is attested to by the first Lady Macbeth, Marianna Barbier

Nini, in an account of the dress rehearsal (which was attended by a

considerable number of spectators), called by Verdi himself (unheard o

for the time), in which she and Varesi were made to rehearse the Act I

duet.

When we were dressed and ready, with the orchestra in the

pit and the chorus ready on stage, Verdi beckoned me and
Varesi to follow him into the wings. We did and he explained
that he wanted us to come out into the foyer for another
piano rehearsal of that wretched duet . . . Varesi, annoyed
at this strange request, dared to raise his voice: "But for

g
Weaver, London recording, OSA-13102.
9
Osborne, p. 146.
 82

God's sake, we've already rehearsed it a hundred and fifty

times." Verdi replied, "I wouldn't say that if I were you,
for within half an hour it will be a hundred and fifty one."
With his hand clutching the hilt of his sword, he [Varesi]
looked as though he would murder Duncan. But even Varesi
gave in, and the one hundred and fifty-first rehearsal took
place while inside the theatre the audience clamoured
impatiently.

Verdian scholars are generally agreed that although only four

years transpired between Ernani and Macbeth, the latter represents

several innovative steps beyond the operatic conventions of the period.

It was undoubtedly a landmark in his own development, and

perhaps because it was for so long his only completed
Shakesperian opera he regarded it as an important experiment,
sensing - if only in a subconscious way - that it was a firm
step on the way to Otello.H

Paul Hume, music critic and frequent contributor to Opera News,

says:

At the risk of bringing a serious and unprovable argument

among ardent Verdians, a good case can be made for the
proposition that as Otello and Falstaff, his last operas,
are the greatest of all Verdi gave us, so is Macbeth, in
its amazing psychological and musical insights, the great­
est of his early operas.

Francis Toye, an early biographer of Verdi, states:

The fact is, that Verdi felt that he was here experimenting
for the first time in real music drama, though he never
used the term. He was working for an expressiveness, an
acute delineation of the human soul, never before realized.13

"^Osborne, pp. 148-49.

^Hughes, p. 41.
12
Paul Hume, Verdi, the Man and His Music (New York: E. P. Dutton,
in association with the Metropolitan Opera Guild), p. 41.
13
Francis Toye, Giuseppi Verdi (New York: Vintage Books, Inc.;
reprinted by arrangement with Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1959), p. 268.
 83

Synopsis

Macbeth consists of four Acts, set in Scotland, 1040 A.D.

Macbeth and Banco, generals in the army of Duncan, King of

Scotland, encounter a band of witches while crossing a barren plain.

These hags prophetically hail Macbeth as "Thane of Cawdor" and "future

king" and Banco as "father of kings thereafter"; no sooner have they

vanished than messengers from Duncan approach, proclaiming Macbeth the

new Thane of Cawdor. Amazed at the turn of events, Macbeth muses on

his chances of gaining the crown.

Scene ii takes place in Macbeth's castle of Dunsinane; in the

Great Hall Lady Macbeth is discovered reading a letter from her husband,

describing his meeting with the witches. Exulting in the prospect of

power, she vows to add her own cunning and boldness to Macbeth's

ambition. When a servant brings word that the king, Duncan, will spend

the night in the castle, Lady Macbeth invokes powers of darkness to aid

her aims. Macbeth enters; his wife persuades him to murder Duncan that

very night. Just then Duncan and his party arrive; both king and royal

party retire at once. Macbeth, dreading the murderous task at hand,

imagines a bloody dagger before his eyes. As a bell sounds, he steals

into the royal bed chamber. Lady Macbeth re-enters a moment before

Macbeth staggers from the room to tell her the deed is done. Seeing

the bloody dagger still in his hands, she coolly takes the weapon from

him and hastens to smear blood on the royal guards, who have been

drugged. There is a knock at the gate. The couple have withdrawn to

remove the stains of their crime. Macduff and Banco enter, discover

the murder, and immediately summon the entire court. In the confusion

which folloxv's Macduff's discovery, a great cry is raised by all,

 84

including the guilty pair, to invoke the deity and call down his wrath

upon the unknown murderer's head.

Act II, scene i, opens with an encounter between Macbeth and Lady

Macbeth in which she exhorts him to forget the past and be comforted by

the thought that Duncan's son, Malcom, by his flight to England has

laid himself open to the charge of murdering his father. Macbeth is

encouraged by Lady Macbeth to decide on Banco's immediate assassination,

while she gloats over the prospect of her royal future. Scene ii is in

a park near Macbeth's castle where a band of murderers have assembled

to lie in wait for Banco and his son. Banco is killed but his son

escapes. Scene iii is set in the stateroom of the castle where a

banquet is in process. Even as Lady Macbeth offers a toast, a murderer

appears to inform Macbeth of the death of Banco and the escape of the

son. Upon returning to the table Macbeth finds his seat occupied by

Banco's ghost. He is completely unnerved. Those present marvel at his

agitation; Lady Macbeth assures him it will pass. Again the toast, the

reappearance of the ghost and a reproach from Lady Macbeth all bring

Macbeth to great agitation. As the scene ends, all principals express

their various thoughts: Lady Macbeth her disbelief in the return of

the dead; Macbeth his determination to visit the witches again; Macduff

his vague suspicions in general.

Act III takes place at the witches' dark cave. Macbeth comes and

demands to be shown the future. The first apparition conjured up is

that of an "armed head." The cry is "Macbeth! Macbeth! Macbeth!

Beware Macduff!" The second is a bloody child who bids Macbeth, ". . .

none of woman born shall harm Macbeth." The third apparition is a

child drowned, with a tree in his hand, who declares that Macbeth
 85

. shall never be vanquished until Great Birnam Wood shall come

against him." Finally eight kings appear and pass in order, the

eighth, Banco, with a mirror in his hand. Macbeth swoons and is

revived. When Lady Macbeth comes and learns of the vision, both vow to

exterminate ruthlessly all who are hostile to them and their future

plans.

Act IV opens in a deserted place near Birnam Wood where Macduff

laments the death of his family, murdered by Macbeth. The English army

approaches, lad by Malcolm. In scene ii Lady Macbeth is seen bearing a

lighted taper uttering, "Out, damned spot ..." Elsewhere, in a hall

in the palace, Macbeth is heard cursing his lot, "and that which should

accompany old age ... I must not have." Macbeth is completely in­

different to the news that Lady Macbeth, overcome by guilt, is now dead.

The approach of the enemy is signaled. The wood appears to move.

Macbeth prepares for battle; Macduff and Macbeth meet face to face.

Macbeth fears "no man born of woman," and urges Macduff to flee.

Macduff announces he was "from his mother's womb untimely ripp'd" and

pursues and slays Macbeth. The opera ends with a chorus of rejoicing
1!>
at the new liberation of Scotland.

Music of Macbeth

Macbeth appears in each of the opera's four acts.

The first act opens with a short prelude, an introduction and a

scene involving the three witches. Their discourse is interrupted by a

drum roll, announcing Macbeth's approach. "The roll of the tamburo

Ibid., pp. 259-64. This synopsis is adapted from that written

by Toye.
 86

15
is the sole suggestion that he is a soldier." The drum roll is fol­

lowed by two short bursts of brass, often used by Verdi to indicate a

figure of importance. Allusions of this type by the brass are also

incorporated into the short orchestral prelude.

During their brief encounter with the witches Macbeth and Banco

learn their forthcoming destinies, the enigmatic quality of which is

underlined by restless chromaticism.

Operatic conventions of the period would have provided for a

cavatina or aria for Macbeth following the witches' departure. "Her

husband [Macbeth], on his first appearance, was denied the usual cava­

tina - cabaletta which is the singer's right.Instead, a male chorus

announces that Macbeth is now Thane of Cawdor.

The ensuing duet for Macbeth and Banco reveals Verdi's great con­

cern for reflecting every nuance of Macbeth's emotion at this early

point in the opera. He is instructed to sing "aside, sotto voce, almost

with terror." The instructions "con sclamazione" (with exclamation) and

"supo" (dark, gloomy, sombre, bleak, pensive) occur more than any others

in the opera and are indicative of Macbeth's frame of mind. Throughout

the thirty-six measures of duettino proper, Macbeth and Banco meditate

independently, with Macbeth fighting against the thoughts of murder that

are already entering his mind.

Due vaticini compiuti Two of the prophecies

or sono . . . have now come to pass . . .

mi si promette dal terzo by the third I am promised

un trono . . . ma perche sento a throne . . . But why do I

"^Godefroy, I, p. 100.
 87

rezzarsi il crine? feel my hair start upright

on my head?
Pensier di sangue, d'onde Bloody thought, whence art
sei nato? thou born?
Alia corono che m'offre I will not lift a grasping
il fato hand
la man rapace non alzero. to the crown fate offers me.I?

Verdi used tonal instability to reflect the restless, probing

imagination of Macbeth's mind. Deceptive resolutions point up the

words, "Ma perche sento rizzarsi il crine? Pensier di sangue, d'onde

sei nato?" (But why do I feel my hair start upright on my head? Bloody

thought, whence art thou born?). The deceptive resolutions occur at

parallel places in the sequence of text and music.

ex. 1

fcon escUmAzione'

.met . te dalter . zountrono... Ma perche sen . to riz.zarsiil

fffTff ~tt tit

S=="~S K k

leselamando)
^ ^ \ •yi". iCUCO • a voce aocrr.i

crine? Pensierdi san - g-ue. don.de sei nato? A1 . la co

1 ~3~2~2
at fff fff 'TTT TfT f
V ^ V V

y y

;Peggy Cochrane, Translation supplied with Decca recording OSA-

13102. This and all subsequent translations of the libretto are taken
from this source.
 88

Eventually Macbeth is joined by Banco and the two proceed in a

duet proper. The section is highly repetitive and climaxes with the

two voices singing in descending parallel thirds (ex. 2) to finally

cadence on the dominant.

ex. 2

te dal ter . ro.dalter. zo un trono!

Macbeth then takes the key to major, moving upward by a semi­

tone (ex. 3). The rather than leading to F minor as the chromatics

promise, resolves to the sub-mediant of that key. The rest of the duet

vacillates between F major and D major before finally cadencing in F

major. Increasingly the interval of a minor second occurs in situations

where Verdi intended to interject an expression of pathos.

 89

ex. 3

eon ?orr Pitnn

perchesento rizzar. si il cri . ne?.

Maspessol'em.pio spir-tod'a-

Alper points out several illustrative examples of this which

occur in Macbeth:

Later in the first act, when Macbeth contemplates the witches'

prophecies, he sings two minor seconds, the overall passage
again in sequence. Of particular interest here are the key­
words on which the minor seconds are sung: sento (I feel)
and sangue (blood), making Macbeth's fears and doubts per­
fectly clear. ... In the Dagger Scene ar.d subsequent murder
of Duncan, minor seconds frequently occur. The planning of
this murder involves an interesting instrumental passage
which leads to Macbeth's words, meta del mondo or morta e
la natura (Over half the world nature is dead.) When Macbeth
enters Duncan's room to commit the actual crime, loud minor
seconds hammer at the audience. Later, Macbeth announces to
his wife that the crime is finished (Tutto _e finito), and
finito (finished) is sung within a minor second interval.
In his remorse, Macbeth sings further minor seconds on the
words Allor questa voce m'intesi nel petto (Then I heard
this voice within my breast).18

The tessitura for Macbeth is consistently high. Of the 213 notes

which he sings in the duet, over half are written at c^" or above,

including six at f_ . With the exception of the final three measures

which crescendo to ff, the entire duet is marked sotto voce, supo.

Thus Verdi called for new dimensions of interpretive singing. The

Clifford D. Alper, "Verdi's Use of the Minor Second Interval in

Macbeth," The Opera Journal, 14 (Fall, 1971), 12.
 90

rhythmic agitation, that of constant sixteenth notes, coupled with a

preponderance of short dotted rhythms in the vocal lines all add to the

sense of excitement. It is noteworthy that there are fewer barbarisms

here than in Ernani.

Julian Budden offers an enlightening view of the dramatic value

of the duet.

The Duettino exploits one of the few dramatic advantages

that opera possesses over a spoken play - its ability to
present simultaneously the emotional content of two con­
secutive and contrasting speeches, each delivered as a
soliloquy.

Macbeth's next appearance occurs in Act I, scene ii, following

Lady Macbeth's brilliant cavatina. It is at this point in the opera

that Verdi deals with the real issue, which is the Macbeth's mutual

involvement in murder and its effect upon them. When they meet for the

first time in the opera, the murder of Duncan is plotted in a short

recitative. Their relationship and the proposed deed are treated more

by implication than by direct statement. Verdi unfolds the character

of Macbeth in a carefully paced manner spanning the entire first act,

but his relationship to Lady Macbeth is rather ill-defined at their

first encounter. Sherrill Milnes, contemporary baritone and interpreter

of Macbeth, offers this view:

Macbeth has few solo scenes with which to mesmerize an

audience, measured against his lady's three brilliant
arias. [Milnes agrees that this tends to throw matters
somewhat out of balance.] This is the tragedy of a tough
man, definitely no milque-toast, dominated by his wife;
he is ambitious and in love with her. Their strong sexual
attraction for each other and their youth must be made
clear. He is a man whose undoing is caused by the

"^Budden, p. 284.
 91

20
proximity of events and his psychic response to them.

The murder plot is quickly followed by a street-band march leading

to the duet discussed above. Although Verdi referred to the entire

scene as a duet it does not really become such until Lady Macbeth joins

her husband upon his return from murdering Duncan. Verdi instructed

that the "real" duet be performed sotto voce and cupo, with the excep­

tion of a few phrases marked "a^ voce spiegata" (spread or unfolded,

i.e., louder). Verdi held this opinion of the duet:

Tell them [those in the rehearsal for the premier] the most
important numbers in the opera are the duet between Macbeth
and Lady Macbeth and the sleepwalking scene. If these two
numbers fail then the entire opera will fail.21

The extent of the baritone's participation in the lengthy passage

is best seen in an overview:

10 measures orchestra adagio/allegro

53 measures Macbeth arioso/recitative

16 measures orchestral iacerlude

15 measures Lady Macbeth recitative

54 measures duet 6/8

68 measures duet 3/8, dialogue

39 measures duet 6/8, recitative-

dialogue

45 measures duet/dialogue presto, stretto-type

The considerable length serves to illustrate its importance.

Macbeth sings in 228 measures. This first arioso/recitative of fifty-

on
Sherrill Milnes, "Mr. and Mrs. Macbeth," Opera News, XXVII
(February 3, 1973), 14.
?1
Hume, p. 44.
 92

three measures conforms closely to famous "dagger" speech of the

play by Shakespeare.

Mi si affaccia un Is this a dagger which I

pugnal? l'elsa a me see before me? the handle
volta? toward my hand?

Se larva non sei tu, If thou beest not some

ch'io ti brandisca. vision, let me clutch thee.

Mi sfuggi . . . eppur Thou eludest me . . . and yet

ti veggo! I see thee!

A me precorri sul Thou precedest me along the

confuso cammin che devious way that in my mind
nella mente di sequir I did intend to follow!
disegnava!
Orrenda imago! Horrible sight!
Solco sanguigno la A Bloody streak now stains
tua lama irriga! your blade!
Ma nulla esiste There's no such thing.
ancora. II sol My savage intent alone
cruento mio pensier doth give it form and,
le da forma, for real,
e come vera mi presents a phantom to
presenta alio sguardo my eyes.
una chimera. Sulla Over one half the
meta del mondo or world of nature now is dead:
morta e la natura; now the murderer creeps
or l'assassino like a
come fantasma per ghost through the
l'ombre si striscia, dark, now
or consuman le streghe witches consummate their
i lor misteri. rites.
Immobil terra! a'passi Firm-set earth, hear not
miei sta muta . . . my steps.
N
E deciso . . . It is settled . . .
quel bronzo the bell
ecco, m'invita! invites me!
Non udirlo, Duncano! Hear it not, Duncan.
E squillo eterno It is a knell
che nel cielo ti that summons you to heaven
chiama o nell'inferno. or to hell,
• 22
The passage has no parallel in ny of Verdi s previous operas.

In an attempt to capture the changing focus of the text, Verdi employs

22
See Godefroy, I, p. 115 concerning the experimental nature of
Verdi's baritone roles vs. his more conventional soprano roles.
 93

a free-style monologue with no less than six tempo changes and multiple

dynamic variations ranging from fff to ppp. The orchestra plays an

important role in creating the total mood necessitated by Macbeth's

text.

The entire scene is scored for flute, cor anglais, clarinet,

horns, bassoons, timpani and muted (remembering Verdi's
often used word, cupo) strings. They [the colors] shift
and change with the image that passes through Macbeth's
mind . . . the cor anglais rarely plays alone. At all
important points it is doubled with another instrument,
clarinet, bassoon, and in one place a solo cello. The
recitative is the most powerful and most melodic that
Verdi wrote before "Parisiamo" [Rigoletto].23

The vacillatory nature of the text is actually mirrored more in

the changes of instrumental color than in the harmony. Although there

are frequent stabs at subsidiary tonal centers, the principal key is

major and areas related to it. One striking effect occurs at the

climax of the section beginning "a me precori . . . which is set in

major. At the peak of the vocal line on "Orrendo immago!" the

tonality moves without warning to A major, the submediant of the

variant, minor, but appearing enharmonicallv. Numerous other

exchanges of chords borrowed from the major and minor modes of individ­

ual key centers occur throughout the passage. These once again testify

to the ever-broadening color palette of the century (ex. 4).

23
Budden, p. 2S6.
 94

ex. 4

la men . te di seguir di - se-

che nei

ALLEGRO as 84

. g , nava!...Orrenda jm - ma .

•norrrtlo ALLEGRO 5=84

At the point where Macbeth visualizes, "or l'assassino come

fantasma per i'ombre si striscia," (Now the murderer creeps like a

ghost through the dark) (ex. 5), the vocal line reiterates a single

pitch while the orchestra restlessly slithers through a series of

descending chromatics and diminished seventh chords.

ex. 5

. t u . ra: l'as . sas.si . no co.me fan.ta.smaper Tom . bre si

 95

ex. 5, ccmt.

ALLEGRO 0 = 100

striscia ALLEGRO or consuman le streghe i lor mi

Appropriate orchestral effects accompany the off-stage murder and

Macbeth returns to announce the transaction to Lady Macbeth. The duet

which follows is written in a more conventional style but, unlike much

Verdi, which tends toward lush melody, the vocal lines are quite static

and chant-like. In place of melodic curve Verdi has used an almost

parlando style which in this context is probably more dramatically

logical. The two characters exchange passages to the point where

Macbeth examines his blood-stained hands, exclaiming three times, "oh,

vista orribile!" (oh, horrible sight!). The only real harmonic

punctuation occurs at this point with the sudden insertion of a dimin­

ished seventh chord. Otherwise the passage is in a stable F minor and

Ab major. Macbeth then reflects on his inability to say "amen."

Nel sunno udi che I heard the grooms pray

oravano i cortigiani, in their sleep:
e: Dio sempre ne God bless us,
assista, ei dissero: they cried:
Amen dir volli and I would have answered
anch'io ma la Amen, but the intractable
parola indocile word
gelo sui labbri miei. froze upon my lips.

In the andantino section which follows Macbeth broods over the

voices that addressed him in his sleep. Verdi used the trombones to add

a sinister touch to MacbethTs lines:

 96

. . . Allor questa voce . . . Then I heard a voice that

m'intesi nel petto: cried with me:
"Avrai per guanciali "You shall have a pillow
sol vepri, 0 Macbetto! naught but thorns, Macbeth!
II sonno per sempre, You have murdered sleep
Glamis uccidesti! forever, Glamis!
Non v'e che vigilia, And, Cawdor, there is naught
caudore, per te!" but wakefulness for you!"

A sense of growing hysteria is heightened by a series of ascend­

ing sequences in the melody. Macbeth then rejects the chiding of Lady

Macbeth in a tuneful and more tranquil section (ex. 6).

Com'angeli d'ira, Like angels of wrath

vendetta tuonarmi thundering vengeance,
udro di Duncano le Duncan's saintly virtues
sante virtu. I shall hear.

ex. 6

to so, Cau . do pe. tu se :

MAC <1 ior* ipissfatn

Co - m'an

ta tuo.nar di Dun.ca

A44 A P P . P. » P.JL P.

Godefroy objects to Verdi's insertion of this sudden shift in

Macbeth's character, feeling the phrase is too stable for Macbeth's

 97

present frame of mind.

There is a subtle change in the music with its hemi-demi-

semi-quaver quadruplets urging her argument. But it drives
Macbeth to reply in a broad Verdian phrase that, however
satisfying for singer and audience, it seems a mistake. In
Macbeth's emotional upset he should not be capable of rally­
ing in a phrase so resolute as this.24

The combination of music and dramatic action here is rather

indefensible. Lady Macbeth is singing about the delirious, raving

Macbeth. He is singing about angels of wrath. Nothing in the music

reflects either text; it is simply a pretty duet.

Macbeth exhibits a growing departure from reality in the recita­

tive which follows. The orchestra suddenly shifts from a busy

accompaniment to a series of accented chords in C minor, over which

Macbeth delivers Shakespeare's well-known line, "Oh, this hand! The

ocean would not serve to wash this blood clean from my hands!" (ex. 7).

ex. 7

ron fa.

mano! r.or. po . treb.be l'O.ce - a. no aueste mania me la.var!

In the closing stretta, the attitudes of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth

are sharply contrasted in text and music. Macbeth's tessitura is con­

siderably lower, subordinating him to the increasingly dominant figure

"^Godefrov, I, p. 118.
 98

of Lady Macbeth. Too, his passages are restlessly chromatic while hers

are largely diatonic.

Functionally the Grand Duet serves to plot, transact, and reflect

upon the murder. It is not a conventional "love" duet. As William

Weaver points out, the absence of a love duet for baritone was not un­

common with Verdi: "For that matter, in all the Verdi canon, there are
25
surprisingly few love duets in a traditional sense." The vocal style

is more declamatory than tuneful. The orchestra, less "grind-organ"

than in the past, plays a more prominent role in the drama. While

orchestral color and harmonic restlessness serve in the development of

Macbeth's character, the multiple vacillations in attitude and emotion

result in a scene of gratifying music but inconsistent musico/dramatic

power.

In Act II Macbeth appears briefly in scene i and again in scene

iii. In scene i he delivers two lines of particular interest. Con­

firming the coming murder of Banco, Macbeth states, "Forza e che scorra

un altro sangue, o donna" (Other blood must flow, wife.). Verdi uses

this line as the means of restoring to Macbeth the strength of character

and assertiveness which was not apparent in his Act I duet with Lady

Macbeth. It is now he who decrees the murder (ex. 8). The orchestral

crescendo, combined with Macbeth's ascending stepwise progression to

e\ reveal his strength and growing decisiveness.

25
William Weaver, "Aspects of Verdi's Dramaturgy," Weaver and
Chusid, p. 136.
 99

ex. 8

There is a strong similarity between Macbeth's death statement for

Banco and the comparable one made before killing Duncan (ex. 9). Verdi

depicts Macbeth as resolute and as capable of a decision to murder.

With the ascending line, again to e\ and five short bursts of brass,

his murderous character becomes fully evident.

ex. 9

Duncan
(Odesi uo tocco df Ci=?aoaj

E de . ciso...quel bror.zo ,?cccyTrin.vita.! Non udirlo.Dun.caao! cscuiliot.

 100

ex. 9, cont

Banco

Baa . co! I'e.ter.ni .ta :'apreilsuo re . gao

' f

In Act II, scene iii, Macbeth encounters the ghost of the murdered

Banco. The scene opens with Macbeth welcoming his guests after which

Lady Macbeth sings a sparkling brindisi (drinking song). As the

orchestra continues the brindisi Macbeth learns that his henchman has

murdered Banco but that Banco's son has escaped. The use of a brindisi

serves as a binding device to hold the various segments of the scene

together and also as a forcefully dramatic paradox to the discussion of

Banco's murder. Upon returning to the table, Banco's ghost appears in

Macbeth's chair. Macbeth's outburst of stark terror is reinforced by

the change of orchestral volume and texture as well as by the deceptive

cadence which inaugurates the section (ex. 10).

ex. 10

fatterrito) ALL° CITATO s = 76

•f -a. # • • \0
M
Di voi chi cio fe.ce? di voi chi» cio
£\£\ * \ \
 101

Chromatic lines and sharp dynamic contrasts underscore Macbeth's

instability and the crowd's bewilderment (ex. 11).

ex. 11

fos.si! Ic cioc . che cru.en . to non scuoter.mi in.

LAD\

A I DAMA (con spavento

Macbeth e sof.frente! Partiarao..

» MACDUFF

Macbeth e sof.frente! Partiamo

. contro..

Macbeth e sof.frente! Partiamo.

-v-

Macbeth e sof. frente!

JL ± . JL' 1

Macbeth e sof.frente Partiamo..

0' 0 0 0 \
z ^s w r i ' y' ?? I* + / •:?T &.
if 1* , =*. =- !
**-+•' »' — 0 *—i
V 7
7 •'

Verdi uses a piu lento passage of almost religious nature to

relieve the tension, during which Macbeth, regaining his composure, bids

the party continue. Verdi here resorts to the earlier style of orna­

menting the vocal line with instrumental-type turns on inconsequential

words. Again the brindisi, in Bb major, is sung but the gaiety is short­
 102

lived. The ghost of Banco returns and Macbeth greets it with renewed

agitation, as the orchestra breaks into tremolo and rapid sixteenth

notes in the bass strings in B minor. All musico—dramatic elements

are here successfully employed to create the mood of terror. Verdi's

orchestral color in the low bass strings, chromatic string passages,

cross accents in the basso ostinato, short and fragmented bursts of

text, and accelerated tempi all lead to a heightened emotion; the

singing approaches shouting on pitch (ex. 12). With a sudden new-found

strength Macbeth challenges the apparition.

Quant'altri io pur I dare as much as any

oso! Diventa pur man! Become a tiger, then
tigre, leon minaccioso a snarling lion . . .
m'abbranca, Macbetto seize hold of me, you will
tremar non vedrai, not find me flench
conoscer potrai s'io you will learn if I am
provi terror . . . sensible of fear.
Ma fuggi! deh, fuggi, But avaunt! Hence and
fuggi, fuggi, begone! Horrible shadow
fantasma tremendo! hence!

The hammering _d , and the repeated word "fuggi" (flee) bolstered

by the syncopation and dissonance in the orchestra successfully reflect

Macbeth's sense of panic.

ex. 12

*i

. dra. co -.noscer, cono - scerpo.trai s'iopro - viter.

 103

ex. 12, cont.

Ma ^ fuer.giideh, fugrgri, fuggi, fuggfi, fantasma tre.

M'ombra sparisce^

do!..

¥! ^ R\ ^ ^

tj tutin forz PrP .lint: "H\

a£D.

?G*/ ~0^ r,J 5

As the ghost vanishes once again, Macbeth announces his joy, "La

vita reprendo!" (I live again!) (ex. 13), with the same type of

ascending line with which he previously decreed the murders of Duncan

and Banco.

. do
 104

An ensemble finale of fifty-three measures follows. Macbeth

begins sotto voce with eight measures of solo which become the basis for

a series of permutations in the entire ensemble. He declares his

intention to revisit the witches.

Sangue a me quell' That phantom will have

ombra chiede e blood, and blood it shall
|
t \ «t v
I avra, I'avra, have,
lo giura! I swear it!
II velame del futuro I'll rend the witches'
alie streghe squarciero veil that conceals the future

The obligatory finale ensemble does little to add to the delinea­

tion of Macbeth's character. Repetitiously he inserts fragments of his

intentions to revisit the witches; the style is typical of nearly all of

Verdi's finales of the period. At moments in the ensemble, Macbeth and

Lady Macbeth are paired against the rest, thus emphasizing their mutual

involvement in the crime; high notes and sudden dynamic changes abound

throughout. Nevertheless the scene generally displays a greater

dramatic power and more cohesiveness than the preceding Grand Duet.

This is due in part to the brindisi which serves as a unifying

ritornello, binding the scene and serving as a backdrop for Macbeth's

encounters with the ghost. When the chorus moves from the brindisi in

the orchestra to its reaction of alarm, the orchestral music serves to

unify. The vocal tessitura for Macbeth remains consistently high to

match his excitement and emotional imbalance. He remains a disconcerted

character,, reaching the height of his distraught state at the end of the

scene. Verdi effectively uses sharp dynamic contrasts in Macbeth's

singing. The rise and fall from the "shouting" to the sotto voce of the

ensemble finale reaches its peak with the _ff at the very end. The

orchestra contributes significantly to Macbeth's dramatic role,

 105

rhythmically and dynamically (ranging from p£ to ff tutta forza),

adding to the spirit of frenzy.

In Act III Macbeth visits the witches for their view of his coming

fate. Following a ballet (added for the Paris revision), Macbeth

arrives at the witches' cave for the "Gran Scena della Apparizioni"

(Great Scene of the Apparitions). Macbeth reacts to the appearance of

three apparitions and a procession of kings; the act concludes with a

duet involving him and Lady Macbeth.

Macbeth's tessitura again centers generally in the fifth from a to

e^". However, Verdi has carefully instructed various effects and manners

of delivery within this range. Instructions such as "cantando con

espansion" (singably, with expansion), "cambiando istantaneair.ente"

(change instantly), and "parlante, ppp, voce muta (in a speaking manner,

softly, with muted voice) all indicate the composer's growing concern

for and control of the singer's delivery.

Macbeth's one high _fX (ex. 14) is further dramatized by the

absence of orchestra as he descends step-wise on the word "mossa"

(motion).

ex. 14

no, giainma . i non fu mos

 106

ex. 14, cont.

In the procession of kings which follows, Verdi employs an inter­

esting interchange of D major and D minor, using tonal centers related

to each key, to lend dramatic continuity to a potentially fragmented

passage. Macbeth!s self-control, acquired in the Burnam Wood statement,

gives way to increased tension and excitement reflected in numerous

high notes, including .

The orchestra sustains a martial figure much like trumpet

flourishes. The result is that the entire scene coheres well and yields

a more continuous, though varied, musical fabric.

In a short, aria-like passage of three lines, Macbeth's tuneful

melody is doubled in the orchestra and reflects an earlier melodic

style (ex. 15).

ex. 15

ah! cfce non hai tu vi . ta.r.oa fcai C

 107

ex. 15, cont.

vi . ta, r.on fcai, noa fcai tu vi . ta!

The mood shifts again to terror and Macbeth sings repetitiously,

"mio terror!" (my terror!), and faints.

Verdi here departs from Shakespeare completely and brings the

Macbeth's together in a duet-final to Act III. In a letter to Leon

Escudier, January, 1865, prior to the Paris production, Verdi wrote: "I

don t find it illogical that Lady, intent as she is on keeping an eve

97
on her husband, should have discovered where he is."

Verdian scholars express varying opinions of this duet. Among

them is that of Godefroy.

The resulting duet favors patchwork ... It is dull and

barren. The two join excitedly in a duet of vengeance.
In a few bars this is excellent but soon they are simply
ranting, "vendetta."28

Although the duet appears regressive in style, Verdi's adjustment

of the baritone's range and dynamics is noteworthy. Immediately follow-

1 2
ing the unison _f /f on the word "vendetta" (vengeance), there are ten

measures marked con voce repressa (with repressed, contained, voice),

27
Budden, p. 305. The author discusses the fact that the duet
is a substitution for a very demanding baritone aria in the 1845
version.
net
Godefroy, I, p. 134.
 108

pppp. With the exception of a single e^^", it is the lowest baritone

tessitura in the opera, spanning the octave c_ to c\ Verdi thus serves

to prepare for the sharp contrast of _f£, agitato which follows. During

a musical segment with little dramatic value, Macbeth is again thrust

into competition with the soprano, singing four f^ pitches and a

Consistent with the operas discussed previously, Act IV is the

shortest of the opera. Verdi has compressed Shakespeare's eleven scenes

into four. Macbeth appears in scene iii, with the following text:

Perfidi! All'Anglo Traitors! With England

contro me v'unite! you have united against me!
Le potenze presaghe The powers that know have
han profetato: prophesied:
"Esser puoi "Bloody and cruel
sanguinario, you may be;
feroce; nessun nato no man of woman born
di donna ti nuoce." shall harm you."
No, r.on temo di voi, I do not fear you, no;
ne del fanciullo nor yet the boy
che vi conduce! who leads you!
Raffermar sul This attack must
trono quest' seat me yet more
assaltomi debbe, firmly on the throne,
o sbalzarmi per sempre! or unplace me ever!
Eppur la vita sento Yet I feel that life
nelle mi fibre in my veins
inaridita! is draining away!
\
Pieta, rxspetto, Compassion, honour,
amore, conforto a'di love, the comfort
cadenti, ah! non of advancing age will not
spargeran d'un strew one
fiore la tua canuta eta. consoling flower upon
Ne sul tuo regio sasso your declining
sperar soavi accenti: years. Nor need you
ah! sol la bestemmia; hope for pleasant
ahi lasso! words upon your royal monument;
la nenia tua sara! ecc. curses alone, alas, shall
be your funeral dirge!

The scene opens with a forceful recitative punctuated by accented

orchestral chords. The use of staccato strings introduces the collapse

of Macbeth's resolve as he sings, "Eppur la sento nella ruie fibre

 109

inaridita" (yet I feel the life in my veins draining away).

Macbeth's only lyric, set-aria in the entire opera follows.

Verdi's ties to traditional operatic style are evident. In a letter to

Varesi, in 1847, he had described this movement as an "adagio in

29
major, tender and melodious, which you must colour beautifully."- The

aria is cast in a basic a_ - _b - a_ framework but with considerable

freedom. The orchestral accompaniment is in the unfortunate "grind-

organ" style found so frequencly in Verdi's set-arias. The b_ section is

in the key of the minor dominant, minor, but includes a colorful

section in the submediant of that key. None of this appears to carry

textual significance, at least in an obvious sense. The question arises

as to whether the key change is intended to emphasize some subtle

element of the text or represents Verdi's increasing fascination with

the major-minor exchange which occurs often during the opera.

The return to a_ is anticipated in the winds and strings during

Macbeth's repetition of the text of b_. Although possibly fanciful in

interpretation, it may be that Macbeth is musing on a possible epitaph

for his gravestone and the retransition to a. is a musical reflection of

this. The return to _a culminates in an elaborate cadenza (ex. 16),

reflecting a musical convention but also underscoring the word "nenia"

(dirge) referring to his own epitaph.

29
Budden, p. 302.
 110

ex. 16

/Ti. )' f frfn/r

/C\
' t »• =zsy-~—=• V... • r ri =3
.^ , r
... labestemnna,afci lasso! lane . . ataxianenlatuasa
Xso! • • -~01- /O

c
• k • • s. • /O
- --— $— =j
' m !)
•
2. o
y."-' - ; - {
. ra.
/< i .? /C\
' 7 7= - . ~«-
/ / •

*•
• # • • 0 0 0 0 0

• £. • ^i • . . • i. * . rs !

Throughout the aria the baritone sings a mostly step-wise melody

within Verdi's favored range of the fifth encompassing £b to ehl.

Macbeth sings f1 five times and a single £bl. The aria's significance

as Verdi s rinal set—aria for baritone will be discussed later. At

uhis point, however, tne following comment is instructive;

In its whole atmosphere - final cadence and all - this is

unmistakably an aria from the first version of Macbeth.
Baritones no doubt look forward to it, and like the late
Leonard Warren in the RCA recording, enjoy taking an un­
authorized top A flat in the cadenza and so destroy what
little pathos there is in the aria. It is a typical early-
Verdi episode . . .30

The aria does reflect Verdi's final attempt to interject something

of redeeming value into the character of Macbeth, if only the murderer's

reflection that crime does not pay.

Little of musical significance 'remains for Macbeth. In a quick

succession of events, he announces his indifference to the death of his

30.
Hughes, p. 74.
 Ill

wife and joins his soldiers to demand either death or victory on the

battlefield. Even at this point in the opera Macbeth still believes he

will not be beaten. His assurance of this is seen in the final high

which Verdi writes on the significant word, "vittoria!" (victory)

(ex. 17).

ex. 17
3ATTAGLIA
^ ALll'S VIVO » =120
** sV \ r, —

la mor. te!

La mor.te! ' la mor.teo la vit . to .

In the 1847 version Macbeth's death occurs on stage and the opera

ends. For the Paris revision Verdi decided to add an instrumental fugue

to allow for several off-stage events, including the death of Macbeth.

In Macbeth several factors are related to the use of the baritone

voice. First is the more consistent employment of the upper _f"^ and

pitches. They are used with greater frequency than in Nabucco and

Ernani which results in a corresponding increase in emotion. Second is

the growing control of the composer over the singer's interpretation.

Macbeth is given many more specific interpretive markings (e.g., cuppo,

con forza, feroce, parlante) than in the previous operas. Third is the

increase in the quantity of arioso singing. The result is a quickening

of action in Macbeth and a growing control over dramatic continuity.

 112

The opera retains a high level of dynamic movement, the rise and fall of

Macbeth's strength in relation to those characters around him, which

thereby brings his own character into sharper focus.

Throughout the opera Verdi demonstrates that he is in a transi­

tional period of writing; he leans forward with progressive innovations

and backwards with returns to an earlier, more conventional style. This

is most apparent in the duets, the ensembles, and especially in Macbeth's

final aria.
 CHAPTER VI

RIGOLETTO

Background

Rigoletto (1851) was Verdi's sixteenth opera. Following Macbeth,

Verdi had written _I Masnadiere (1847), Il_ Corsaro (1848), La_ battaglia

di Legnano (1849), Luisa Miller (1849), and Stiffelio and Aroldo

(x<?ritten 1850, first performed 1857).

In April, 1850, the composer had signed another contract with the

Teatro la Fenice in Venice, agreeing to compose an opera for the

carnival season, February, 1851.1 Verdi insisted that his librettist,

again Piave, consider El_ Trovador (later to become Il_ Trovatore) and

Kean as possibilities for fulfilling the contract.

Within a short time Verdi's attention returned to Victor Hugo's

play, Le Roi s'amuse (The King's Amusement); the play had been on

Verdi's list of possibilities as early as 1844. As usual, he thought in

terms of particular singers. He wrote to Piave about his idea.

Have a try! The subject is grand, immense and there's a

character in it who is one of the greatest creations that
the theatre of all countries and all times can boast. The
subject is Le Roi s'amuse and the character I'm speaking
about is Triboulet; and if Varesi has been engaged there
could be nothing better for him or us.^

"'"Osborne, p. 146.
2
Ibid., taken from Verdi's letter to Piave, April 5, 1850.

113
 114

Within days Verdi had written, with obvious enthusiasm, to his

publisher, Ricordi.

Oh. Le Roi s'amuse is the greatest subject and perhaps the

greatest drama of modern times. Triboulet is a creation
worthy of Shakespeare!!! Just like Ernani it's a subject
that can't fail. You remember that six. years ago when
Mocenigo suggested to me Ernani I exclaimed: "Yes, by God,
that can'g to wrong." Now going over the various subjects
in my mind Le Roi came on me like a flash of lightening,
an inspiration, and I said to myself the same thing, "Yes,
by God, that one can't go wrong."3

Verdi had accepted Piave's assurances that the chosen subject

matter would pass Austrian censorship. Subsequent events proved Piave's

judgement incorrect. Hughes provides this historical perspective:

In March, 1848, the Austrians had been driven out and for
fifteen months the population [of Venice] enjoyed a pre­
carious independence as a Republic. Owing to the "circo-
stanze politiche" (political circumstances) attached to
life in a besieged city there had been no opera season
during that time and it was not until the Austrians
returned in July, 1849, that operatic performances were
resumed at the Fenice and the Venetians went back to what
had become their normal existence since the Austrians had
arrived in 1815 - like under a military government, and
strict censorship of the arts, particularly in the theatre.4

The subject matter, dealing with particularly sensitive moral

issues and showing a reigning monarch as debauched and conscienceless,

was such that three months prior to the proposed date of opening night

the management of the Fenice theatre received a communication from the

Austrian authorities which stated in part:

His above mentioned Excellance [the Military Governor] has

decided that the performance shall be absolutely forbidden,
and wishes me at the same time to request you not to make
further enquiries in this matter. I am returning the manu­
script sent to me with your accompanying letter of the 20th

"^Ibid., April 23, 1850.

4Hughes, p. 83.
 115

instant. N. 18.

The Imperial and Royal Central Director,

Martello.5

Verdi reacted by placing the entire blame on Piave. It was

Piave's business, he said, to get the subject passed; it was on Piave's

assurances that Verdi had agreed to begin the work in the first place.

At the suggestion of the Fenice's director, Marzati, Piave proceded to

rewrite the libretto as Due de Vendome. Verdi found this completely

unacceptable. As a result of Verdi's obstinance and tenacity, a letter

containing six points of compromise was drawn up, signed by Verdi and

Piave, and presented to the censor. Eventually a compromise was reached

which satisfied Verdi and left Hugo's play, for the most part, intact.

Essentially Verdi had agreed to changes involving relocation of

the opera's setting from the French court to some minor Italian state,

the change of French names to Italian, the changing of the jester's name

from Triboletto to Rigoletto (after the French verb "rigoler," to make

fun or jest), and finally, a renaming of the opera. "Le Roi s'amuse"

was thought to be disrespectful to royalty; Verdi's choise, "La

Maledizione" was offensive to the God-fearing, and Piave's "_I1_ Duca di

Vendome" placed the emphasis too much on the behavior of the ruling

class. As a result the name Rigoletto was chosen.^

To the public, Rigoletto was an immediate success. Soon after its

Venetian premiere the opera was being staged all over Italy.. Often it

met with complaints by local censors; for that reason it was produced at

^Budden, p. 279.

6Ibid., p. 229.
 116

various times as Viscardello, Clara di Perth, and Lionello. Although

Victor Hugo resented its great popularity, Rigoletto was performed over

100 times in Paris.

The press registered mixed reactions. Budden comments:

The critic of the Gazzetta de Venezia declared that an opera

such as this cannot be judged on a single hearing. He went
on to talk of bewildering novelty in the music, the style,
the form of each piece and the splendid and no less novel
instrumentations; ... To another later reviewer, Verdi
appeared to be archaizing, returning to the style of Mozart
and his contemporaries. Another found the opera totally
lacking in invention or novelty, "and not at all in the best
of taste."7

G. Vecchi, writing for Istituto di Studi Verdiani, includes this

comment by a critic in 1851:

As an indication of the reaction to the first performance,

let us look at what Locatelli wrote in the Gazzetta di
Venezzi: The composer and the librettist acquired a
posthumous affection for the now passe satanic school; they
sought the beau ideal in the deformed and the horrible;
they aimed for effect, not through the customary channels
of compassion, but by presenting the shocking and the dread­
ful. In all conscience we cannot approve of these tastes.^

Verdi himself was pleased with Rigoletto. "Immediately after the

performance he told the baritone, Varesi, that he did not think he would
9
ever do anything better." He considered it a landmark of his career.

To Antonio Somma, the librettist of Un Ballo in Maschera, Verdi

described it as: ". . . the best subject as regards theatrical effect

that I have ever set to music. It has powerful situations, variety,

7Ibid., p. 483.
g
G. Vecchi, "The Libretto," trans, by Helen Adams, Verdi, III,
n. 8 (Parma: Bollettino Dell-istituto Di Studi Verdiani, 1973), p. 1210.

Toye, p. /4.
 117

,,10
excitement, pathos . . .

The music of Rigoletto suggests that Verdi was attempting to move

farther from the set-opera concept to a relatively continuous unfolding

of the drama. In general, the baritone's singing does not result in

the cessation of action. In Rigoletto's role almost all the music

seems to serve the action; it is melody for dramatic purpose rather

than melody for melody's sake.

Verdi was approached by the husband of the soprano who created the

role of Gilda about the possibility of including another aria for her.

To this request Verdi expressed his own conception of the musical

organization of Rigoletto.

But as to the first question, the addition of more arias to

Rigoletto, let me add that my idea was that Rigoletto should
be one long series of duets without arias and without
finales, because this is how I felt.H

Synopsis

Verdi's adaptation of Hugo's play is condensed in the following

l9
synopsis which is basically that presented by Francis Toye.

The Duke of Mantua, an unprincipled libertine, is giving a party,

where he discusses with the gentlemen of his court his amorous adven­

tures. He is especially interested in a liaison that he is having with

a young girl whom he, in a disguise of a simple citizen, meets in church

every feastday. But that does not prevent him from making love at this

very party to the Countess of Ceprano almost before her husband's eyes.

"^Budden, p. 11.

"^Hussey, p. 71.
12
Toye, pp. 294-96. Considerable reference was made to this
synopsis.
 118

All women, he says, are alike to him provided they are pretty. In the

service of the Duke is a hunchbacked jester called Rigoletto, who

13
encourages his master in every kind of insolence and vice.

In the actual presence of Ceprano, Rigoletto advises the Duke to

imprison, exile, or even kill the Count so as to be able to court the

Countess in complete freedom. Ceprano, not unnaturally, loses his

temper, but Rigoletto, secure in the Duke's protection, merely laughs at

the threats of vengeance uttered by him and the other courtiers.

Presently Monterone, whose daughter the Duke has established as his

mistress, forces his way in to denounce the Duke as a villain.

Rigoletto mocks him, but Monterone, though put under arrest, has more

spirit than the obsequious courtiers and, turning on the Duke and

Rigoletto, he curses them both for insulting a father's grief.-

Rigoletto, to his horror, feels that the curse has struck home, while

the others express their annoyance at the party being spoiled by such an

intrusion.

The second scene shows the courtyard of Rigoletto's house and the

street outside it. Rigoletto, returning from the palace, is accosted by

a professional cut-throat, Sparafucile, who offers his services in case

of need, which, he hints, may not be so remote as Rigoletto thinks.

His favorite method, using his sister Maddalena as a decoy, is to entice

the victim to his lonely house by the river and there dispose of him.

Everything is carried out quietly and expeditiously; the tariff is low;

Literature and paintings of the period show instances of

deformed dwarfs in court employ. Often the position of Court Jester
was given to a physically deformed person because his very appearance
was a cause for both hilarity and horror.
 119

the terms - half the agreed sum in advance - are easy. Rigoletto,

sufficiently interested to take his name, then enters the house, railing

against himself for his wickedness and his deformity, and against the

Duke and the courtiers for having made him what he is. And all the

while Monterone's curse rings in his ears. He finds comfort, however,

in the company of his daughter, Gilda, who loves him dearly and whom he

loves more than anything else in the world. In an affecting scene she

begs him to reveal his true name and state or, if that is impossible,

to tall her at any rate the name of her mother. But Rigoletto will not

answer her questions, only saying that her mother was an angel of good­

ness and that since she is gone, all of his love is for Gilda. Gilda

begs for a little more freedom; for three months she has not been

allowed outside the house except to go to church. Rigoletto, however,

is even more firm on this point. Far from going out, extra precautions

must be taken to prevent anybody from knowing of her existence. He calls

Giovanna, the woman in charge of his house and his daughter, and bids

her redouble her watchfulness. But Giovanna has been bribed by a young

man who has met Gilda at church (in fact, though she does not know it,

none other than the Duke himself) to let him into the house, and he,

overhearing the end of the scene, learns with surprised amusement that

the girl is Rigoletto's daughter. Presently, when the jester has left

the house, the Duke reveals himself to Gilda as a poor student, by the

name of Gualtier Malde. The two, discreetly left alone by Giovanna,

exchange vows of love. Startled by a noise outside, Gilda, thinking

that her father has returned, hurries her lover out by another door.

Indulging in girlish dreams of love and delighted to have discovered, as

she thinks, her lover's identity, she goes to bed. But the noises she
 120

has heard were real enough, proceeding from a band of courtiers who had

gathered outside the house. One of them, as we learn in the first scene,

had discovered Rigoletto's house and in it a woman whom all naturally

imagine to be his mistress. What a joke to carry her off! What an

even better joke to make Rigoletto assist at the abduction in the

belief that the lady to be abducted is the Countess of Ceprano! Favored

by the darkness, the courtiers succeed in both enterprises. The wall of

Rigoletto's courtyard is scaled, the door opened to the band.

Rigoletto, whose eyes under pretense of masking they have in fact

bandaged, stands by, ignorant of the fact that he is assisting at the

rape of his ovrn daughter. But a cry for help, a shout of triumph from

the now distant courtiers rouse his suspicions. He tears the mask-

bandage from his eyes to recognize his house with the door standing

open. In an anguish of terror he rushes in. Gilda is gone.

Monterone's curse is working.

Act II is set in the private apartments of the Duke, who is

lamenting the loss of the only woman he ever loved. Though forced to

flee from the house, he had later returned to find the door open,

everything deserted, Gilda gone. Then the courtiers arrive, delighted

with their exploit, which they detail with great relish to the Duke,

telling him that they have Rigoletto's mistress in the palace at this

very moment. The duke, however, knowing her true identity, astounds

them by his sudden moodiness and departs to console the frightened girl.

Rigoletto appears, looking everywhere for his daughter. He tries to

discover exactly what happened in the night, but everyone simulates

complete ignorance. A page arrives from the Duchess to demand an

audience with the Duke. The courtiers get rid of him on excuses so
 121

transparently ridiculous that Rigoletto understands at once where Gilda

is. Turning on the courtiers, he demands, to their extreme surprise,

not his mistress but his daughter. He curses them for their mercenary

vileness, but presently, breaking down, makes a desperate appeal to

their better nature not to deprive him of the only thing he values in

the world. Then Gilda appears, to his infinite joy, though her appear­

ance confirms his worst fears. The wretched hunchback shames the

courtiers into departing, and father and daughter are left alone

together. On hearing the story of Gaultier Malde, Rigoletto forgives

his daughter, but, despite her prayer for clemency, swears an oath that

the vengeance invoked by Monterone on the Duke shall be carried out by

his hands.

Act III shows Sparafucile's inn both inside and out. Hoping to

cure Gilda of her infatuation, Rigoletto has brought her to see with her

own eyes what kind of a man her lover is. The Duke, attracted by the

charms of Maddalena, has come to visit her, ordering wine and singing a

gay little song about the fickleness of women. While Maddalena and the

Duke are flirting inside the house, the heartbroken Gilda and the

revengeful Rigoletto watch outside. Presently Rigoletto dismisses his

daughter, bidding her put on boy's clothes and go to Verona.

Sparafucile comes out to see him, for Rigoletto has taken advantage of

the assassin's offered services and arranged for the murder of the Duke,

though Sparafucile, needless to say, has no idea who the victim is.

At the sound of an approaching storm the Duke decides to spend

the night at the inn. When he has gone to bed Maddalena tries to per­

suade her brother to spare the Duke and kill the hunchback when he

returns for the body. Sparafucile will thus get the promised money all
 122

the same. The murderer refuses, with true professional vanity, to

murder his employer. Eventually Sparafucile is persuaded by Maddelena

to kill the next stranger coming to the house before midnight and

deliver the substituted body to Rigoletto. Gilda, who, despite her

father's commands, has returned to the house, has overheard the conver­

sation. Dressed in her boy's dress she decides to sacrifice herself

and thus save her lover's life. The plan works. Sparafucile stabs her

and puts her body in a sack which he hands over to Rigoletto on his

return at midnight. The gloating Rigoletto is about to throw the sack

into the river when he hears the Duke singing a fragment of his song.

In a frenzy he opens the sack to discover his dying daughter who begs

forgiveness for both herself and the lover for whom she has given her

life. Payment for Monterone's curse is now complete.

The Music of Rigoletto

Verdi's first choice of a title for Rigoletto was "La Maledizione"

(The Curse). The significance of that choice is heard in the opening

notes of the prelude, played by trumpets and trombones. Verdi's

association of the "curse motto" with the person and character of

Rigoletto is thus presented in the opening of the prelude (ex. 1).

ex. 1

Prelude.
Andante sostenuto.fJ=68)
Tramp'tt A Trn'-tovt ,
T I S • K • V ' V. ' " - ,
 123

ex. 1, cont.

1 Is >••»! ir-v ts jr
I_ PP PPsrr,,,; «
rrj - E5=rg— S3—g: , r
i !>zr
Vs-

Rene Leibowitz has dealt extensively with the orchestration of

Rigoletto and makes this observation:

This important and well-known musical figure might be

described as the theme of the curse .... Each time
Rigoletto refers to the curse the theme is heard in its
original form (with its proper harmony in which on the
last chord - major - differs from the minor chord of the
prelude.14

Rigoletto's obsessive belief in the curse of old Monterone is the

hinge upon which the plot of Rigoletto opens and closes. It preys on

his mind and destroys him. By opening with this theme, Verdi projects

the doom of Rigoletto even before his actual appearance on stage. "It

is a sombre and evocative introduction to the grim drama which

follows.

The curtain rises on the gaiety of a party in full progress.

Suddenly Rigoletto appears out of nowhere to hurl an insult at Ceprano.

The entry of Rigoletto is subtle. He is the protagonist;

but in this brilliant gathering of the nobility he is a
cipher, lumbering with a bitter heart in a twisted body.
No red carpet is laid for his arrival. He is not there,
and suddenly he is there.16

Rene Leibowitz, "The Orchestration of Rigoletto," trans, by

Robert W. Mann, III, n. 8 (Parma: Bollettino Dell'istituto Di Studi
Verdiani, 1973), p. 1250.

"'"^Hughes, p. 91.

"^Godefroy, I, p. 199.
 124

In keeping with the first notes of the prelude, Rigoletto's taunt

to Ceprano is delivered on the same reiterated which will soon become

Monterone's curse although not presented in minor nor as rhythmically

in the prelude (ex. 2).

ex. 2
f. - N * -
•>Oiw» bisarm to the Counties.and goes out with her.)

•V— mo - re i- ne-bria.con-qui - de, di-strug^ il mio eo - ri»!

round me. a tor-ment.a mad- ness.has conquerd.has hound me. 3
R(ro/etto<ta Count Ct'Drano).*'• •
> ~ j - '.I ~T> r * f-.:!5r\i»
In te-stachea -
A »
> v — * *• *•— m *—jyhat «•» is it dis -
——
r Jj* j r^~!J I
i * i
fC^prnr.o makes a ^siurr ofimpntipnce.-and »'to the Courtiers)
25 follows this Dukt-j"2 m
'' • '' i - t ' • • . i j
ve-te, si-£r.ordi CVpra « - - no? Ei sbuf-fa! Ye-
turbsour^iodlordofCe-pr;\ - n .-no? A marplot!
r, i WazBnUnntewi .....r.

Tempo Ltd =n:: •| • .5 1 5 t I i ? 1

*; *; c v-"-*.. r , *:. - * •, %

The spite and malevolence in Rigoletto is revealed in an accusa­

tion that is embarrassing to both the Duke and Ceprano.

Cosi non e sempre? Isn't it always like this?

Che nuove scoperte! What a new discovery!
II giuoco ed il vino, Gaming and wine,
le feste, la danza, feasting and dancing,
Battaglia, conviti, Battles and banquets,
ben tutto gli sta. everything suits him.
Or della Contessa Now he's laying siege to
l'assedio egli avanza, the Countess,
E intanto il marito and the husband
fremendo ne va. meanwhile is raging about it.I?

The lines are chanted almost entirely on c . Of the forty-six

William Weaver, Seven Verdi Librettos (New York: W. W. Norton

and Company, Inc., 1975), pp. 1-78. This and all subsequent transla­
tions of the libretto are taken from this work.
 125

notes in the passage, only six are not on that pitch. Rigoletto's

spite thus presages the curse against him. His observations have little

effect on the surrounding activity but do serve to identify the caustic

aspect of his character; he leaves as suddenly as he appeared. The on­

stage conversation which follows exposes the hatred of the courtiers for

Rigoletto.

Moments later Rigoletto enters again, this time with the Duke. He

advises the Duke on how to deal with Ceprano who presents an obstacle to

the Duke's desire for Ceprano's wife. Rigoletto's careless appraisal of

the value of life itself: "E ben naturale! Che fardi tal test. A cosa

ella vale?" (It's quite natural. What's to be done with that head?)

(ex. 3a), is heightened by the chromatically ascending phrase. It is one

of pure mockery and is similar to that sung by Sparafucile in the final

act when Rigoletto is cheated by Sparafucile over the body of the Duke

(ex. 3b).

ex. 3

a.

the shoulder). _ Rigol.tto. _ . • •

r,
V'l ' ' t ' ' \
IV te-sta?... £ ben na-tu-ra-le! Chefardital testa? A co-sael-la
, .bending'.' Aye,tru-ly unbending: Its use is dis-covery,youUflowmakBit

r?r i r".sr" *
:< b-z r • f. i M.f Wf Ml f m ••
l . • . • i. • . • i. • . • ».•••
A ( Oukt(to CepranoK (to Rigoletto)
" ' - * */ I ' " i ~ it "'t
KJ Ceprano fenrag-d. Fer-ma-te! BuiTo-ce.v.en
brandishing Doniraiadhim! MaruIIo. 7hou im:sr,coae
•2 • Rigoletto. • • t • Tt M M M
? • 1 • ; • - ' ' ' ; ; 7:- ; ^—=!
( va-le? Mar-ra-ao! Da ri-dermi fa. Tn fu-riajjrnonca-to'
pliant. Thou ri-batd! I laugh at the peerilJieCour.tsL- a passiosi
 126

ex. 3, cont.

b.

Rfgofitfo. 5o*ri(uCiU.

tiam. No ; b'ast6ioso4o. Co-rae vi pia-ce...Qui men at-tojnl si-to.piua-van-ti^piuprofcndojl

stream. No> I will dothatSe'tatyourpleasure.Herethe tide 7s shallow,ycullfinditdeeperfurther

* <331 * <2*.
(re-enters the house)

gor-go...pVe^to ) cheai-cunnoii'vl sor.prea-da.. Buo-na not

downward.Hasten,let no one here sur-prise you. N'owgood night,

Rigoletto is absorbed into the ensemble xtfhich follows. The

exchanges preceding and during the ensemble illustrate the growing

musical continuity which Verdi achieves in Rigoletto. The recurring

melodic figures in the orchestra furnish "binding" for the parlando

vocal exchanges (ex. 4).

ex. 4

3uk« (enters, followed by Rigoletto;. '<o Rigoletto)

Ah piu di Ce - pra-nbimpor-tn- no non ve!

How shall I get rid of Ce-ora - no to - day?
S"m -

La ca - ra sua spo - sa^un an - syiol per

That an - eel. his wife, ray hearis sto-h a-

Bigoletto. ^^ Ouke.

Ha-pi-te-la. E det-to: mail !ar- lo?

E-!ope with her. To say so' is' ea-sy.
 127

Virtually all the orchestral material used here was introduced in

the prelude (ex. 5).

ex. 5

' A splendid apurtment :D the 4ui-al paUue. opening at the BACK info 6T)'C£ R.-TSIA. ali briKia*2iy Hchtcdj
• Allegro con brio.io* uz)

' d fbm irmn0j,

•/;/•.

rrrrrmte

It all seems to grow quite naturally into the ensemble where it

becomes, however, almost totally a musical matter, with words broken bv

rests for a more instrumental effect. Rigoletto's tessitura is

excruciatingly high, reaching sung pp (ex. 6).

ex. 6

. ^'PP
* A
•A ^ •-
su - no del Du . C!ljl pro tet - to, nes - su no toc-che *
harm on your Grac - e's, your Grac - e's poor ser - vantcan

The ensemble and Rigoletto's insults are interrupted by the

demands of Monterone. Again Rigoletto's response is that of insult and

 128

mockery. Instructions for Rigoletto's approach to Monterone are

indicated, "Si avanza con ridicola gravita!" (He comes forward with

mock gravity!). A twisting figure in the strings seems to mimic the

jester's bent body and mind (ex. 7).

ex. 7

Sosteauto assai. ( * z s h )

Rigoletto (caricalurlcifV

Voi con-niu - ra-

Mv loni and VJI5-
1 111 ~ * ^ T * -—t • i— ===S»—T* ^T7\

1V • -1 * Jj j ppp' '*—= =
1 v 9 • • „

- ste,rni coD-giu-ra -S .'e COQ -tro zfoi, SI-GCO - r e ; ^ ^ . nh. e

^ - sal, my lordand vass>d.com'stthou here tobume ^ s. n. Al-
• —i - — • ••• • ' •» ' -• ——J • - , «T.«' L'
- • ^ ^ f •—
r--1 ' i =?• ~T.

In the arioso which follows, Rigoletto mocks Monterone. The

latter's outburst of wrath culminates in a malevolent curse on the Duke

and Rigoletto, to which the entire ensemble responds with a closing

chorus of typical dramatic intensity.

Scene ii is a deserted street in front of Rigoletto's home. Far

from the festivity of the Duke's palace, Rigoletto is in a different

world. The link between the two is the curse motto. His opening words

(ex. 8), "Quel vecchio maledivami!" (The old man cursed me!), are

almost an exact repetition of the eight c^'s which began the opera.
 129

The troubled mood of the first scene is continued.

ex. 8

Andante mosso.(«;ee)

Piano. 2S

Viol* A /('ll't
-+• -9-
1'j'L ' - ' — <• < \ - =j
(Quel vecehio ma. le di - va - mi!)
(He laid a fathers curse on me.O

__J5I
" blgi5§if viorendo
I /",

-i

Verdi has skillfully used the orchestra to create a clandestine

atmosphere for Rigoletto's meeting with the soon-to-be assassin,

Sparafucile. A muted cello and bass play a mournful melody over

pizzicato strings (ex. 9 a).

ex. 9

a.

Sparafucils(also wrapped in a. cloak, from which

a long sword is s«en to projsvi,follows « a (drawing nv.trrr to hiraJ

'Cttio 4 Hott mnfi Si-gnor...

/"jiO C
"V - — f•" J) i-
I' - *D'L r fcJgr . • • > ...
•• BM rr .. | . . . j
J#p_ - 1 J

JtH.Vfof** pin.
 130

The scene is reminiscent of the meeting of Ernani and Silva

before the tomb of Charlemagne in Ernani.

Verdi has contrasted the speech of Sparafucile and Rigoletto.

Over the smooth instrumental melody, Rigoletto's delivery is rather

tongue-tied, consisting of many single words and abrupt interruptions

of the dialogue. Budden expresses the view that this piece derives

"from the comic opera procedure of two buffo basses parlanti against an
18
orchestral melody."

The scene is cast in ternary form and the orchestral content

serves as a foil for and an ironic contrast to the dialogue. In

section a_, over a gracious tune in F major, with occasional references

to F minor, Sparafucile reveals his role as assassin-for-hire while

Rigoletto displays little interest (ex. 9 b).

ex. 9

b.

Un la-dro?
A rob-ber?

chie-si.
mat-ter I would but say, here is one who owns a sword.

18
Budden, p. 492.
 131

At section b_ with Rigoletto's first expression of interest, "E_

quanto spendere per un signor dovrei?" (And how much would I have to

spend for a gentleman?), a more agitated rhythmic figure appears. The

harmonic movement, beginning in the dominant, is somewhat more chromatic

and the tension culminates in a promise of return to F major but

resolves appropriately instead to the submediant of F minor on the words

"il resto si da poi" (the rest when he is dead) (ex. 10).

ex. 10

(De- monioO
Co- mu- sa - si pa - ipr?
(Thou d-gmon?)
When must the price be paid?

re-t. One half before the deed is dcceAhe rgst'A-hen he

double..

The return to a finds Rigoletto completely caught up in the

possibility of using Sparafucile's skills. The rhythms are more

agitated and the graciousness of the tune is colored by extensive

chromaticism in the accompanying instruments (ex. 11).

ex. 11

(De-monioM £ eomejn
fThou demon!.1 How.* do you
 132

ex. 11, cont.

1 - - •• • - = j
ca . sa?
lure thtftnv g m'

E fa - ci - le.. ma - iu- - ta raia SO -

Oh, eas-i - ly, I'm aid- _ - ed by my

A *' j 'V- * * h r
b -

^ s ^ I ^ ^' .

= 1_J '* f f 7

The brief closing section serves to provide for the exit of

Sparafucile.

Again it is with the orchestra that Verdi is able to bind the

scene and provide continuity. There is irony in the use of lovely

lyricism and the major mode to accompany such a sinister text. All of

this illustrates Verdi's increasing grasp of dramatic and musical logic

and control.

Left alone to think, Rigoletto immediately becomes voluble and

very rhetorical. He begins one of the major recitative sections for

baritone in the entire opera. "Rigoletto's famous soliloquy, 'Pari

siamo' (We are equals), is a classic instance of a recitative which has

all the formal strength of an aria."19

Pari siamo! . . . io la We are equals! ... I have my

lingua, egli ha il tongue, he has the
pugnale; dagger;
L'uomo son io che ride I am the man who laughs, he,
ei quel che spegne! the one who kills!
Quel vecchio maledivami! That old man cursed me!
0 uomini! ... 0 natural 0 mankind! ... 0 nature!
Vil scellerato mi You made me base
faceste voi! and wicked!

19
Ibid., p. 493.
 133

Oh rabbia! Oh, fury!

Esser difforme! To be deformed!
Oh rabbia! Oh, fury!
Esser Buffone! To be a buffoon!
Non dover, non poter Not allowed, not able to
altro che ridere! do anything but laugh!

II retaggio d'ogni Everyman's release -

uom m'e tolto: il pianto weeping - is denied me . . .

Questo padrone mio, This master of mine,

Giovin, giocondo, si young, gay, so powerful,
possente, bello handsome,
Sonnecchiando mi dice: Says to me, as he dozes:
Fa ch'io rida, buffone . , Make me laugh, buffoon . . .
Forzarmi deggio e farlo! I must force myself, and
Oh dannazione! do it! Oh, damnation!
Odio a voi, cortigiani I hate you, scornful
schernitori! courtiers!
Quanta in mordervi ho What joy I feel in
gioia se iniquo son, stinging you; if I'm
per cagion vostra e solo. wicked, it's only because
Ma in altr'uomo qui mi of you. But here I'm
cangio! changed into another
Quel vecchio maledivami man! That old man cursed
Tal pensiero perche me . . . why does such a thought
conturba ognor keep troubling my mind?
La mente mia? Will misfortune strike me?
Mi cogliera sventura?
Ah no! e follia! Ah no! that is folly!

With each successive thought the nature of the vocal line and the

orchestral accompaniment are skillfully combined to convey the particu­

lar emotion. Although the monologue is a panorama of separate

expressions it does not become disjointed. Budden points out the

unifying factors.

The tempo is partly strict, partly free, but there are two
unifying factors. One is the recurrence once just after the
beginning,, once just before the end, of the curse theme,
"Quel vecchio maledivami," always in the same key and with
the same instrumentation. The other is the unusual symme­
try of the tonal scheme (F - D flat; B flat; D flat; E - C).
The three central progressions are by keys a minor third
apart, while the jump from F to D flat at "0 uomini e^
natura" is mirrored by the descent from E major to C after
 134

22
"Ma in altr'uorao qui mi cangio" - or nearly.

Dramatically the arioso/recitative serves two functions. First it

recalls the hypocrisy of the jester in scene i when all was not as it

seemed; Rigoletto did not really feel the jesting nature which he por­

trayed. Secondly, it serves as an. inner mirror reflecting his true

feelings of self-loathing, fear, anger, but also love for his home and

daughter.

Three examples serve to illustrate how accurately Verdi reveals

the thoughts in Rigoletto's mind. Through musical means Rigoletto is

made to appear more and more human. After recalling the curse he cries

out against mankind and against his own deformity. At the lines, "Oh

rabbia! esser difforme! Oh rabbia! esser buffone!" (Oh, fury! To be

deformed! Oh, fury! To be a buffoon!), the strings play a twisted

figure, much like the one used as Rigoletto mockingly approached

Monterone in scene i (ex. 12).

ex. 12

vo - n Oh rab - bin! S3 dif .

tor-mem Thus mon - strous whi thou

for- me! oh rab-bia! es-ser buf-fo. ne!

made me? A jest-er! Oh de-gra.dation!

9?
"Ibid.
 135

Immediately following the movement to B major the orchestra plays

a light, pizzicato theme reminiscent of the Duke's party. Rigoletto

muses about his lord and master who can so carelessly demand Rigoletto's

buffoonery. With a curse, "Oh dannazione!" (Oh, damnation!) (ex. 13),

hes ascends tutta forza to E major to proclaim his hatred of the

courtiers; the sudden harmonic change effectively colors the curse.

ex. 13

tutta forza A13egT0.(«'rli!0) con forza

>a. *• '?£ •£" •

far- !o! Oh dan-na - zio- - ne!

- ed!

A solo flute introduces with appropriate pathos (ex. 14) the

poignant reference to home and daughter, "Ma _in altr'uomo qui mi

cangio'!" (But here I'm changed into another man!). Finally, the

dominant chord in E major resolves deceptively to C major on the appro­

priate word, "cangio" (I change).

ex. 14

Ar.dante. <« r :n)

Ma in al - trto-mo qui mi cang-io!

 136

Rigoletto is now joined by his daughter Gilda for a duet which

continues in the key with which he has ended his soliloquy, C major.

The opening dialogue is skillfully held together musically by two

recurring orchestral figures which mirror Gilda's delight in contrast to

Rigoletto's distrust (ex. 15)..

ex. 15

Migc.'e'to.

te dap - pres - so
thee, my dautfh - :er,

S3* S53S I
sr-r-x
3-4# *I %%%
-J—S-J
-j
i-
* :J

When Gilda mentions her mother Rigoletto responds with a brief but

tuneful aria, "Deh no parlate al misero" (Ah, don't speak to a poor

wretch . . . ).

Deh non parlate Ah, don't speak to a poor

al misero wretch
Del suo perduto bene About his lost love . . .
Ella sentia, She, that angel,
quell'angelo, Felt pity for my
Pieta, pieta delle mie pene sufferings . . .
Solo, difforme, povero Alone, deformed, poor,
Per compassion mi amo. She loved me out of compassion,
Ah! Moria . . . moria . . . Oh! . . . She died . . . she
died . . .
Le zolle coprano May the clods lightly
Lievi quel capo arnato. cover that beloved head,
 137

Sola or tu resti . . . Now only you remain . . .

Sola or tu resti Only you remain to the
al misero. wretch.
Dio, sii ringaziato! God be thanked!

The accompaniment resorts again to an earlier "om-pah-pah" style

combined with ornamental notes which have musical appeal, and are

pleasing, but contribute little of dramatic value.

In the key of A^ major Rigoletto pours out his misery, invoking

pity and a new quality of tenderness in what is to develop into another

extended baritone-soprano duet.

Vittorio Gui once suggested that Verdi's own tragic experi­

ence in life as the father of two children, a daughter and
a son, who died before they were two years old, had a long-
lasting subconscious effect on the composer's treatment and
characterization of unhappy, and usually widowed, fathers
in his operas. Certainly, there is to be found in Verdi's
music a recurrent strain of pathos peculiar to those charac­
ters who are fathers - and especially fathers with daughters.21

The duet itself is rather instrumentally conceived, as evidenced

by Rigoletto's broken words (ex. 16) and the staccato effects (ex. 17).

ex. 16

puo? o'jan - to do ior! he

tears: *0h say no r.ore. ch say

la, so •
Re - lent less death sooa

21
Hussey, p. 98.
 138

ex. 17

piu,
. — ~r. f, r
pa-are, non piu. non piu. cal - ma - ts - vi. mi
,
In - ce-
child, fa- ther be - iovii, look on thy chiid! .Oh let .Tie com-for:
* . r , ; ft ^
la_ re - stial mi ro. so - la re
me, thou art. left me, to_ coa - sole

'7"-\ 1 '1—^— 1 •'

° • 7 \tcresd- * '

i, |Ui d j. J- ^ ,|j ^ S.J- ^

The resulting fragmentation is musically pleasing but with limited

musico-poetic synthesis.

As Rigoletto s thoughts shift to Gilda they are accompanied by a

dynamic marking of ppp, and the range is moved up to and above with

the result being an increasingly passionate delivery and a frightening

tessitura as he is joined by Gilda. Rigoletto's singing is lightly

staccato, touching jf*" (ex. 18).

ex. 18

re- - sti... Di - - Q,._ sii rin-gra-zia - to.

1*^ sic. and for that bless-lng my heart-fe!:

The tension between Gilda and Rigoletto is expressed harmonically

by the vacillations between A major and A^ minor including tonal

excursions from both modes. The string tremolo, ascending chromatics,

and rhythmically agitated sixteenth notes in the strings all contribute

to the restlessness. The tension is resolved appropriately by a

decisive movement to Db at the words: "Culto, famiglia. la patria, il

 139

mil universo e in te!" (Religion, family and home, my universe is in

you!), where it remains for the closing expressions of affection.

Rigoletto's growing apprehension over the possible loss of Gilda

is effectively mirrored in an extended passage of ascending chromatics,

£ to _b , as he voices concern m an aside (ex. 19):

(Potrien sequirla, (They could follow her,

rapirla ancora! seize her even!
Qui d'un buffone si Here they dishonor a jester's
disonora la figlia daughter
E se ne ride . . . Orror!) And laugh about it . . . Horror!)

ex. 19

Uhl cneais - ail)

3;gc!et1o. (Oh. my conscience]) ^stce)

GuaiL
Ne'er?

Dialogue among Rigoletto, Gilda, and Giovanna, Gilda's guardian,

follows. The passage is bound together with an extended pedal point

b
on B . The bass functions as the root of dominant seventh in the

approaching key of E^ major and an extended six-four chord in both E^

major and the parallel minor, E minor, again showing Verdi's use of the

alternating major-minor modes.

In an extended duet Gilda and Rigoletto sing a graciously lyric

 140

line over an accompaniment in "om-pah-pah" style. Several grace notes

decorate the vocal line. Tonally there is a rounded binary structure

with Rigoletto singing in major and Gilda in the sub-dominant key of

b b
A major. Rigoletto concludes in E major over an arpeggiated orches­

tral pattern. Again Verdi makes brief excursions to the respective

parallel minors of both keys. When Rigoletto sings "Tu dei venti dal

furore, ch'altri fiori hanno piegato ..." (From the fury of the winds

that have bent other flowers . . .) the key very briefly touches

minor. Likewise, when Gilda refers to the prayers of her departed

mother, the mode is minor.

The pedal point which served as backdrop for the dialogue

mentioned above serves the same function for a similar exchange involving

Rigoletto, Gilda, and the Duke, who is present but hiding.

The extended duet serves to underscore the strong bond between

father and daughter. Stylistically it reflects the lyric, melodic Verdi

of an earlier period yet one who is now able to achieve greater cohesion

through thematic and harmonic devices employed in the orchestra.

RigolettoTs final appearance in Act I occurs when he returns home

and is engaged by the courtiers to kidnap Gilda whom they believe to be

his mistress.

The irony of the kidnapping is underscored by the playful melodic

motiff given to the strings. The harmony vacillates between A major

and A'3 minor and its related tonal areas, showing yet again Verdi's use

of the major-minor interchange. As Rigoletto is drawn into the plot

Verdi uses what might be a musical pun. When Rigoletto voices concern

as to how they will enter, he is handed Ceprano's own key with the words,

"Ecco la chiave" (Here is the key); simultaneously, the orchestra moves

 141

through a sequence of dominant sevenths to tonic resolutions in a

circle of fifths to imply continuous "key" changes.

Rigoletto is now part of the very curse that is working against

him. This is reflected musically by agitated sixteenth notes which

mirror his momentary concern over the key. They, in turn, become an

ostinato pattern undergirding the return of the "joking" string melody;

Verdi has thus combined Rigoletto's concern and the irony of the

courtier's joke as the deed is transacted in Rigoletto's very presence.

The joking motif has been the means of unifying the passage.

Gilda is abducted and the courtiers leave. The strings play a

pattern of agitated, harmonically restless chromatics which underscore

Rigoletto's frantic concern. Rushing through his house he discovers

Gilda is gone. His final statement (ex. 20), related to the curse

motif, is sung over tremolo strings. For the first time the curse

motif is accompanied. The curse lends symmetry to Act I, occurring at

both its beginning and end.

Godefroy makes this observation about the final thirteen bars:

"His life crashes and tumbles, but in the music there is no shred of

pathos or pity. This emotion is carefully and tellingly reserved up

, "92
Verdi s sleeve.

99
Godefroy, I, p. 207.
 142

ex. 20

Although the dramatic events of the scene are not logical ones,

they cohere largely due to the recurrence of themes in the orchestra.

Rigoletto's involvement, bumbling as it is, is carried out in short

parlando injections of limited range; his integration within the drama

is achieved largely by the musical forces around him.

Rigoletto next appears when Act II is quite advanced. He comes

to the Duke's palace looking for Gilda whom he suspects is there. His

attitude is one of supposedly careless indifference. The apparent

jauntiness of his tune is contradicted by Verdi's use of the minor mode

imparting a subtle melancholy which gives dramatic emphasis to

Rigoletto's anxiety. In brief exchanges with the courtiers he continues

to hum the tune while searching for clues to Gilda's whereabouts. Again

it is the orchestral theme which allows the dramatic action to cohere, a

fact which, emerges more consistently in Rigoletto than in the preceding

three operas of this study (ex. 21).

 143

ex. 21

A.'Iegro zF.-a; .Tode.-ato. <

Po- ve . ro ?.:-yc -
Pour siritkcn R:-go -
«r • 4- » ,

^Ijcigtto '1-hind the fcvr.us).

£i vi^n! Si -
H^rr^s! }:-rs_

From the conversation of those around him, Rigoletto becomes con­

vinced that Gilda must be with the Duke. Following a restless passage

in D minor, underscored with sixteenths in the orchestral strings,

Rigoletto's anguished cry, "Io_ vo' mia figlia" (I want my daughter),

leads to the key of Eb major, but with the insertion of chords from the

parallel minor key. The continuous sixteenths and the modal interchange

throughout the entire passage serve to heighten Rigoletto's growing

hysteria. The aria which follows does not break the action in the

manner of the earlier set aria but serves to move the drama forx\*ard.

Cortigiani, vil razza Courtiers! Vile, damned

dannata, race,
Per qual prezzo For what price did you sell
vendeste il mil bene? my happiness?
A voi nulla per l'oro There is nothing you won't
sconviene! do for gold!
Ma mia figlia e. But my daughter is a
impagabil tesor. priceless treasure.
La rendete o, se pur Give her back or,
 144

disarmata, even disarmed,

Questa man per voi This hand will be
fora cruenta; bloodstained because of you;
Nulla in terra piu A man no longer fears
1'uomo paventa; anything on earth,
Nulla in terra piu If he is defending
l'uomo paventa, his children's honor.
Se dei figli difende
1'onor.
Ouella porta, assassini, That door, murders,
assassini, murders,
M'aprite, la porta, Open that door for me!
la porta, m'aprite! Open the door!

There are no melodic phrases, but rather fragments of text and

individual words, punctuated by gasps, all calculated to characterize

Rigoletto's state of mind. The tessitura is high, centering within the

fifth spanning a*5 to e^. The musical movement is swept along by rapid

staccato strings, mosso agitato. The extremely busy orchestral figure,

double-triplets played in ostinato fashion throughout, provides a

cohesive backdrop for Rigoletto's frantic outbursts. It is a moment of

great wrath, again sharpening the characterization of Rigoletto.

Completely frustrated, Rigoletto resorts to throbbing triplets on

a repeated c"*" (ex. 22).

ex. 22
 145

ex. 22, cont.

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ (He struggles with the Courtiers,is

• r> • ^"beeom-sWthr frcm of th? b'.^r?.)

pri-ie, lapor-ra, la por-ta. as-SHssinLnTa-pri

biukjltt me er»-t*r, as-^as-biiSjthHidoor I T.ust ra
> £- ? ir $r

The emotional impact of the triplets is increased by the frantic

orchestral accompaniment. With a final effort Rigoletto throws himself

against the door as the orchestra diminishes in intensity. Verdi may

here be reflecting the spent rage and broken spirit of Rigoletto.

The encounter provides a contrast to the remainder of the aria:

Ebben, piango . . . Very well, I weep

Marullo . . . signore . Marullo . . . Lord . . .
Tu ch'hai l'alma gentil You, whose spirit is kind,
come il core, like your heart,
Dimmi tu dove l'hanno You, tell me where they've
nascosta? hidden her?
Marullo . . . signore . Marullo . . . Lord . . .
Dimmi tu dove l'hanno Tell me where they've
nascosta? hidden her?
E la? non e vero? She's there, isn't she?
Tu taci! ohime! You're silent! Alas.
Miei signori . . . My Lords . . . forgive me.
perdono, pietate . . . have pity . . .
A1 vegliardo Give the old man back his
la figlia ridate . . . daughter . . .
Ridonarla a voi nulla To give her back now
ora costa, costs nothing,
Tutto,
% tutto al mondo This daughter is all
e tal figlia per me. the world to me.
Signori, perdon, Lords, forgive me,
pieta . . . pity . . .
Ridate a me la figlia; Give me back my daughter;
Tutto al mondo e tal This daughter is all the
figlia per me! world to me!
Pieta, signori, pieta! Pity, Lords, pity!

Verdi has divided the text into two sections. The first section,

ending at "ohime!" (alas) is in F minor. Rigoletto resorts again to the

 146

sobbing triplet figure, to repeating text, to gasps. The effect is

that of an emotion too great to sustain. A strategic rest with fermata

occurs following his line, "Tu taci!" (You're silent!). The orchestra

modulates to the submediant, major. The dramatic moment resolves

into the most lyrical and tuneful passage of the entire scene.

Rigoletto's pleading is accompanied by an English horn obligato. The

orchestra provides harmonic support only by the use of arpeggiated

chords. Verdi strikes an appropriate note of pathos by using the

flatted sixth scale degree at the words, "Signori, perdon ..." (Lords,

forgive . . .) (ex. 23).

ex. 23

The emotional impact is heightened by several repetitions of the

final three lines, each time projecting the voice higher. In the final

five measures Rigoletto sings f^ six times, con forza. A favorite

device, the cadenza, utilizes fragments of repeated text.

Liebowitz offers this commentary on Verdi's choice of orchestra­

tion for the entire scene.

Verdi's stunning orchestral economy also appears in a very

interesting way in Rigoletto's great second-act aria
"Cortigiani, vil razza dannata." Note first of all that
the piece iaccompanied almost exclusively by strings,
then that there is only one "tutti" in the whole aria (at
the moment Rigoletto throws himself against the door),
 147

further the use - in the last section of the aria - of an

English horn "obbligato" (which portrays the character's
utter despair), and lastly that the "concertant" role of
this instrument is prepared for in the previous section
where it symbolizes Rigoletto's tears.23

Godefroy expresses the view that throughout Rigoletto's Scena ed

aria Verdi is offering a commentary on Gilda's experience in the next

room. Verdi thereby circumvented the censors and revealed in the

94
orchestra the proceedings of the Duke s rape of Gilda."

The reunion with Gilda occurs over another "om-pah-pah" accom-

paniment, revolving around B minor. There is a modulation to C major

as Rigoletto orders the courtiers from the room. Again the repeated

c^ or the curse motto is manipulated into a strong command (ex. 24),

reinforced by pulsating orchestral eighth-notes. (The irony of this

command becomes apparent shortly when Monterone utters the same terse

tune as he passes across the stage on his way to jail.)

ex. 24
(turning
*0 the VcarnT-i.
j, ^ ^ B i g a l i t t o ^ „

v Ar - ros-sir vo-i:!io ir.-nan - zia voi sol - Tan -to... I - if di

F;L - thcr,' oti bale from ev - ' f y rye but tliiut*! K*nre, 1 t orn-
* i .

23
Leibowitz, p. 1261.
24
Godefroy, I, p. 210. Godefroy includes an extensive analysis of
 148

Alone, Gilda and Rigoletto begin the final duet of Act II.

Rigoletto's solo is directed first to God and then to Gilda. Beginning

in A major the tonality moves to and around the relative minor, F minor,

with its corresponding melancholy. At the words "Ouanto caduto er'io

. . ." (As far as I had fallen), the key reaches major where a

transitional passage, with melodic doubling in winds, returns again to

F minor. The harmonies and texture are rich but the vocal line is

rather static.

At bar seventeen Rigoletto addresses Gilda, "Ah! Piangi, piangi,

fanciulla!" (Ah! Weep, weep, child!). There is the familiar shift to

the submediant.

It consists of a single phrase for Rigoletto stated four

times, twice plain, twice embellished; an intervening
phrase for Gilda; and a long coda in which the singers
combine. The instrumental palette is calculated to bring
out all the velvet depths of the baritone voice - clarinets,
horns, bassoons and pizzicato cellos. . The mood is cathar­
tic, one of grief purged by weeping and transfigured into
serene melody.25

Verdi injects "weeping" figures on such words as "piangi" (weep),

and "scorrer" (flow), repeating them frequently (ex. 25).

Verdi's use of the orchestra to describe the rape, best described by

the sentence, "Verdi, forbidden by censorship even to allude to the
shocking fact that the Duke had a key with which he could lock himself
and Gilda in, used the orchestra to tell us far more than theatrical
convention would allow."
25
Budden, p. 503.
 149

ex. 25

The melodic line, instrumental doubling, harmonic rhythm, and

tessitura are reminiscent of earlier operatic conventions.

The appearance of Monterone prompts Rigoletto's response and

serves to direct the duet towards its cabaletta-style finish. Rigoletto

sings of a vendetta which recalls that sung by Carlos in Ernani.

Si, vendetta, Yes, vengeance,

tremenda vendetta terrible vengeance
Di quest'anima e solo Is the sole desire
desio . . . of my spirit . . .
Di punirti gia l'ora To punish you, already the
affretta hour presses
Che fatale per That will strike fatally
te tuonera. for you.
Come fulmine scagliato Like a thunderbolt hurled by
da Dio, God,
Te colpire il buffone The Buffoon will be able
sapra. to strike you.

The music is repetitious with the same rhythmic pattern occurring

in nineteen measures. The section remains in A major with a short

 150

transition through the dominant of the relative minor, returning again

to A major. "The tune, which has its more vulgar features rubbed in

by being doubled by a solo trumpet from time to time, is taken up by

26
Gilda ..." The aria relates to a long line of rage arias, inter­

rupting the dramatic flow. Gilda takes the theme in D^ major. The

tonic-subdominant relationship between the respective solos serves to

accommodate the difference in vocal tessituras as well as to convey the

contrasting characters.

The duet seems to affirm Verdi's intention that the opera be a

"long series of duets." However, in style, this passage shows a Verdi

who had not completely broken with moments of pure music, some of which

exhibit little to advance the dramatic action. As Gilda sings,

Rigoletto resorts to shouts of single words, "Vendetta," "No!," etc.,

culminating in a final section of pure virtuosity. The orchestration

has lost the suavity heard earlier and reflects a certain coarseness.

Dramatically, the duet serves as final justification for the events

which will culminate in Act III.

Again, Act III is the shortest of the opera. It is set at the

country inn where Sparafucile is to murder the Duke. Gilda and

Rigoletto converse in quiet recitative-dialogue. The sparse accom­

paniment allows for greater projection of text as Rigoletto again

speaks of a vendetta.

Following the Duke's aria, Sparafucile comes outside and questions

Rigoletto as to whether or not the Duke should be killed. Verdi

handles the issue of life and death with almost no emotional

^Hughes, p. 111.
 151

undercurrent as Sparafucile questions and Rigoletto answers in chant­

like fashion on a repeated _f^.

The great quartet which follows has been the subject of consid­

erable study and commentary. Taken as a whole it is a remarkable

expression of four separate emotions expressed simultaneously in a

passage of beautiful music. However, Rigoletto's contribution is of

limited melodic interest, rhythmic drive, or dramatic function. His

comments are directed entirely to Gilda.

Ch'ei mentiva sei You are sure that he

sicura. _ was lying.
Taci, e mia sara la cura Hush, and I will take
La vendetta d'affrettar. care to hasten vengeance.
Si, pronta fia, sara Yes, it will be swift
fatale, and fatal,
Io saprollo fulminar. I will know how to strike
Taci, taci . . . him down. Hush, hush . . .
M'odii . . . ritorna a casa. Hear me! ... Go back home . . .

Rigoletto's first contribution to the quartet is limited to

repetitions of the question directed to Gilda, "E non ti basta ancor?"

(Isn't that enough for you yet?). For Rigoletto's question, there is

an appropriate harmonic movement from E major to the submediant.

As the full quartet gets under way Verdi employs the "darker" key

of D major with chromatic inflections to add pathos. For example,

Rigoletto's line to Gilda, "Taci, il piangere non vale" (Hush, weeping

is of no avail), employs a flatted sixth on the word "vale."

At the line "Si, pronta fia, sara fatale" (Yes, it will be swift

and fatal), the music modulates by sequences upward to arrive (ex. 26)

at Rigoletto's stated intention to destroy the Duke, "Io saprollo

fulminar" (I will know how to strike him down).

 152

ex. 26

The extended concluding section of the quartet is saturated with

purely musical and instrumental devices: text repetitions, words

broken by rests, roulades, and the other paraphernalia of operatic

display pieces.

The quartet subsides to a quiet conclusion, and Rigoletto

instructs Gilda to go home, dress as a man, and ride to Verona; he then

confers with Sparafucile. His only expression of emotion is when

Sparafucile asks the victim's name. Rigoletto responds with great

effect, "Egli e Delitto, Punisione son io" (He is crime; I am

punishment) (ex. 27).

ex. 27
 153

ex. 27, cont.

fit bfgins to Hchteirt Sparzfjeiis.

j y ;
,t:\ i ~ " f " 1 "• s m c o c-r-< :
• . . . . r . r r ' r
La tera-pe-st.ie vi-ci-ca!..piuscu-raf.'ala
T s o o n ^ a v ® a t e n p e s t j T f c e n i g h t : s £ f
A a """
z ~ Tg~£isj»' • *
-g. —o .L. 1 ! ) —
— " ^=3.
)

" & T-JK 4 Ji

j —; , ' |" j - — "= r ~ '

Verdi's musical point is well taken; the Duke's death causes

little emotion but his crime causes much. The composer is so certain

of his tone-picture that his instructions are included in the score,

"This recitative must be sung without the usual appoggiaturas," yet

another evidence of growing control over the performer.

Rigoletto appears for the final time following the storm. His

recitative is punctuated by flashes of lightning and the hourly chimes

from a clock.

Delia vendetta alfin The moment of vengeance

giunge l'istante! comes at last!
Da trenta di 1'aspetto For thirty days I have
Di vivo sangue a lagrime waited, weeping my life's
piangendo, in tears,
Sotto la larva del buffon. Under the buffoon's disguise.

Quest'uscio . . . e chiuso! This door ... is locked!

Ah non e tempo ancor! Ah, it is not time yet!
S'attenda. I'll wait.
Qual notte di mistero! What a mysterious night!
Une tempesta in cielo! A storm in heaven!
In terra un omicidio! A murder on earth!
Oh come invero qui grande Oh, how truly great
mi sento! I feel myself here!
Mezzanotte . . . Midnight . . .

The lines are vital to the dramatic plot and are set with little

orchestral competition.

Rigoletto confers with Sparafucile and receives the sack contain­

ing the victim's body. The accompaniment is calculatingly simple,

 154

again allowing for the dramatic significance of the exchange.

Rigoletto's next passage is in the form of a soliloquy, not

unlike the earlier "Pari siamo."

Egli e la! morto! He is there! Dead!

Oh si! Vorrei Oh yes! I'd like
vederlo! Ma che to see him!
importa? . • . e ben But what does it matter?
desso! Ecco i suoi It is truly he! There are.
sproni. his spurs.
Ora mi quarda, Now look at me,
o mondo! 0 world!
Quest'e un buffone, This is a buffoon,
ed un potente e and this is a mighty man!
questo!
Ei sta sotto i miei He is under my
piedi! E desso! my feet! It's he!
Oh gioia! Oh, joy!
E giunta alfine Your revenge has
la tua vendetta, come at last,
o duolo! 0 grief!
Sia l'onda a lui Let the wave be his
sepolcro, tomb,
Un sacco il suo A sack his shroud!
lenzuolo! Into the water!
All'onda! Into the water!
All'onda!

The passage is sung in fragmented recitative with each short

burst punctuated by a chord from the orchestra. The changing, unstable

tonality reflects Rigoletto's restlessness. His mounting emotion is

portrayed in an ascending pattern culminating on the words "Oh gioia!"

(Oh joy!), which he sings at , punctuated by an orchestrally-

produced flash of lightning. The upward modulation has taken him to

the Duke's key of B major where he is interrupted by the latter's voice

singing a reprise of his aria.

Rigoletto's agitation at hearing the supposedly-dead Duke is

illustrated musically by an upward chromatic movement.

In the recitative which follows, Rigoletto's tragedy is completed

as he discovers the true contents in his sack. Verdi here relies

 155

almost entirely upon the orchestra to convey the mood of tragedy.

Strings pound out Rigoletto's heart beat, rm f ; a flash of

lightning allows him to recognize his daughter (ex. 28). The vocal

drama is heightened by the higher tessitura and the palpitating

orchestral rhythms.

ex. 28

Another lightning flash accompanies his words "fu vision" (It was

a vision). The syncopated rhythms and chromatics lend panic to the

moment. Rigoletto's knocks at the door are accented by the IJ's (the

tonic of the key associated with the Duke) and one is reminded of

Rigoletto's futile attempt to break into the Duke's chamber in Act II.

The parlando vocal style gives way to a lyrical melodic curve at "Ah,

mio ben solo in terra!" (Ah, my only love on earth) (ex. 29).
 156

ex. 29

Ah mio b<*n so-loja

A k

nu <ln«—_ mi co
be - hold_ fa - therd?

Breaking an operatic tradition of employing an ensemble as a

finale, Verdi concludes the act with a duet. The triplets in the

strings and the multiple deceptive resolutions serve to keep the

tonality and the emotion in flux. Gilda sings of her journey to heaven

and this is appropriately with harp-like arpeggios. Rigoletto pleads

with her not to leave. His singing lapses into shorter and shorter

segments showing his growing desperation. He ends with a final repeti­

tion of the curse motif and, overcome with grief, falls on the body of

his child.

This duet is a musical extravaganza of vocal and orchestral

effects, employing lush texture, melodic doubling, and pleasing

harmonies. Conventional operatic license is employed as Gilda's

impending death is postponed for a final moment of impassioned music.

Rigoletto represents a combination of distinctive innovations in

Verdi's music dramas and at the same time retains many characteristics

that are evident in his preceding operas. While many scholars and
 157

commentators are quick to suggest that Rigoletto represents a completely

new approach by Verdi to opera, it does contain several practices that

were common in his former operas.

In the opera, Verdi sometimes clings to an earlier accompaniment

style referred to as "om-pah-pah" or "grind orghn." An example of this

is the Act I duet (ex. 15). It recurs in the reunion of father and

daughter and twice more in the duet following Rigoletto's recovery of

Gilda from the Duke.

Verdi also retained several references to a more instrumental type

of vocal style, apparently for musical purposes, which includes the

breaking of words and the use of various ornamental and fioratura

figures. Examples are seen in such passages as the Act I duet with

Gilda, in the "gasping" triplets of Rigoletto's struggle with the

courtiers, and in the quartet.

While there is much evidence of a more rapid, cohesive dramatic

flow, Verdi still resorts to set arias. Those that occur for baritone

do so in context of a larger duet framework but nevertheless reflect a

break in the dramatic flow. Rigoletto pauses for a moment of lyric

melody, "Hiei Signori, perdono, piete" (My lords, pardon and pity), in

the scene with the courtiers, including a traditional vocal cadenza. He

also sings a "rage-aria" which contributes little more than a moment of

dramatic singing.

Verdi's innovations in Rigoletto are numerous. Some occur for the

first time while others appear with greater frequency and consistency

than in Verdi's previous operas.

The involvement of the orchestra in the over-all dramatic scheme

is significantly greater. It is no longer simply accompaniment but

 158

approaches more the essence of the drama. Not the least important

factors in this involvement are the numerous instances of unifying

effects that occur in the orchestra. In the very first scene, it is the

melodic figures in the orchestra which lend cohesion to the parlanti

exchanges between Rigoletto and the other principals. Rigoletto's

"Pari siamo" coheres largely due to the orchestra with its shifting but

related tonal schemes. The Act I dialogue between Rigoletto and Gilda,

the "joking" motif played during the kidnapping, and the orchestral

underpinning of Rigoletto's exchanges with the courtiers are some of

the instances of dramatic cohesion resulting from Verdi's involvement of

the orchestra.

Closely related to the orchestral effects are the extended

passages of text delivered in a flexiMe recitative which has evolved

into a parlanti style over an orchestral tune. Whereas in earlier works

the rapid delivery of textual exchanges may have occurred in a secco

style, Verdi has involved Rigoletto in several parlanti exchanges over

a tuneful melody in the orchestra. These occur between Rigoletto and

Sparafucile,-Rigoletto and Gilda, Rigoletto, Gilda and the Duke and

between Rigoletto and the Courtiers, all in Act I. In Act II Rigoletto

and Sparafucile again converse over an orchestral tune.

Verdi has also used the orchestra more consistently for special

programmatic effects. Although this is the nature of opera, in

Rigoletto many of the orchestral effects are directly related to the

role of the baritone. Examples include the clandestine atmosphere at

the meeting of Rigoletto and Sparafucile, the sudden appearance of the

flute at "ma in altro u'omo . . . ," the English horn obligate in the

exchange at court, the lightning flashes and storm as Rigoletto

 159

discovers the contents of his sack, and the final duet. Much of the

drama is derived from Verdi's apparent interest in the possibilities

inherent in the orchestra. This represents a sharp contrast to Vincent

Sheean's comment on the orchestral style employed nine years earlier in

Nabucco.

His own idiom, already expressed in Nabucco, had a tendency

to repetition rather than to expansion during the years, and
its facility - that is, its lower half if one may so express
it - had too much freedom, was too often allowed to aim
straight at the organ grinder rather than at the musical or
dramatic intelligence. We have eyewitness accounts of the
way he made his orchestrations in those days - "as fast as
the pen could write" - so that a great part of the orches­
tral score consisted of simple guitar-like accompaniment.27

Several other innovative procedures are related to the baritone

role. Of major importance is the upward projection of the tessitura.

This is most obvious in the more frequent appearance of and ^ in

such passages as the opening ensemble, the first duet with Gilda,

Rigoletto's hysteria at court, the reunion duet with Gilda, and the Act

III discovery of the true contents of the sack. All are extremely high

and very demanding vocally. In addition, the increase in range is ac­

companied by an increase in dramatic possibilities for characterization.

The baritone also employs a more consistent use of arioso and

extended passages of recitative but sung in a manner more closely

approximating an aria. Two extended passages occur in "Pari siamo" and

in Rigoletto's soliloquy on x^hat he believes to be the murder of the

Duke.

Rigoletto is also involved in at least four touches of musical/

Vincent Sheean, Orpheus at Eighty (London: Cassell and Company,

Ltd., 195S), p. 43.
 160

dramatic irony where Verdi obviously has mismatched music and text to

make the dramatic point. The murder discussion between Rigoletto and

Sparafucile occurs over a graciously lyric tune. The orchestra plays a

tuneful theme covering the kidnapping of Gilda. Rigoletto's jaunty "la-

rah-la-la" at the Duke's palace, sung in minor mode, is laced with

dramatic connotations. The reunion of father and daughter is under­

lined by a spritely tune, but it is in minor.

Tonally, Rigoletto continues the use of third relationships which

were somewhat evident in Macbeth. The submediant key frequently

functions as a secondary key center.

Rigoletto represents a continuation of the composer's growing

control over interpretation, earlier noted in Macbeth. More specific

performance instructions are given in Rigoletto, e.g., the instructions

for delivering one of the Act III recitatives, "This recitative must be

sung without the usual appoggiaturas."

Rigoletto evidences both a growing awareness of and a facility

with synthesizing the total orchestral/vocal resources dramatically.

 CHAPTER VII

OTELLO

Background

Verdi's twenty-fifth opera, Otello, was given its premiere at La

Scala, Milan, February 5, 1887. The composer was then approaching 74

years of age. In the years since Rigoletto, Verdi had written II

trovatore (1853), La traviata (1853), _I vespri Siciliani (1855), Simon

Boccanegra (1857), Un ballo im maschera (1859), La forza del destino

(1862), Don Carlo (1867), Aida (1871), and the Messa da Requiem (1874).

After completing Aida in 1871 Verdi had no plans for composing

another opera. He felt opera was for him a closed chapter and his

accounts with the public were settled; in short, Verdi felt himself too

old to compose another opera. A series of circumstances were set in

motion which resulted in his once again being drawn into composition and

back to the theatre.

In 1879, while in Milan, Verdi and his xri.fe Giuseppina invited

his publisher, Giulio Ricordi, and the conductor Franco Faccio to dinner

at the Grand Hotel where Verdi always stayed. Ricordi had long wanted

Verdi to compose an opera based on Otello. Carefully orchestrating his

remarks to the composer, Ricordi once more placed the subject of Otello

before Verdi. Ricordi's own writings reveal the details.

The idea of the opera arose during a dinner among friends,

when I turned the conversation by chance on Shakespeare and
on Boito. At the mention of Otello I saw Verdi fix his
eyes on me, with suspicion, but with interest. He had

161
 162

certainly understood; he had certainly reacted. I believed

the time was ripe.l

Faccio took Arrigo Boito to see Verdi the next day, and three

days later, Boito returned with the plan for a libretto and received

enough encouragement from Verdi to complete it. It was the beginning

of a close mutual friendship between librettist and composer. Boito

would also do the libretto for Verdi's final opera, Falstaff.

Rather reluctantly and with a certain amount of manipulation by

Ricordi and Boito, Verdi was drawn into the extended process of

composing Otello. •

By September of 1879, Ricordi was bold enough to write Verdi at

his home, Sant'Agata, mentioning his hope of visiting with a "friend."

The wary Verdi replied:

Now if you come here with Boito, I shall necessarily be

obliged to read the finished libretto which he will bring
with him. If I completely approve of it, I find myself
to some extent committed. If I approve of it but suggest
modifications which Boito accepts, I find myself committed
to an even greater degree. If, however beautiful it is, I
don't like it, it would be difficult to say that to his face.
No, no, you have gone too far and must stop before unpleas­
antness arises.2

Ricordi and 3oitc patiently persisted, and in March of 1834 Verdi

at last began to compose Otello.

The project was almost terminated over an unfortunate newspaper

article which misrepresented Boito. Boito was quoted as having said he

deeply regretted not being able to set his own libretto of Otello to

Walker, p. 473. Chapter nine, "Boito and Verdi," contains a

comprehensive account of the circumstances surrounding the creation of
Otello.

2Ibid., p. 474.
 163

music. Then in his late thirties, Boito was in fact a well-known music

critic, poet, librettist, and composer. The over-sensitive Verdi read

the article and immediately wrote Boito's friend, the conductor Faccio:

The worst of it is that by regretting he cannot set it to

music himself, Boito creates the impression that he does
not expect me to be able to set it in the way he would like.
I admit this possibility, and so I ask you, as Boito's
oldest and best friend, to tell him when he returns to Milan,
not in writing but by word of mouth, that I am ready, with
out any resentment, to give the manuscript back to him.^

Even having been misquoted, Boito's response was in keeping with

his own spirit of unselfishness. He hastened to reassure Verdi: "This

theme and my libretto are yours by right of conquest. You alone can

set Otello to music. All the dramatic creations you have given us

proclaim this truth.

Walker cites three basic periods for Verdi's writing of Otello.

We see now that Otello, in essence, was completed in three

comparatively short bouts of composition: the first, very
brief, was at Genoa in March, 1884; the second, Che princi­
pal one, at Genoa from December, 1884 to April, 1335; the
third at Sant'Agata from the middle of September to early
October, 1885. The scoring of the opera occupied another
year . . .5

There is little doubt that from the start Verdi was much taken

with the character of Iago. The working title of lago was used as late

as the beginning of 1886. At that point Verdi finally demanded the

opera be referred to as Otello and not Iago, explaining his reasons for

the change.

3
Osborne, p. 411.

^Walker, p. 493.

5Ibid.
 164

Iago, he said was the Demon who set everything in motion,

Otello was "the one who acts, who loves, who is jealous,
who kills and kills himself." Furthermore, Verdi added,
it appeared pure hypocrisy to him not to adopt the title
of Otello for fear of comparison with Rossini's opera.
"I would prefer," said Verdi, "people to say, 'He wanted
to challenge a giant and failed,' rather than, 'He wanted
to hide himself.behind the title of Iago'."6

Verdi was so intrigued with Iago that he argued with Morelli, the

painter who was to prepare posters, about Iago's physical appearance

and dress:

If I had to act the part of Iago, I should make him long

and lean, with thin lips, small eyes set, ape-like, too
close to his nose, and a head with a receding brow and
large development at the back. His manner would be ab­
stracted, nonchalant, indifferent to everything, incredu­
lous, smart in repartee, saying good and ill alike lightly,
with the air of thinking about something else. So if
someone should reproach him for a monstrous suggestion,
he might retort: "Really? ... I did not see it in chat
light . . . let's say no more of it!" A man like that
might deceive everybody, even up to a point his own wife.
A small malignant fellow would put everyone on his guard
and nobody would take it!?

As a play Otello seemed especially suitable for operatic treat­

ment. The plot is basically simple, clear-cut, and without a large

number of sub-plots. The tragic element was one adopted many times

previously by Verdi. A passionate hero is maneuvered by a cold-blooded

villain into believing his innocent wife is unfaithful, and he kills

her. Its primary motives are love and jealous}/ which have long proved

successful motives in opera.

Shakespeare's Moor is almost entirely physical in his love

and jealousy (no one really believes him when he tells the
Senate that "the young affects" are in him "defunct").
Iago perceives this attitude; and although we may doubt if

Hughes, p. 427.

^Hussey, p. 249.
 165

Iago, being the grossest of materialist, could imagine or

understand any other attitude than the physical, it is
significant that this is the string he continually plays
on; perpetually pricking and stinging Otello with obscene
visions of the act of infidelity; not the shame or the pity
of it (even Otello exclaims only once on that) but the
repulsive carnal details.®

The French baritone Victor Maurel was the first to perform the

role of Iago. Verdi had worked with Maurel in the revised version of

Simon Boccanegra in Paris. At that time he had intimated to Maurel

that the latter was being considered for the role of Iago. On the

strength of this remark Maurel had repeatedly announced that Verdi was

writing Iago for him.

An American singer, Blanche Roosevelt, was in Milan at the time

of the premiere of Otello and in the same year published a book on

Verdi. She included a lengthy review of the events surrounding the

premiere and was lavish in her praise of Maurel.

The scenery, costumes, choruses, and orchestra were nearly

perfect; the cast was certainly weak. Victor Maurel is the
only real artist in the opera and he is a Frenchman. In
voice, acting, appearance, and dress .he is the ideal of
what any operatic Iago could be . . . Had Iago not succeeded
there is every reason to believe that Otello would be left
out of the Italian Shakespearean repertory.y

The centrality of Iago is so evident in the first half of the

opera that one writer, Edgar Istel, proposed the following synopsis of

the action as centered around Iago:

When we examine the structure of Shakespeare's tragedy, it

becomes evident, for various reasons, why Boito, originally
proposed to call his opera "Iago"; for the course of the
drama is such that the nominal hero, Otello, does not assume

3
Steven Williams, Verdi's Last Operas (London: Hinrichson
Editions, Ltd., 1950), p. 31.
9
Osborne, p. 415.
 166

the leading role until the second half, the "rival" Iago,
having held it theretofore. Indeed, the action might be
so analyzed as to show Otello merely as the object of
Iago's guileful intrigues, the synopsis then being:
1. Iago resolves to make Otello jealous.
2. Preparation and execution of this plan.
3. Climax of success.
4. Growing danger for Iago, despite apparent progress.
5. Catastrophe.

Otello necessitated considerable revision by Boito. He dispensed

with Shakespeare's Act I and allowed all four acts of the opera to take

place on Cyprus. In general he was faithful to Shakespeare's conception

of the characters. He did invent Iago's "Credo" as a focal point for

Iago. Joseph Kerman in Opera as Drama includes an entire chapter

dealing with Otello. He expresses the view that only in this opera did

Verdi reach a balance between the essence of classic traditional Italian

opera and his desire for a more "literary" flow and credits a good deal

of the balance to the unique transformation of Shakespeare's play.

Two principals, then, guided Boito's transformation of his

Shakespearean model. The first, a tendency towards natural­
ism, is revealed most deeply by his underlying conception
of the story, ... It is also revealed in his evident wish
to condense an untidy plot into something striking for the
audience of the well-made play. This would not have occurred
to an Italian composer of an earlier century, who might
actually have found Shakespeare too classical for his
episodic taste.H

Synopsis

The opera takes place in a seaport of Cyprus toward the end of the

15th century, a period when the island was under Venetian control. It

"^Edgar Istel, "The Otello of Verdi and Shakespeare," Musical

Quarterly, II (July, 1916), 377.

"'"^Joseph Kerman, Opera as Drama (New York: Vintage Books,

published by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1956), p. 131.
 167

is night; a violent storm is raging at sea. On the quay, a group of

Venetian citizens and soldiers, awaiting the arrival of Otello,

anxiously watch as his ship struggles against the storm. The vessel

finally comes into port, and the Moor appears briefly to announce that

the enemy, the Turkish fleet, has been destroyed. He then goes into

his castle as the crowd cheers. Only lago does not rejoice. Angered

because Otello has promoted Cassio over himself as captain, lago plots

revenge. He finds a willing ally in Roderigo, who is in love with

Desdemona and still desires her. lago induces Roderigo to help in

getting Cassio drunk. lago plies the reluctant young officer with wine

and succeeds in provoking a quarrel between him and Roderigo. Montano

arrives and informs Cassio that he must keep watch on the castle

bastion. Now lago manages to have Cassio pick a quarrel with Montano;

swords are drawn, and Montano is wounded. Using the situation for his

own ends, lago sends Roderigo off to sound the alarm and arouse the

town by spreading rumors of mutiny. The uproar brings Otello to the

scene, furious at the brawl and disturbance of which lago hypocritically

disclaims any understanding. Otello is further enraged when Desdemona

appears, awakened from her sleep by the tumult. lago is ordered to

restore peace, and Cassio is deprived of his rank. After dismissing

everyone, Otello is alone with Desdemona. A soaring love duet ensues,

and then, with a last look at the Pleiades and Venus resplendent in the

now-clear sky, they go into the castle, clasped in each other's arms.

Act II is set in a hall on the ground floor of the castle, with a

view of the garden. lago counsels Cassio, despondent over his loss of

rank, to beg Desdemona to intercede for him with her husband. Cassio

decides to take the advice and goes into the garden to await her. lago,
 168

his plot well on its way, proclaims his satanic Credo.

Desdemona and Emilia come into the garden and talk with Cassio.

Otello, entering the hall, is witness to the scene. Subtly, Iago begins

to poison Otello's mind; he warns him against jealousy and advises him

to await proof before taking action. Shortly Desdemona enters the room

and pleads with Otello to pardon Cassio. Otello refuses so violently

that his wife asks him if he is ill. He complains of pain in his head,

but when she starts to bind his brow with a handkerchief that was his

first gift to her, he grabs it and throws it to the ground. Emilia

picks it up, but before Desdemona and her lady-in-waiting leave the room

Iago succeeds in getting it from his unwilling, suspicious wife. Then

he sets about inflaming Otello to a frenzy of jealousy. He tells him

that he had heard Cassio talking in his sleep of his love for Desdemona,

bemoaning the fate that had given her to the Moor; he also claims to

have seen Desdemona's handkerchief in Cassio's hand. Otello becomes

frantic with rage and swears revenge, "by the marble heaven." The act

ends with Iago joining him in his cath.

Act III takes place in the great hall of the castle. Otello and

Iago are plotting when a herald enters and announces that the Venetian

ambassador is about to arrive. As he leaves, Iago promises Otello the

chance to observe Cassio's behavior. Exiting, he reminds Otello not to

forget the handkerchief. Desdemona enters and greets her husband

affectionately. When she again intercedes for Cassio, Otello complains

of a headache and asks her to bind his brow with the handkerchief he had

given her. Desdemona says she does not have it; he asks if she has lost

it, and she assures him she has not. But Otello pursues the matter and

insists that she get it at once. Desdemona intimates that he is trying

 169

to distract her from the matter of Cassio. His suspicions confirmed,

Otello seizes her roughly and asks her to swear that she has been a

faithful wife. Desdemona protests her innocence, but he will not

believe her and damns her as unfaithful. When she cries out against

the accusation, Otello, with calm irony, escorts her to the door and

forces her out. Alone for a few moments, the Moor broods over the loss

of Desdemona; then fury overcomes him, and he decides that she must

confess her sin and then die. Iago returns with the news that Cassio is

on his way and hides Otello behind a pillar. When Cassio enters, Iago

maneuvers him into talking about his mistress. The frenzied Otello can

hear laughter but only half-hear the words and assumes they are talking

about Desdemona. Cassio mentions having found a lady's handkerchief in

his room. Immediately Iago - who has put it there - asks to see it, and

when he gets it he waves it so that Otello can recognize it as

Desdemona's.

Trumpets announce the arrival of the Venetian ambassador. Cassio

goes out quickly. Otello and Iago decide that the Moor will strangle

Desdemona in her "bed of sin" while Iago takes care of Cassio. Otello

promotes his ensign to the rank of captain. Lodovico, the ambassador,

enters with his entourage, followed by Desdemona, Iago and Emilia. He

brings a dispatch from the Doge recalling Otello to Venice and appoint­

ing Cassio Governor of Cyprus. As Otello reads the document he watches

Desdemona and is enraged when he hears her talking to Iago of Cassio.

Suddenly, to the horror of the gathering, the Moor throws his wife to

the ground. During the ensuing commotion Iago, furious over Cassio's

appointment, seeks out Roderigo and slyly reminds him that soon Otello

and Desdemona will be on the high seas while he, Roderigo, is left
 170

behind; however, comments Iago, if something should happen to Cassio,

Otello would stay on Cyprus. The young Venetian plays into Iago's

hands and accepts his offer of help. Otello bids all to leave. Then,

half crazed, he faints. Iago, who has been watching him with satis­

faction from a distance, comes forward. As the crowd hails "The Lion

of Venice," he triumphantly plants his foot on the inert body and

declares: "Behold the Lion!"

The final Act occurs in Desdemona's candle-lit bedroom. It is

night. Filled with somber thoughts, Desdemona tells Emilia that Otello

has bade her go to bed and await him. Her thoughts revolve about

death, and a song about a girl who, like herself, loved too well, keeps

coming to her mind. She sings it as Emilia combs her hair. Then she

bids her lady-in-waiting good night, kneels before the image of the

Madonna and begins her Ave Maria. When she finishes she goes to bed and

falls asleep. Otello enters through a secret door, his sorrow over the

loss of Desdemona overcome by his determination to murder her. After

putting his scimitar on the table, he pulls back the curtain, gazes

sadly on his wife, and puts out the light. He bends down and kisses

Desdemona. She awakes. Sternly he asks if she has said her prayers,

for she must die. Otello, beside himself with fury, strangles her until

her scream ends in silence.

Emilia knocks on the door. Admitted by Otello she cries out that

Cassio has killed Roderigo. Desdemonars faint voice is heard . . . "I

die innocent." Emilia runs to the bed, horror stricken. "Who did this?"

she demands. Protecting Otello with her last breath, Desdemona murmurs,

"I myself." But Otello shouts that it was he who killed her for she has

been - Iago knows it - Cassio's mistress. Lodovico, Cassio and Iago

 171

enter. Emilia asks her husband for the truth: "Did you believe

Desdemona unfaithful?" Iago answers yes. Defying him, Emilia reveals

how he had seized Desdemona's handkerchief from her by force, and

Cassio adds that he had found it mysteriously in his room. Montano

enters and reports that the dying Roderigo had confirmed Iago's

villainy. Iago flees with the guards in pursuit. Otello reaches for

his weapon, but Lodovico bids him yield it. Stunned and broken, the

onetime Lion of Venice says no one need fear him. "This is my journey's

end." He addresses himself tenderly to the dead Desdemona. Then,

drawing a concealed dagger, he stabs himself. With a final effort he

12
moves to Desdemona's bed and, dying, kisses her for the last time.

The Music of Otello

Otello is recognized as a continuous as opposed to a "set-piece"

opera. Frits Noske calls attention to the fact that while Otello is

rather highly unified and very organic in terms of musical motifs, the

motifs are usually short.

There are indeed very few "regular" themes in Otello. They

occur in choruses like the drinking song . . . and in other
"ceremonial" scenes, such as the vengeance duet (Act II).
But the great majority of scenes are written in a free
melodic style, full of exclamations, unfinished phrases,
and interruptions, which almost extinguish the differences
between aria, arioso and recitative.13

During the first three acts Iago is on stage almost continuously.

12
George R. Marek, synopsis provided with Otello. RCA number CRL
3-2951 (New York: RCA Records, 1978). Considerable reference is made to
this synopsis.
13
Frits Noske, "Otello: Drama Through Structure," in Essays on
Music for Charles Warren Fox, ed. by Jerald C. Grave (Rochester:
Eastman School of Music Press, 1979), p. 26.
 172

He is absent only during the Otello-Desdemona duet of Act I and the

couple's duet in Act III.

If in Otello we watch the actors with fascination it is for

what they do, rather than for what they are. And because
nearly every action stems from Iago, it is he who may appear
to determine the structure of the drama.^

Each of the first three acts represents a distinct phase of Iago's

manipulation to bring about the downfall of Otello. In Act I he

succeeds in embarrassing Cassio in front of Otello. In Act II he

successfully implants suspicion in the mind of Otello. In Act III,

showing the handkerchief in Cassio's possession, he finally causes

Otello to accuse Desdemona and to become emotionally unbalanced in front

of the Venetian ambassador.

Iago's first appearance is somewhat like Rigoletto's entrance into

the Duke's ballroom. He simply emerges out of the storm. His villain­

ous nature is revealed in a phrase which begins with the leap of a

ninth and then descends stepwise in a spiteful wish for the death of

Otello, "L'alvo frenetico del mar sia la sua tomba!" (Let the frenzied

bed of the sea be his grave!). The ninth is an interval which is to be

associated with Iago several times during the opera (ex. 1).

"^Ibid., p. 15.

Giuseppi Verdi, Otello, Vocal Score (New York: International

Music Company, n.d.). This and all subsequent examples from Otello are
taken from this source.
 173

ex. 1

(L'al-vo fre - ,ne - - ti - co del mar SUA

I fain vcnuM leave her bu - riert fo\

The double-dotted quarter notes and sixteenths in the vocal line,

accompanied by basses, bassoons, and cellos, add rhythmic intensity to

the death wish.

Following a chorus scene exalting in Otello's victorious landing,

Iago engages Roderigo in conversation, the first of three passages in

Act I involving Roderigo, Cassio, and Otello. Here the dialogue becomes

a monologue which reveals the hatred filling Iago. Hussey speaks of a

hint of universality in Iago's character.

Fortunately, however, the degree of Verdi's intellectual

appreciation of Shakespeare is of very little real impor­
tance, for when it came to translating Iago into terms of
music, his poetic intuition did not allow him to go astray
and turn the Ancient into a ranting Villain of melodrama.
His Iago, no less than Shakespeare's, serves to expose the
rottenness that may lie beneath the fair exterior of man's
mind, and the danger that the rottenness holds for any soul
that comes into contact with its secret corruption.16

"^Hussey, p. 250.
 174

Su via, fa sunno, Come to your senses now,

aspetta L'opra del wait for time to do its
tempo; a Desdemona work; the lovely Desdemona,
bella che nel segreto Whom you adore in your
de'tuoi sogni adori, secret dreams,
Presto in uggia verranno ' Will soon come to dislike
i foschi baci the dark kisses
Di quel selvaggio dalle of that savage with swollen
gonfie labbra. lips.
Buon Roderigo, amico tuo Good Roderigo, I declare
sincero mi ti professo, myself your sincere friend,
ne in piu forte ambascia nor could I help you
Soccorrerti potrei. Se In greater distress.
un fragil voto If a woman's fragile vow
Di femmina non e tropp' is not too tough a
arduo nodo knot
Pel genio mio ne per For my wits or for hell's
1'inferno, giuro I swear
Che quella donna sara tua. that woman shall be yours.
M'ascolta, bench'io finga Listen to me.
d'amarlo, odio quel Moro . . Though I pretend to love him,
I hate that Moor . . .
E una cagion dell'ira And there is the reason
eccoloa, guarda. for my wrath.
There. Look
Quell'assimato capitano That dandified captain
ursurpa usurps
II grado mio, il grado My rank, the rank I
mio che in cento have deserved for
Ben pugnate battaglie ho fighting well in a
meritato; hundred battles;

Tal fu il voler d'Otello, This was Otello's wish,

ed io rimango and I remain
Di sua Moresca signoria His Moorish Lordship's
1'alfiere! ensign!

ma,
* com'e ver che > tu But as surely as you are
Roderigo sei, Cosi e pur Roderigo,
certo che se il Moro io So it is sure that if I
fossi were the Moor
Vedermi non vorrei I shouldn't want to see
d'attorno un Jago. an Iago around me
Se tu m'alcolti . . . If you listen to me . . .

lago's monologue is in recit; ive alternating with arioso,

William Weaver, Seven Verdi Librettos (New York: W.W. Norton

and Company, Inc., 1975), pp. 417-517. This and all subsequent transla­
tions of the libretto are taken from this source.
 175

demonstrating the flexibility with which Verdi subtly shifts between the

two. A more lyric line is employed when textually appropriate.

Iago's solicitation of Roderigo's aid to bring about Cassio's

downfall is illustrated by Verdi's use of alternating minor-major modes.

if
Beginning in C* minor, Iago speaks of the lovely Desdemona. His

dramatically strong denouncement of Otello employs a new musical

approach for Verdi. An ascending dramatic line might have been used in

an earlier period, but here Verdi has utilized a descending passage of

chromatic chords reflecting Iago's insinuations. The tonality returns

JL
to C major as Iago woos Roderigo. Iago's appeal is enhanced by a

scherzo-like passage beginning in the sub-dominant, leading to E major.

Verdi's use of broken words, rhythms, and doubling of vocal lines in the

orchestra combine to lend suitable musical underlining of the text.

Iago's animosity towards Otello is further revealed in the arioso

section which.follows. The short passage serves as a summary of most

of the musical attributes associated with Iago and which will appear

throughout the first three acts of the opera. These include the vocal

and orchestral trill, unison accompaniment of an arioso-like melody, a

descending chromatic scale, and the descending interval of an octave (in

this case in the orchestra but occurring later in Iato's dialogue with

Roderigo).

The trill may reflect Iago's particular loathing of his lowly

18
position. Here it occurs on the word "l'alfiere" (ensign) (ex. 2).

Hussen identifies the rank of ensign as the most junior com­

missioned rank in the army. "Iago was Otello's honorary standard
bearer, and for practical purposes, his junior staff-officer. Boito
altered the rank of Cassio to captain." Hussev, p. 252.
 176

ex. 2

Poco pift lento.

ed io ri . man. .50 di sua Mo . re .sea Si . auo .ria lal . fie

A Afs lieu - te.nunt and I Go'i ilesi the mark! Ms Jfoor. .sniu'j an -

(dalta cataata lacocniaciaao ad alzarsi dei tflobi di farno s^enpre piu iea^o)
(Ciouds of smoke, denser and dc/tsur begin to risn from t/ia pi!o.)

Ma, com' a ver. che tu Ro-dri-zo sei, cosi e pur

It is as sure as thou Rod'ri-go art, /fire / the

It recurs in Act III as lago baits the unsuspecting Cassio by

pointing out the latter's rank of "capitano" (captain) (ex. 3).

1

ex. 3
• A-
•V-,'•? j ' \ r< i ' : • ••=;
-ser • ta. r\ . nol • tm, 0 Ca -
jer - ted. Hots gue.v it my good •L.
1
TCTrt : • I „ L i . i 1 • ' | , 'cpet=
0 ?-Zy—
1
' ' * ' " •*—~H"'" - • H.

/<* r , Cassio.
ig. y? ~ 1 1 , •» •» * »* >"• • 1 , =z=i
V r » j t
cfuosto no. me <fo- nor aim . nn 4RO>r \*u-r.o p«*r nie.
siU tAemtrxeThtttyutt coil >"<' by tAr nn/fic / tee to*/.
. V/r a

-ta . . no. # F*
nttni? TtiAe
0 j tr....,
? t» A ——Hfe •'
f
'£J=L~ P
r r Cf
*T~ -jr
'?1*» 11
UJMTj 7 J
• 70 ^
 177

Iago's trill also occurs in the brindisi and in the Act III trio.

Noske suggests a possible dual meaning to the ornament. "In the drink­

ing song and in the third-act terzetto it may have the ambiguous
19
meaning of both playfulness and deviltry." It appears also in the

Credo, in Iago's dialogue with Otello preceding his faked dream, and in

the final exclamation of Iago in Act II, "Ecco il Leone." (Here is the

lion.).

The use of unison accompaniment (ex. 4) seems to be reserved for

words uttered by Iago which have quite specific meaning. Here it

implies bitterness and threat.

ex. 4

Poco pid lento.

ed io ri . aiaa. .go di sua Mo - re - aca Si . auo . ria I'ai . fie.

A hit lieu . te.nant and / Gtyi itest t/ut markt Mn ifoor. .shijj'j an -
A P0co piQ lento..

At the conclusion of Act II Otello and Iago swear vengeance. Much

of Iago's oath is doubled by the orchestra. Several times his more

lyric lines in the latter parts of Act III are also doubled.

The octave leap, usually confined to the orchestra, is used

frequently in association with Iago. In addition to occurring twice in

the Iago-Roderigo passage mentioned here, it is also heard in the

19Noske, p. 28.
 178

introduction to the drinking song, in the Credo, and in Iago's manipu­

lation of Cassio in Act III.

Another musical figure used here and subsequently associated with

Iago is the descending chromatic scale, played by the strings in this

instance (ex. 5).

ex. 5
(dafta catwta Lacominciaoo ad aizam dci ?lobi di futno 3«ajpr« pia deaao)
(Clouds of siHoko, denser and donjtrr iegiii to rt'sa from the pile.)
Uji
•/• * i —» v " " j * 1 > . ,
f i >
-re! ifa, com' $ ver - cue tu Ro-dri-zo set, cosi e pur
dent! ft is as sure an thou Bod'ri.go art, fftre / the
—i.
•T"V —
- •+
'
J
f *
PP
V v.—
«• - l ^ i 1

t
f

VB- . ro che sail ilo - ro io foa . si, ye - der. -mi non vor-
ifnor / would not be [ • a . go. In fol - lowing Km /

These lines are usually associated with" Iago's threats or his

manipulations. A notable example occurs in the brindisi as he feigns

drunkenness. In his Act II dream speech he is accompanied bv descending

parallel sixth chords. In Act III as Otello becomes unbalanced in front

of the crowd, Iago sings an extended descending chromatic line.

Much of Iago's singing is done in fragmented melodies and motifs

in triplets or in triple time. In Act I the major occurrence is in the

drinking song. From Act II onward most of Iago's dialogue with Cassio

and Otello is dominated by either triplets or ternary meters.

 179

Noske makes the following observation about the rhythm of Iago's

singing:

The first measures of Act II are characteristic in this

respect: the triplets played forte by four bassoons and
the violincellos picture Iago in all his ferocity, but
later they underline his gentle persuasion of Cassio. The
motif persists into the Credo which, in spite of being
written in common time, is full of triplets. Key points
of the drama, like the "idra"-arioso, the dream fragment,
the vengeance duet, and the third-act terzetto are all
written in simple or compound triple meters. Generally
Iago addresses Otello or Cassio in common time only in
recitative-like passages.20

Throughout this first extended passage for Iago, from his first

appearance to the chorus-riot scene, Verdi exhibits a plastic vocal

style, shifting back and forth between recitative and arioso, employing

more lyrical lines when desirable.

The random thoughts of Iago'and the swi'ftly moving events are

reflected harmonically in the multiple tonal centers used by Verdi with

little regard to a notated key signature. No less than eleven related

keys are used in the extended passage.

Iago's "brindisi" (drinking song) grows organically out of the

previous section, and is preceded by a recitative among Cassio,

Roderigo, and Iago. A tuneful orchestral melody is used to unify the

otherwise rather disjointed parlando conversation.

The keys employed throughout the operas included in this study

reveal a consistent pattern. When Verdi uses four or more flats in the

key signature, the so-called darker keys, the business at hand is either

devious or tragic. The recitative preceding the brindisi, for instance,

moves through such "dark" chords to D*3 at Iago's resolve to make Cassio

70
Ibid., p. 31
 180

drunk (ex. 6),

ex. 6

rX Roderigo.

(Eb . ben?)
What then? .
JL PJL

.tor cbe fin . gom-bra fl cam • mi .no. Ba . da.. S'ei 9'in .

wo. man has found him al - rea - dy. List, -en:. // he
1 , I
sTJ W"

-hf) J2a_

(ai tavernieri)
(calling to attendants)
!>.*. JL bjL

-ce.briae per . du - to! Fal - ]o tier.) Qua, ra . gaz-zi, del

drinks he is ruined, make him dri.ii. So! ho drawerst some

7V

The drinking song is Verdi*s unique adaptation of a conventional

operatic form, but instead of functioning solely as a set aria, the

brindisi serves the dramatic action. Verdi has adopted a strophic form

with refrain for Iago, and a refrain for the chorus. Iago sings three

strophes, alternating phrases with Cassio and Roderigo.

Inaffia l'ugola! Wet your gullet!

Trinca, tracanna! Drink up, gulp it down!
Prima che svampino Before song and glass
Canto e bicchier. Disappear.

Chi all'esca ha morso He who has taken the bait

Del ditirambo Of the Bacchanalian song,
Spavaldo e strambo Bold and strange,
Beva con me. Drink with me.

II mondo palpita The world throbs

Quand'io son brillo! When I am drunk!
Sfido l'ironico I defy the ironic
Nume e il destin! Deity and fate!
 181

Fuggan dal vivido Cowards flee

Nappo i codardi . . . From the glowing cup . . .
. . . che in cor nascondono . . . who hide deceit in their
frodi . . . hearts . . .

The piece serves the dramatic function of prompting a drunken

brawl, as well as the musical function of providing an aria for baritone.

Godefroy suggests, "Jago's villainy is at its most devilish in this

21
ditty." Verdi uses several musical devices that are dramatic as well

as unifying, including an association of characters with specific keys.

Iago begins his twelve-measure segment in B minor. At the words "canto

e_ bicchier" (song and glass) the harmony reaches the relative major

where Cassio takes up the tune and ends on the dominant A major. Iago

sings the refrain, moving through several deceptive resolutions as the

drink begins to take its effect. (In fact, Iago is not drunk but

employs clever acting designed to seduce Cassio into drinking more.)

Iago's admonition to drink, repeated ten times, finally returns to A

major to begin the choral refrain.

As a bit of word painting Verdi employs an effective device of'

fourteen descending chromatic semitones which picture increasing

intoxication. This device, mentioned previously as typical of Iago's

musical language, is used five times (ex. 7).

21
Godefroy, p. 260.
 182

ex. 7

FF A-Uk*.

be. -va, be. . - va

j. - zer, e-termust drink,

striscianao_ in voce
ien legato

- va 7a. be - ~7a,
ffn/j/ drink, .r^r, e- - tw:

crttc.

Whether or not by design the f to e is an inversion of the ascending

ninth used in Iago's first wish for Otello's drowning.

Example seven also shows Iago ending the phrase lightly on a1, the

highest pitch for baritone encountered thus far in this study. Verdi's

desired effect is marked strisciando la voce (stretching the voice).

Godefroy offers commentary on the suggestive and colorful orches­

tration used by Verdi for the drinking song.

The accompaniment, with its alternate plucking and bowing,

its staccato and trills (including the cornets), its runs
and grace notes, has an alcoholic content, convivial and
full of risk. As the wine goes to Cassio's head the broken
rhythm of the bassoons is almost an abscenity. Timpani and
bass drum take turns to suggest the improbability of gait.
He attempts to recapture the main tune, prodded by Jago
until the whole company is in fits of laughter. As Cassio
becomes more inarticulate, so Jago takes stock and command.22

'Ibid., p. 261.
 183

Verdi further distinguishes between characters by specific phrase

lengths. Iago's opening stanza is twelve measures long. Cassio answers

with a four-line stanza of eight measures. All singers now sing con

voce suffocata (with muffled voice), as a result of their intoxication.

When Iago begins verse three the drunken Cassio interrupts him nine

bars too soon. Here Verdi again allows the music to advance the drama.

In his confusion Iago interrupts, repeating the tune of his first line

with the words of his second line. Then Cassio interrupts. Iago's

attempt to lead the refrain results in repeating the notes of the first

two bars of refrain to the words of the third and fourth. Cassio is now

so drunk he cannot remember the tune. Following Iago's instructions to

Roderigo, delivered in a commanding monotone he blends back into the

ensemble to its finish. The point is that what began as a rather

tuneful moment of music has been transformed into a dramatic situation

as a result of the musical machinations of Iago.

Verdi again uses a motive to bind the ensuing parlando exchanges

between Iago, Montano, Cassio, and Roderigo. The orchestra reiterates

a chromatic figure used previously in the brindisi, thus continuing the

implication of Iago's scheming nature.

Throughout Act I Iago uses a varying tessitura. When employing

parlanti, the vocal demands are not extraordinary. On the other hand,

the long brindisi scene requires considerable upper voice singing,

Jl ,, 1
reacnmg f numerous times as well as a .

Musically and dramatically Act II belongs to Iago. He remains on

stage the entire act. With the exception of the children's chorus,

which he observes from a distance, he is involved in all the singing of

the act. Act II is a virtual catalogue of the vocal combinations which

 184

occur throughout the opera. Iago is involved in recitative, arioso,

parlante, a soliloquy, two brief solo/ariette, a duet, and a quartet.

Throughout the act, Verdi associates two basic singing styles

with Iago. When attempting to be persuasive, Iago is given a lyric

melodic style (ex. 8).

ex. 8 a

se/tsi2 mutsura

—'_r—r— T 1 ' F f • y—*•—f • K—t

Se cre-di a me, tra po-co, fa- rai ri-tornoaifol-U^-gianiia-nio-ri di Mon-oa Biao-
Trustbut in me, IptxmtiseThoitUbaskoitcetwrein thsbrisjj-beamijigglancesUfMistrvssBian •

seiixa mi/tsvra, vo/ canio

ex. 8 b

a rnezza corf

Du - ce del no-stro Da - ce, sol per es-saei vi - ve. Hre-ffa • b

now our gtm' - /•#/& gertf. rai,-.,. he her hum-ite ssr.oant; [m - p<rr. iune

"J ninrvmio 1
eHalhrg. ^ vol van to

ex. 8 c

PPP
' y *• r 1 * ; " »• r ; ...j
Cre - . do con fer - mo c'uor, fiir. co - me
Firm - - it/ I do bm - erer did

K 1

cre-de la Te - do - "vei • lo al tern - • pio, cbeil ma] ch'io

iso'Vian ff^ho prays be ./are the al • - /fir, <7/ ev' . ry
 185

ex. 8 d

Gia con-ver • j.ooin* sie*me...

They are (at - kivg in whis-pers,

m »
JK-

ed es - sa in - cli - na, eor do. bel

and now To him has she

ex. 8 e
Lo stesso movimento. J= M.
cupr e leznto PPr—

Eu-rii-dra io - sea, li - vi - da, col SUO TO -

It is the grettn-e'jed mon - aye it dntA
Lo stesso movlmento. J= «s.
t i: j ? 1 j * ,7 B "7: > f : "**•

pp legato piup |

•T 5 t T ^

ex. 8 f

h h
> j 1- i " .
O - tez . zail . „ . »
•v* //-/v/ (rtloruando verso Oleilo.)
.sa-as/tea. faturnitr# to Otietto.)
laero. - >• - .* * . -t
->'• ?• j l / •/ ;f iff7 -r / - : l 1 ?=j
s,
-v &J

fra - a& . ta I'ansie. 2 qual cer-

no* b'xif iAe* q/i/rce. &7uttlr>nil /
-*•
i =» =- iiM -ife — > ""
*

/i

v -jr r-^r f fc t

i s« !
 186

ex. 8 f, cont.

In the examples given above, lago persuades Cassio to speak to

Desdeirtona (ex. 8 a and 8 b); he asserts that he, too, is a "believer" as

is the church widow (ex. 8c); he comments on Cassio's approach to

Desdemona (ex. 8d); he warns Otello against jealousy (ex. 8 a); he baits

the incensed Otello (ex. 8 f).

lago often resorts to almost a monotone when commanding and

issuing orders (ex. 9).

ex. 9 a

Cessio... a
Cassia/ to

-jr

JL X JK-

te... Queat'e il mo . men-to. Ti scuo-ti... vsen

her/ this is the Tnomeiit. Xoip haste thee
 187

ex. 9 b

ca-soinmio fa-vor s'a - do-pra. Ec - co - lo... ai

m this net / will en- stace him. See, he comes, good

- =

t) tTV T * "f
PP
*t ' t i ' t • • « i £.
= 1-»—i 1 " * ' — ^-T

(Si coIIooa imcoto &i rerose «ardac*io flsaaffifnte *enso il jiftr-

dJao, dove mono Cjiaio « Deddemona.)
(Re leans m>jtumles* against a column looking intently tsicarls
the garden tshere Caasio and Desdenona are standing iogtthsr.)

po-sto, a] - i ' o - p r a .
luck/ / hftcehim.

t) ~r'v "»• f#"rT"f Sjf -<e^

•X' .. »- • i • *. « n k v > PPr<• . >

ex. 9 c

A A
m
•* ?-• • • ! ;• r y ; < ?• Vy y=
rri

-tel-lo, v i . gi-la - so-^ec-ti leo-nestee ben cre-a - te co»

theHo, waivh her dose Tbo of.ten arefreeand noble natures, liko
/ J> ».
~?m + f
tl r
1^
i —
r r

- bfV-en-z® Hon ve-do-oo la fro«de: ri-tri-la - te.Scru-ta-te le pa-ro-le di De-

ycurs abusedbyfatsehoodanideception.JiaichTier"2ose . tyf Gt>$erceh£riDdhuiinCassio.One wi~
 188

ex. 9 d

Desdemona.
f~r ^=
\
V
La tua fan - ciul - - - In io
/ am thy child, thy
*-•

ti
t&Jo. (A Ercilia sottmoce)
.v/j - (inn, (usitir to Emilia)
Jag-o. V
-f<;> c - * j "—" " " * * *•

Quel vol rai por - gi ch'or bai rac -

That nap ' Jem give /ite, / hare breii

•4+r

n— if'
T?:
I
... •
-~r —

In the above examples lago orders the unsuspecting Cassio to

approach Desdemona (ex. 9 a); Iago's terse comments signal the approach

of Otello (ex. 9 b); He instructs Otello to observe the behavior of

Desdemona (ex. 9 c); he orders his wife to give him the handkerchief

(ex. 9 d).

Many of the musical figures associated with lago in Act I recur in

Act II with some frequency. These include orchestral doubling of many

of Iago's important lines, the "shake" or trill, the triplet rhythms,

the descending chromatics, the octave leap, and the "turning" and

"slithering" figures.

Verdi's use of orchestral color in Act II is particularly effec­

tive in characterizing the importance of the plotting during the act.

This quality is mirrored in particular through the use of such combina­

tions as doubled viola and woodwinds, trills in the oboe, the pairing of

viola and clarinet with bassoons and cello, the combination of three

flutes with bassoons and cello, the combination of chree flutes with
 189

oboe and strings marked "aspramente" (harshly).

Verdi does retain several conventional practices from earlier

periods including a prelude using themes that occur during the act, a

soliloquy for baritone, a brief lyric aria, and a duet.

The prelude to Act II introduces a theme which is heard in a

number of variations ranging from ferocious and angry to graceful and

lyric. It is used in the orchestra throughout the opening dialogue with

Cassio and continues under much of Iago's Credo, the first "set piece"

of the opera.

Credo in un Dio crudel I believe in a cruel God

che m'ha creato who created me
Simile a se, e che similar to Himself, and whom
nell'ira io nomo. I name in my wrath.
Dalla vilta d'un germe From the baseness of a germ or
o d'un atomo an atom,
Vile son nato. Basely I was born.
Son scellerato I am wicked
Perche son uomo; Because I am a man;
E sento il fango And I feel the mud of my origin
originario in me. in me.
Si! questa e la mia fe! • Yes! This is my creed!
Credo con fermo cuor, I believe with a firm heart.
siccome crede just as the little
La vedovella al tempio, widow in church believes,
Che il mal ch'io penso That the evil I think, the evil
e che da me procede that comes from me,
Per mio destino adempio. is wrought by my destiny.
Credo che il qiusto I believe the honest man is a
e un i'strion beffardo mocking actor in his
E nel viso e nel cuor, face and in his heart.
Che tutto ^ in lui That everything in him is false'
bugiardo: hood:
Lagrima, bacio, sguardo, His tears, kiss, gaze,
Sacrificio ed onor. Sacrifice, and honor.
E credo I'uom gioco And I believe that man is the
d'iniqua sorte plaything of unjust fate.
Dal germe della culla From the germ of the cradle
Al verme dell'avel. To the worm of the grave.
Vien dopo tanta irrision After so much derision comes
la Morte. Death.
E poi? La Morte e il And then? Death is
nulla, nothingness
E vecchia fola il Ciel. and heaven an old wives' tale.
 190

The Credo is the type of soliloquy which Verdi has assigned at

least once to each baritone role discussed in this study. Godefroy

finds little attraction in this particular passage.

Boito's Credo is a tirade. By means of it Iago reveals to

the audience that he is beyond redemption and knows it. . . .
Verdi, who found irresistible any chance to give a baritone
a few minutes to himself on stage, fell for Boito's savage
pseudo-mystical rubfish. Musicabile it certainly was; but
Shalcesperean, no. Such imagery cannot be dug out of any of
his plays, not even Lear or Timon.

However its dramatic value may be judged, the Credo exhibits a

number of musical devices which illustrate Verdi's musico/dramatic

framework at this period. In the absence of a consistent vocal theme or

a single tonal center, Verdi employs two recurring orchestral themes and

a / tj * rhythmic figure to provide unity and cohesion in a mono-

logue which is otherwise musically fragmented (ex. 10).

ex. 10 a

Allegro sostenuto. J= w.
il/tfXfl (allontanaodoii dal \trut* vnu piii punrdar Cassio thr sari «-cnjt>A**r> fra p)i aJbfri)
flic uo/ut's Jurrrujii trUhotti taxingfarther iiOf/crt of Ct/isio c ho disuppixtrs
unionist fig- /nrx.) J

•• .« - ; - i - 1 1 - • -
.di - £:
2$
* I

/**/*.__
AUCfiTO.SOSt.m•
J" £ >-
a.
•fu ~~ *' ^ y fnr
V 3 | i 1 —1 j
aitaixnsubito m
1 /Ts ^ £
i >•
/- - m
=T ^ > <ti Ji

ex. 10 b
 191

The first theme (ex. 10 a) is introduced by full orchestra and

recurs in one form or another five times. The second theme (ex. 10 b)

is a serpent-like figure (one of several such figures used throughout

the opera, first used in the prelude and here only slightly varied)

used at least six times, with numerous permutations. The fragmented

nature of the vocal line is bridged by orchestral interludes. Thirteen

times these interludes serve to comment on the preceding statement or

to forecast the one to follow.

Each of the musical characteristics associated with Iago occurs in

the Credo. The trill by viola and woodwinds recalls Iago's vocal trill

from Act I (ex. 11).

ex. 11
Allegro sostcnuto. J»w.
lujtza (aUonianandCMi dal tcron* MOU piu evurdar Cvtsio chr nari *-oni|>«r*r> fri pli albtrl)
fltv dO.vrs /bnrujfi rrithout takingJ"t:rthcr nofitr of Cussio C.J10 disnfjpr.ur*
•** utnotursf fh'c irrrx.) *

atlavcasubilo 5" bi
i—Cl T1|=

;jl a jt jt» jl

• do ID UQ Dio cru - del che m'ba cre - a - to si - mi .lea se,

- ei in he, (he God tvha w his i - mage Has fa-s.Honed me

Iago sings descending octave leaps as he declares his wickedness,

"Son scellerato perche son uomo" (I am wicked because I am a man)

(ex. 12).
 192

ex. 12

' ' V ' r r

SOD sce U l e - ra - .to per.chfc aon uo - -mo, < sen- to u
Fila is my tis - - sua, For I am tm - man. / /eel tha

" Y
>»
'KmsirF i .. -i. .1... ...
zJnni'' ..." ... - r .. s?.—* —
J
W 7
There are also descending chromatics, unison accompaniments,

triplet figures, and brief insertions of monotone which have been

previously identified with the character of lago.

The tessitura is not unusually demanding. lago sings three f^'s

and a single f^. The latter is followed closely by the lowest pitch

for baritone encountered in this study, A^, which illustratively occurs

on the word "dell'avel" (of the grave).

The variety of orchestral color matches the baritone timbre

color for color, including the use of the low register of the oboe and

bassoon, and strings played aspramente (harshly or bitterly).

Verdi has avoided a consistent tonal center. Frequent modula­

tions and deceptive resolutions impart a restlessness to the Credo.

Most of the more ominous passages are sung in flat keys which Verdi

associated with tragedy or devious deeds. Brief excursions to major

modes occur at textually appropriate instances. The relative major,

for instance, occurs at the lyrical reference to the "praying widow."

The use of the dominant, C major, serves as a contrasting interlude to

the submediant of major for the affirmation, "Credo" (I believe).

Ironically, a strong plagal cadence, to DD, associated x^ith the

religious Amen cadence concludes the passage.

 193

The interpretive demands of the Credo are great, focusing on

sudden emotional variations accompanied by a variety of vocal color.

The vitriol of the Credo is relieved by the passage which follows,

a pseudo-joking dialogue between Iago and Cassio, which is given an

appropriate musical setting.

When Otello appears, Iago's vocal style approaches parlante.

Joseph Kerman comments on the evolution of this style:

And Verdi gradually reduced the extent of the recitatives

and blended them into a more continuous texture. In
Rigoletto, we are no longer conscious of a dichotomy, but
of a continuum; in Otello, of a remarkably subtle continuum.
. . . Parlante can slip very easily into an aria or chorus,
thanks to the musical organization in the orchestra, and
also just as easily into recitative, thanks to the essen­
tially declamatory vocal lines - "parlante," "talking."24

Iago breaks the dialogue to sing a brief arietta.

Temete, signor, Fear jealousy,

la gelosia! My Lord!
E un'idra fosca, It is a dark, leaden,
livida, cieca, col blind hydra
suo veleno that poisons itself
Se stessa attosca, With its own venom,
vivida piaga le squarcia tearing an open wound
il seno. in its breast.
jf
The key of F minor adds an ipriate color to the passage.

Again the melody is doubled in the orchestra, and Iago sings his

characteristic trill on the word "seno" (breast) (ex. 13). This

passage serves as the musical material for the prelude to Act III.

Kerman, p. 136.
 194

ex. 13
Allegro agitato. J = m
Afi > Otello.

MJ - se - ria
altars'. Oh mi - se

gauar "ciail se • DO.

change- our na - lure.
Allegro agitato. J r iw.
>. rrr~-.i .. iS

allairf. col canto

Later in the act, following an extended lament by Otello, lago

attempts to console him. This infuriates Otello who throws lago down.

The "fall" of lago is typical of the several musical figures which

mirror dramatic events throughout the opera. In this case, it is

depicted through a descending chromatic figure (ex. 14).

ex. 14

F b» ~ ^

Di - vi - na era - zia di.

^ s F The grace of ffea • te;> for

Ascending orchestral figures in turn precede Iago's rising. His

most extended passage of lyrical singing occurs as he reveals to Otello

a supposed dream of Cassio.

Era la
> notte,7 Cassio It was night, Cassio was
dormia, gli stavo sleeping, I was beside
accanto. him.
Con interrotte voci With faltering words he
tradia l'intimo incanto. betrayed his inner enchantment.
Le labbra lente, lente, His lips moved very slowly
movea, nell'abbandono in the abandon of his
 195

Del sogno ardente; e ardent dream; and then he

allor dicea, con flebil suono: said in a faint tone;
Deademona soave! Sweet Desdemona!
II nostro amor s'asconda. Let our love be kept hidden.
Cauti vegliamo! We must keep careful watch!
L'estasi del clel tutto Heavenly ecstasy engulfs me
m'innoda. wholly.
Seguia piu vago 1'incubo The tender nightmare continued
blando; more sweetly;
con molle angoscia with soft anguish
L'interna imago quasi baciondo, As if kissing the inner vision,
ei disse poscia: he said then:
II rio destino impreco che I curse the wicked fate,
al Moro ti dono. which gave you to the Moor.
E allora il sogno in cieco Then the dream turned into
letargo si muto. blind sleep.

Harmonic color is drawn from chromatic inflections in the

orchestra, but most of the passage is in C major. The vocal line,

mostly lyric, is graced with ornaments on such words as "incanto"

(Magic, enchantment) and "sogno" (dream). Verdi apparently intended to

exercise a good deal of control over the baritone's interpretation of

this passage. Eight different interpretive directions are given as

well as dynamic variations asking for the redundant ppppppp. As the

melodic line returns to parlando for Cassio's words about Otello, "II

rio destino impreco che al Moro ti dono" (I curse wicked fate, which

gave you to the Moor), the accompaniment changes to the darker color of

clarinets, bassoons, and horn. Hussey comments on the sublety with

which Verdi matched text and music:

The wedding of words to music, about which Verdi had often

been careless even so late as in Aida, attains in Otello the
highest standard of exactness. And nowhere is the excellence
so conspicuous as in this narration of Iago's, which is so
laid out for the voice that if the singer is faithful to his
text he cannot fail to produce the precise effect intended
down to the most minute nuance of vocal colour.^5

25
Hussey, p. 263.
 196

Verdi utilizes earlier convention for the tenor-baritone duet

which concludes Act II.

Testimon e il Sol ch'io Witness is the Sun that I see,

miro, che m'irradia e that shines on me and
innanima, animates me,
L'ampia terra e il vasto The broad earth and the vast
spiro del Creato inter, breath of all Creation,
Che ad Otello io sacro That to Othello I
ardenti, core, braccio consecrate my ardent heart,
ed anima arm, and soul
S'anco ad opere cruenti Even if his will arms itself
s'armi iJ suo voler! for bloody tasks!
\
Si, pel ciel marmoreo Yes, I swear by marble heaven:
giuro! per le attorte By the forked lightning!
folgori!
Per la Morte e per By death and by the dark,
l'oscuro mar murderous sea!
sterminator! With rage and terrible force
D'ira e d'impeto tremendo this hand
presto fia che sfolgori That I raise and extend soon
Questa man ch'io levo e blaze out!
stendo. Dio vendicator! Avenging God!

Act II depicts a continuous conflict between Otello and Iago as

well as the coming destruction of Otello. Iago dominates the act. His

singing varies from the violence of the Credo to the lyric beauty of

Era la Notte, demanding the utmost in interpretive skill, considerable

variety of vocal color, and an extensive range.

Act III continues Iago's provocations of jealousy in Otello.

With the exception of a duet between Otello and Desdemona, Iago is on

stage the entire act.

The increasing intrigue evident in Act III is accompanied by an

increase in harmonic restlessness. Verdi uses numerous flat keys,

especially those in minor, including E*D minor, A^ minor, G^ major and

Cb major, in each instance matching them to plottings of Iago.

Iago's presence is immediately felt in the Act III prelude as his

"jealousy" theme from Act II appears in canon.

 197

Several moments of fine musical irony are present in Iago's

singing in Act III. One occurs in his opening dialogue with Otello.

Following a rapid exchange, lago pauses to deliver a line which enrages

Otello, "II fazzoletto ..." (The handkerchief . . .) (ex. 15). The

two words are intended to tantalize and enrage Otello. They are sung

secco, showing Verdi's sensitivity in isolating strategic words from

competition with accompaniment.

ex. 15

<Ws/iesoy? *'/ it.-uir yov", he utuauu* {f to

itave, but stop* and rtturn.s to Ot.ie/!'.' e, m/v
the lust aordj Itnlo m

r T f—?—?—f—i—'—f y — '
Ec.co Dcs. de - mo-na. Finger conne.ne... 10 vu. du. Ii fuz-zo-let - to...
Set.yonder comesywr wife, youmuxf 6t? cunning. I ittneyott. TbuthtindjwrtJtivf is...
ZU U_
rap
col ctrn/o

lago greets the approaching Cassio, who is now to be drawn into

the plot. Iago's hypocritical line is veiled by a charming melody,

played by strings in G° major, again associating flats with devious

persuasion. Iago's lines are in counterpoint with the orchestral

melody. His trill on "capitano" reveals a trace of his evil jealousy

over the latter's superior position (ex. 16).

 198

ex. 16

»iy good litu ntmt?

In a scherzo-like passage, recalling lago's enlistment of

Roderigo's aid in Act I, Iago solicits the help of Cassio. The light

spirit of the orchestra contrasts with the harmonic restlessness which

it
passes through tonal areas of F minor, B minor, G major/E minor, to A

major.

lago's manipulation of Desdemona's "guilt" is transacted in a

lengthy passage, again in the triplet rhythm (6/8) often associated

with him. Verdi's combination of music and drama is effected through

the use of sotto voce asides. Whether or not by design, as the intrigue

deepens there is a movement through keys with increased numbers of

flats; for example, lago's aside to Cassio, "Sommesso parla, T'ascolta"

(Speak softly, I'm listening) culminates in major.

The conversation leads to the trio beginning with lago's commen­

tary on the handkerchief:

Questa e una ragna This is a cobweb

Dove il tuo cour In which your heart
Casca, si lagna, Falls, complains,
S'impiglia e muor. Is entangled and dies.
Troppo l'ammiri, You admire it too much,
Troppo la guardi; You look at it too much;
3ada ai dalire Beware of vain
Vani e bugiardi. And false ravings.
Questa e una ragna, ecc. This is a cobweb, etc.
 199

The passage is unusually light and rapid. Iago's reference to a

spider web is musically mirrored by chromatic tones that wind stepwise

to arrive at a final cadence on the word "muor" (dies) (ex. 17).

ex. 17

quest' & una ra - gna do.veil tuo cuor ca -sea, si

This is a spi.dei's we&,0'herettiy poor heart Is caueM and

(Baardacdo U fulaiettoch*
Cassio 1Tri rill> 0
" *
(tooJtiiigai the handkerchief XJn *POCO IQCnO
AT* AN4 /MM Air^^Tffini
m0SS0. J.-.n.

va . - S° ^e] -
u,on* derwroughtBy

la-sna, aim - pi -cllae huor.

>(i7?(^ui- * - cer - more.
Un poco mejao mosso. #. M.

Verdi effectively pictures the weaving pattern of a spider.

Cassio and Otello join in the trio which follows. Verdi uses the

trio, as he did the quartet, to present varying perspectives. Each

character views the handkerchief differently. Again there is a major-

minor modal exchange between C minor and C major.

Verdi s use of an ensemble to musically camouflage the actual

plotting of the murder of Desdemona recalls the similar use of the

 200

children's chorus and the quartet in Act II. Iago's pronouncement,

"val meglio soffocarla, la, nel suo letto, la, dove ha peccato"

(T'were better to strangle her there in her bed, there, where she has

sinned) is particularly fine musical drama (ex. 18).

ex. 18

la,
There

The finale of Act III is an extended passage which includes all

principals and the chorus. It is highly complicated due to the multiple

points of view being expressed. Hussey identifies the ensemble as the

only formal, conventional musical movement in the opera.

We are suddenly transported for a while from a world of most

carefully preserved dramatic truth back into the old romantic
style of opera with principals and chorus giving vent to
their emotions in a grand melody at the full power of their
voices.26

In keeping with the pathos of intrigue associated with flat keys

the tonal scheme passes through such related areas as C minor, B minor,
fob b
D major, and A major at the piu mosso, moving to E major and F major

before finally concluding in A^ minor.

Verdi distinguishes between Iago's statements to Otello and those

to Roderigo. Those to the former employ a melodic curve, hinting at

seductive persuasion. Those to Roderigo are delivered in a more

26
-Loid., p. 274.
 201

commanding semi-monotone.

Iago's tessitura is pushed upward and at the same time, Verdi

reverts to the triplet pattern noted earlier.

Iago's influence is felt in another moment of irony. As Otello

becomes unstable, lago announces to all, "Lo assale una malia che

d'ogni senso il priva!" (A spell attacks him that robs him of all

feeling!). Verdi has mirrored Otello's condition by recalling the

descending chromatic scale, suggesting a drunken state, sung by lago in

the Act I brindisi (ex. 19).

ex. 19

li - a cd? do - £rni senso il pri-tc..

tick- npssivk'ihofall sense de.priveshim*

The three acts culminate in Iago's triumph. As Otello falls (in

what Shakespeare described as an epileptic fit) lago sings the apex of

his triumph (ex. 20).

 202

ex. 20

. lo . ntt?
T,S- fort-head!

It is another example of Verdian musical drama. The orchestral

doubling is reserved for Iago's most dramatic lines, while the vocal

melody descends to the word "tallone" (heel). There is some similarity

between this and the first words sung by lago in Act I as he addressed

Roderigo with the wish for the sinking of Otello's ship (ex. 20).

In a line of sarcasm and irony lago sings, "ecco il leone"

(here is the- lion) (ex. 21).

ex. 21

( rltto • eon g«ato (fortando trioc/o, [adlcaado u corpo la«rt» <1 Ot«llo)
{standingoreci and pointing aith horribte triumph to the motionless body of Othello)

Glo - ria al Le - on di Ve . ne - zis!

jTail lo the ii . on of fi . meet

Glo . rm al Le .on di Ye - ne - zia!

Bail to the ii . on of Fe . nice/

•£r~~ y
 203

Verdi has colored the line with the familiar trill on the word

"leone" (lion). Its pathos is increased with unison trills in the

lower registers of clarinets, bassoons, violas, and cellos, leading to a

tutti fortissimo outburst from the orchestra.

The entire ensemble was troublesome to both Verdi and Boito. The

task of presenting the varying emotions required a solution not found

in Shakespeare. Verdi insisted that Iago triumph at the conclusion of

the act. Frank Walker includes a letter from Verdi to Boito, August 15,

1880. Verdi wrote:

After Otello has insulted Desdemona there's nothing more to

say - at the most a phrase, a reproach, a curse on the bar­
barian who has insulted a woman! And here either bring down
the curtain, or invent something that's not in Shakespeare.27

Iago appears briefly in Act IV and exits running. He has no

singing of significance.

Several aspects of baritone singing not observed previously in

this study are evident in Iago's role. Of the five baritone roles

studied thus far, Iago's is unique in that he has no redeeming

qualities. Verdi has made no effort to enhance or redeem the character

musically but has allowed him to remain a villain. Joseph Kerman

comments on Iago's character:

Let us see how Verdi treated the three main characters and
their interrelationship. Iago is the clearest case; he was
altered from Shakespeare's very complicated human being
into that perennial operatic standby Mephistopheles. Or
one can say that the Mephistophelian quality that Goethe
discerned in Iago was magnified and almost everything else
abandoned. As with all the people in the opera, Iago's
talk and action is beautifully characterized; but, as usual,
our strongest impression of him comes from his "number" in
particular his tremendous soliloquy. Though Iago's theology

~^Walker, p. 477.
 204

is somewhat muddled in the words of his "Credo," the music

strikes unequivocally the tone of blasphemous bravado
proper to the Black Mass. Iago's Drinking Song recalls
Mephistopheles in Auerbach's cellar . . • The simplifica­
tion of Iago's personality actually relieved him of the
whole vexatious matter of motivation.28

Otello as a whole, and particularly lago, employ a freer style of

recitative and arioso, described as parlante. This contributes greatly

to the continuity of the musical drama involved. With great ease and

flexibility lago continually slips back and forth between recitative

and melody.

Orchestrally, Verdi has made great use of the lower winds and

strings in characterizing the evil nature of lago. More than in the

previous operas studied, the organic nature is such that nearly every­

thing written by Verdi has some dramatic implication. The regular

recurrence of appoggiaturas, trills, the interval of the ninth, and

chromatic scales all serve to identify the nature of lago.

Iago's singing range is generally lower than the previous roles

studied. The extended passages with high tessitura and arias with

punishing top-voice singing are not as evident in the role. Greater

drama is effected from orchestral color, precise word inflections, and

variety of vocal colors than from extended passages at the top of the

baritone range. Clearly Verdi was requiring a high degree of dramatic

skill as well as vocal ability for the role.

28
Kerman, p. 159.
 CHAPTER VIII

FALSTAFF

Background

Falstaff was Verdi's 26th and final opera. It was based on

Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor. At the time of its premiere

in February, 1893, Verdi was 80 years of age. As with Otello, the

librettist was his friend, Arrigo Boito.

Falstaff differed from Verdi's other operas. For nearly fifty

years he had periodically expressed interest in composing a comic opera

but had never found a play or libretto that satisfied him. Even while

negotiations were under way for Otello (1879), Verdi had written Giulio

Ricordi concerning a rather negative article which quoted a remark by

Rossini, made years earlier, to the effect that Verdi, a composer of

dark and tragic plots, would never be able to write a comic opera.

Verdi's response was immediate and direct:

I have read in your paper Dupre's words on our meeting and

the sentence pronounced by Jupiter Rossini as Meyerbeer
called him. But just a moment: for the last twenty years
I've been looking for an opera buffa libretto, and now that
I may have found it you print an article that will encourage
the public to damm the work before it is even written, thus
prejudicing my interests and yours.-

Ricordi was puzzled by the reference to a comic opera at the very

time when he understood that Verdi was about to begin Otello.

^Osborne, p. 408.

205
 206

Apparently no records exist to verify the libretto to which Verdi was

referring. Exactly when and how Boito first suggested Falstaff to Verdi

is not definitely known. However, when Boito did send a proposed

libretto to Verdi in July, 1889, Verdi, in a manner quite unlike him,

was delighted. With little of the quibbling so evident in correspon­

dence with previous librettists, Verdi wrote immediately to Boito:

Montecatini, 6 July, 1889

Excellent! Excellent!

Before reading your sketch I wanted to re-read the Merry

Wives of Windsor, the two parts of Henry IV, and Henry V,
and I can repeat: Excellent, for one could not do better
than you have done.2

The following day Verdi wrote Boito again to express concerns

about the latter's proposal. The tone of the reply did leave the im­

pression that Verdi was considering the project.

Montecatini, 7 July, 1889

In outlining Falstaff did you ever think of the enormous

number of my years? How are we to overcome these obstacles?
Have you a sound argument to oppose mine? I hope so, but
I don't believe it. Still, let's think it over (and be
careful to do nothing that could be harmful to your career)
and if you can find one for me, and I some way of throwing
off ten years or so; then . . . what joy, to be able to say
to the public: Here we are again!3

Boito replied that he had never really considered Verdi's age. He

was of the opinion that all the other arguments - age, strength, hard

work, were neither valid nor obstacles. Verdi needed no more persuading.

Within two days he had determined to begin the project and wrote Boito.

^"Walker, p. 495.

^Ibid., p. 496.
 207

Montecatini, 10 July, 1889

Amen. So be it!

We'll write this Falstaff then! We don't think for a moment

of obstacles, of age, of illness!1^

Verdi was determined that Falstaff should progress at his own

pace with no pressure from publisher or anyone else. He was, he said,

writing Falstaff only for the fun of it and even suggested that it be

premiered at his own home, Sant' Agata. He worked slowly and method­

ically, pacing himself at two hours effort per day.

Hussey suggests that Verdi's great emphasis on the fact that

Falstaff was a private project for his own amusement was really only a

saving clause to cover the risk of his opera buffa not turning out to

his satisfaction.

Nothing could be wider of the mark than the idea of Verdi

writing an opera as an intellectual exercise, for his private
amusement, or in order to create a work of art without regard
to a possible audience. When he composed he had one eye
always on the box office. . . . But if a refutation of the
slogan, "Art for art's sake" is ever needed, it may be found
in the operas of Verdi.5

By mid-September, 1892, the opera was completed and Verdi sent

the score to Ricordi. In January, 1893, Verdi arrived in Milan to

begin rehearsals, working sometimes as long as eight hours a day. The

composer was then eighty years old and still the perfectionist

taskmaster.

4Walker, p. 496.

^Hussey, p. 289. Following the Milan premiere of Falstaff, Verdi

wrote Mascheroni, the conductor: "I am very prosaic in some things
and look on the box-office as the only infallible thermometer." In
point of fact Falstaff produced good reviews for Verdi but very little
money.
 208

The dace for the premiere of Falstaff was set for February 9,

1893. Its approach was accompanied by the influx to Milan of the

world's musical press. The accompanying excitement is reflected in a

letter written by Verdi's wife, Giuseppina, to her sister:

Admirers, bores, friends, enemies, genuine and non-genuine

musicians, critics good and bad are swarming in from all
over the world. The way people are clamouring for seats,
the opera house would need to be as big as a public square.6

The premiere's great success brought a multiplicity of views from

the music critics. Variously, influences were cited and traced to

Wagner, Haydn, and Mozart. The English paper, Daily Graphic, even

mentioned the influence of Beethoven.

Boito's condensation of Shakespeare's massive play is generally

recognized as a stroke of literary genius. The cuts, alterations, and

telescoping are considerable. Of major importance was the necessity of

eliminating superfluous characters and limiting the number of principal

singers, plus the careful exorcising of many unnecessary allusions, sub­

plots, and references that were distinctly English and not vital to

Verdi's task.

There were hardly any superfluous characters in Otello who

could be dispensed with; there are nine in the Merry Wives.
Shallow, Slender, Evans, and Caius could be rolled into one -
their complaints against Falstaff and his minions, and the
pretensions of two of them to Anne Page's hand, being con­
centrated in the person of Doctor Caius. Then Master Page
was of no real use to the plot, so he could go; and to
tighten up the unities his daughter Anne became Nannetta
Ford. And, last major excision, the whole incident of
Falstaff's disguise as Mother Prat, the fat woman of
Brentford, which is but a weak repetition of the buck/
basket episode, could be cut out bodily. Among the lesser
figures Nym disappears - what is essential in his part being

£
Osborne, p. 436.
 209

taken over by Bardolph - together with Rugby, Simple, and

William Page. Robin, the boy, remains as a persona muta.?

The resulting libretto was a compressed work of three acts, each

containing two scenes. The action moves swiftly and with economy. Tove

suggests that all of Boito's changes may not necessarily be improvements

but does cite Falstaff himself as being more interesting.

Moreover, the character of Falstaff, though perhaps somewhat

more Latinized, possesses greater interest. He may remain a
buffoon but he is not a mere buffoon like the Falstaff of
The Merry Wives, for Boito, in his desire to provide Verdi
with a "type," drew nearer to the Falstaff of Henry IV. The
literary quality of the dialogue has been universally com­
mended and the profusion of recondite words or expressions
will onlv disturb those exceptionally familiar with current
Italian.&

Synopsis of Falstaff

Act I, scene i, takes place in the Garter Inn. Sir John Falstaff

has just finished sealing two letters when Dr. Caius enters and begins

to berate Falstaff for breaking into the former's house and abusing his

servants. When Falstaff ignores these accusations, Caius turns to

Falstaff's partners and cronies, Pistol and Bardolph, and in turn

accuses them of getting him drunk and robbing him. The two simply

double-talk Caius out of the room. The innkeeper then presents Falstaff

with the bill. As usual, Falstaff is broke. However he does have a

scheme for getting the money: the wives of two rich burgers - Mistress

Ford and Mistress Page - are, according to Falstaff, much taken with his

charms. Both ladies control the keys to their husband's money boxes, so

^Hussey, p. 287.

3Toye, p. 429.
 210

Falstaff has written each of them an impassioned letter. When Bardolph

and Pistol refuse to deliver the letters, Falstaff sends them off via

a page, then angrily chases Pistol and Bardolph from the room.

Scene ii is set in Ford's garden where Meg, Page, and Alice Ford

compare the identical letters they have received from Falstaff. En­

couraged by Dame Quickly and Alice's daughter, Nannetta, they plan a

little mischief for the double-dealing Falstaff. They leave, and Ford,

Dr. Caius, Fenton (who is in love with Nannetta), Bardolph, and Pistol

enter, with Bardolph assuring Ford that Falstaff plans to try to seduce

his wife. While the others plot revenge, Fenton engages in his wooing

of Nannetta, who has returned to the scene. Ford arranges with Bardolph

to be introduced to Falstaff under a false name. And the women dispatch

Dame Quickly to arrange a tryst between Falstaff and Alice Ford.

Act II, scene i is again in the Garter Inn. There Dame Quickly

delivers the message to Falstaff that Anne Ford, beside herself with

love, wishes to have Falstaff, the Knight, visit her at two o'clock,

when her husband will be absent. Dame Quickly leaves, and Bardolph

ushers in Ford who is introduced as "Signor Fontana." Fontana wishes

advice from Falstaff: he is in love with Mistress Ford, who does not

return his affection. He will pay handsomely if Falstaff can seduce

the lady in order that he too, in time, may successfully test her

virtue. Falstaff grandly informs Fontana that within a matter of mere

hours he will be in the arms of Mistress Ford. When Falstaff leaves,

Ford expresses his fury at his wife's supposed infidelity.

Scene ii takes place in a room in Ford's house. Alice, Meg, and

Dame Quickly have set the scene for Falstaff's humiliation. He xjill be

forced to hide himself in a laundry basket which will eventually be

 211

dumped into a ditch of water just outside the house. Before Falstaff

makes his appearance, however, Nannetta sorrowfully reveals that her

father wishes her to marry Dr. Caius. Falstaff approaches. The women

rush out, and the old Knight enters to find Alice alone, romantically

playing a lute. Falstaff begins his wooing of the evasive Alice but is

interrupted first by Dame Quickly, then by Meg who brings news that Ford

is on his way home, storming like a madman. Falstaff is hidden behind a

screen just as Ford enters with Pistol and Bardolph. The jealous Ford

demands a search of the house, suspecting Falstaff to be there. When he

is momentarily out of the room, the women hide Falstaff in the laundry

basket. The lovers, Nannetta and Fenton, snatch a few stolen moments

behind the screen, but are soon discovered by the angry Ford. Alice

finally summons several pages who hoist the basket up to the window and

dump basket, laundry and Falstaff into the watery ditch.

Act III is again set at the Garter Inn, this time in the court­

yard. There a humiliated Falstaff is drinking wine to ease the hurt to

body and pride. As he quickly restores his good opinion of himself,

Dame Quickly comes to him with a letter from Alice asking for a meeting

in Windsor Park at midnight. He is to come disguised as the ghostly

Black Knight. Falstaff and Dame Quickly enter the inn as she describes

the story of the Black Knight who returns to the trunk of Heme's Oak

where he had hung himself. Alice, Meg, Nannetta, Ford, Dr. Caius and

Fenton - all of whom have been eavesdropping - now plot to further

humiliate the Knight by dressing up as the fairies, sprites, and

goblins associated with the legend of the Black Knight.

The final scene takes place in Windsor Park. In their various

disguises, the conspirators meet. Falstaff soon lumbers in, dressed

 212

in a voluminous mantle, with stag horns on his head. Alice appears, and

Falstaff begins to make amorous advances which suddenly are brought to a

halt as the conspirators swarm about him. Falstaff is frozen with

fright as the fairies, sprites, and goblins dance about him, chanting

his many faults. Finally he recognizes Bardolph and realizes he has

been tricked. Good-naturedly, Falstaff admits that he has been at fault

and has acted like a fool. Ford then betroths Dr. Caius to the "Queen

of the Fairies" (Bardolph distinguished as Nannetta), and unwittingly

blesses the pairing of Nannetta with Fenton. When all disguises are

thrown off, Ford realizes that he, too, has been tricked. All join
9
Falstaff in laughter admitting that the whole world is a joke.

The Music of Falstaff

The highly organic nature of Falstaff necessitates certain

generalizations about the opera as a whole. These will then be related

specifically to the role of the baritone in the opera.

First is the extremely fast tempo of the drama itself; events

unfold at an extraordinarily brisk pace. The music reflects this pace

with a consistent forward propulsion. Vincent Godefroy has recognized

the emergence of a new "technique" by Verdi which enabled him to capture

the spirit of the rapid movement of the drama.

All the characters, in spite of the tricks they play on one

another, are fundamentally merry. This is not Verdi's
natural way, and it forced him to approach the work of a
musical setting in an entirely novel manner; to invent a
technique which would both create and support the restless
comedy without sentimental relaxation . . . And this is
just what Verdi did in his score, with phrase and counter-
phrase set over an orchestral commentary which almost

Adapted from notes accompanying Falstaff, recording 350/M35 750

(New York: London Records, Inc., n.c.).
 213

blushes with innocent embarrassment.10

Dyneley Hussev takes a contrasting position, that of Falstaff

being a natural outgrowth of Otello.

But Verdi, by adapting the style he had developed for

tragedy and carrying it to the extreme limit of which it
was capable, produced a comic masterpiece as unique and
original in its own way as Die Meistersinger. . . . For
once we have recovered our breath, taken away by the speed
and exhilaration of our experience, and come doxm to cold
analysis, -the score of Falstaff will be seen to be a per­
fectly logical development of the musical style of Otello.
The material has become even more pliable, the themes even
shorter, and the equipoise between voices and orchestra
perfect.

Like many earlier operas, such as Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro,

Cosi Fan Tutti, and Rossini's The Barber of Seville, the events of

Falstaff occur in a single day, further contributing to the speed and

directness of the drama. Falstaff begins with the morning of Act I.

This leads to the afternoon of Act II and progresses through the sunset

of Act III, scene i, to the midnight finale of scene ii.

The second feature of Falstaff, and one which directly influences

the singing for baritone, is its virtually seamless quality. Like

Otello, it is opera in which music and drama take no pauses for displays

of virtuosity. The tunes unfold with such rapidity and with so little

distinction given to their beginning and ending that the resulting

fabric is that of a nearly continuous arioso. The orchestral role is

made nearly equal to the singing.

Julian Budden suggests that this technique of synthesis may have

^Godefroy, II, p. 299.

"'""Hlussey, p. 291.
 214

been part of a "poetic intuition" which was employed as early as Luisa

Miller (1849).

But the effect in Luisa Miller is xjholly Italian, sensitized

by a new poetic intuition. With it comes a subtler harmonic
sense and the consequent ability to depict shades of emotion
and character unknown to the broader frescoes of his earlier
years. Above all, the shorter phrases permitted thematic
development and hence the possibility of musical transition
from one idea to the next, which was to culminate in the
seamless continuity of Falstaff.12

The typically long-line melody, still somewhat apparent in Otello,

is reduced and fragmented in Falstaff, resulting in little more than

arioso singing.

Thirdly, Falstaff's singing is greatly influenced by the prepon­

derance of melody scattered throughout the opera. Charles Osborne has

expressed this phenomenon: "Verdi scatters tunes about as though he

..13
were trying to give tnem away.

Falstaff's melodies, however, differ somewhat from those in

Verdi's earlier operas. It is melody that is very recognizably Verdi

but sing in miniature phrases which often occur only once. The square-

cut, eight-bar periods of Verdi's earliest writing are abandoned in

favor of small fragments, often inserted seemingly at random between

recitative and short segments of orchestral melody.

The combination of fast-paced drama, seamless arioso, and brief

melodic fragments presents particular problems in attempting a verbal,

scene-by-scene description and chronology of Falstaff's singing.

Therefore this chapter will be devoted to general observations supported

12
Julian Budden, "Verdi and the Contemporary Italian Scene," in
Weaver and Chusid, p. 95.
13
Osborne, p. 442.
 215

by appropriate examples, not necessarily exhaustive. "Ideally, one

needs either to confine oneself to one word or to spread to a hundred

thousand.

Falstaff's role contains a number of solo passages but no formal

arias. With the exception of the Act II, scene ii solo, "Quandero

paggio," which is occasionally included in baritone recital literature,

few other passages lend x^ell to extraction for recital repertoire.

In Act I, scene i, following the examination of his bill at the

Garter Inn, Falstaff remonstrates against Bardolph and Pistol. The

"tavern song" passage is possibly intended to reflect his increasing

intoxication.

He is mentally unbuttoning himself and conceding to his

cronies a sort of bucolic intimacy . . . The fact that his
purse is found to be virtually empty does not dispel his
growing mellowness, as he sides into a lethargically
bibulous tune in which he recalls the pleasures of tavern-
crawling.

Sei la mia distruzione! You're my destruction!

Spendo ogni sette giorni I spend ten guineas every
dieci ghinee! seven days!
Beone! Drunkard!
So chese andiamo, la notte I know that if we go, at
Di taverna in taverna, night from tavern to tavern,
Quel tuo naso ardentissimo That most glowing nose of
Me serve da lanterna; yours serves me as a lantern;
Ma quel risparmio d'olio But that saving on oil
Tu lo consumi in vicn. You consume in wine.
Son trent'anni c'ne abbevero For thirty years I've been
Quel fungo porporino! soaking that mushroom!
(a Bardolfo) (to Bardolph)
Costi troppo . . . You cost too much . . .
(a Pistola) (to Pistol)
E tu pure. And you too.
(gridando) (shouting)

14
Ibid.
15
Godefroy, II, p. 301.
 216

Oste! un'altra bottiglia. Host! Another bottle.

(a Bardolfo e Pistola) (to Bardolph and Pistol)
Mi struggeta le carni. You're wasting my flesh.
Se Falstaff's assottiglia If Falstaff grows thin
Non e piu lui, He is no longer himself,
Nessun piu l'ama; No one loves him any more;
in quest*addome in this paunch
C'e un migliaio di lingue There are a thousand tongues
Che annunciano il mio nome! That announce my name!16

Verdi has skillfully captured the dramatic movement by alternating

brief lyric melodies with measures of arioso. Incongruously, and with

fine irony, a graceful melody appears at Falstaff's remarks about

Bardolph's glowing nose. The phrasing, tonality (F major), and melodic

curve all recall an earlier period and suggest a Verdi who can still

weave a fetching melody (ex. l)."^

ex. 1

modekato # = So

So che se anaiam-la not

True, as we wan-de: r::'nt

MOFERATO # : 8 0
J'PP icpntc ;

1^William Weaver, Seven Verdi Librettos, p. 536. This and all

subsequent translations from Falstaff are taken from this volume.

^"'Giuseppi Verdi, Falstaff: An Opera in Three Acts (New York:

Edwin F. Kalmus, 1968), p. 20. This and all subsequent musical examples
cited from Falstaff are taken from this edition of the piano/vocal
score.
 217

ex. 1, cont.

_ ver - - - - na Quel tuo na .so ar - den -

u - - vera, 'us voir red rose clow - :nc

tlrinp.

The tune is dissolved in Falstaff's disgust at financing Bardolph

reflected in the leap to f"^ with descending staccato eight-notes at the

words: "Son trent'anni che abbevero quel fuogo porporio!" (For thirty

years I've been soaking that purplish mushroom!) (ex. 2). Throughout

Falstaff the use of staccato is often associated with disgust.

ex. 2

d'o.lip tu lo CQnsumi in v.i.no

i a mr
poil.you socnGruix u? in iDi - : : t
'' struts', trmsr-- o-:

(co Sardclph)

. r

'v rnen Pistol and Bardolph refuse to obey Falstaff's orders he sing

an extended "Honor Monologue." Although the monologue is not a formal

 218

aria the entire passage recalls the ar:La-like use of the extended

soliloquy qhich occurred in Rigoletto':3 "Pari siamo" and again in Iago's

"Credo." "This is one of the very few approaches to a set aria in the

opera and into it Boito introduces the main points of the honour
18
catechism in Henry IV." The passage is lengthy.

Onore! Ladri! Honor! Thieves!

Voi state ligi You are true
All'onor vostro, voi! To your honor, you!
Cloache d'ignominia, You sewers of ignominy,
Quando, non sempre, noi When we cannot always
Possiam star ligi al nostro.
0
Be true to ours
\
10 stesso, si, io, io, I myself, yes, I, I,
Devo talor da un lato I must sometimes set aside
Porre il timor di Dio The fear of God
E, per necessita, And, out of necessity,
Sviar 1'onore, usare Deflect honor, use
Stragemmi ed equivoci, Stratagems and equivocations,
Destreggiar, bordeggiare. Maneuver, tack.
E voi, coi vostri cenci And you, with your rags
E coll'occiata tSrta And with your crooked glance
Da getto pardo e i fetidi Like a leopard's and your
Sghignazzi avete a scorta fetid sniggerings have as escort
11 vostro Onor! Your honor? What honor?
Che onore? IThat honor? What honor?
Che onor? Che onor!
Che ciancia! Che baja! What foolishness!
Puo 1'onore riempirvi Can honor fill your
la pancia! belly?
No. Puo l'onor No. Can honor replace
rimetterti uno stinco! a shinbone for you? No.
No puo. Ne un piede? Or a foot? No.
No. N£ un dito? No. Or a finger? No.
Ne un capello? No! Or a hair? No.
L'onor non e chirurgo. Honor is not a surgeon.
Che e dunque? Una parola. What is it then? A word.
Che c'e in questa parola? What is in this word?
C'e dell'aria che vola. There is some air that flies.
Bel costrutto! L'onore Fine benefit! Can one who is
Lo puo sentir chi e morto? No. dead feel honor? No.
Vive sol coi vivi? . . . Does it live with the living?
Neppure: percne a torto Not even: because wrongly
Lo gonfian le lusinghe, Flattery swells it,

Stephen Williams, Verdi's Last Operas (London: Hinric'nsen

Edition, Ltd., 1950), p. 55.
 219

Lo corrorape l'orgoglio, Pride corrupts it,

L'ammorban le calunnie Slanders infect it;
E per me non ne voglio! And, for myself, I want none.
No! non ne voglio, no. No! I want none of it, no.
Ma, per tornare a voi, 3ut, to get back to you,
furfanti, rogues,
Ho atteso troppo, I've put up with too much,
E vi discaccio. And I dismiss you.

Ola! Lesti! Lesti! Hey, there! Quickly!

A1 galoppo! A1 galoppo! At a gallop! At a gallop!
Ladri! Ladri! Ladri! Thieves! Thieves! Thieves!
Via di qua, via di qua, Away from here, away from here
Via di qua! Away from here!

The entire monologue is an excellent example of Verdia declama­

tion. The passage is rhythmically very forceful. Multiple chromatic

excursions, flexible changes in accompaniment figures, and terse frag­

ments of text serve to convey a mood of agitation. Verdi's sense of

plasticity and flexibility is best, seen in the overall variety employed

in the short and shifting bursts of text. These lines are punctuated

by eight changes of tempo and no less than twenty-five changes in

orchestral dynamics and an abundance of interpretive vocal marking,

including coloristic ones such as voce grosso, leggerissimo, and mezza

voce. Vocal dynamics range from triple pianissimo tc triple fortissimo.

When Falstaff poses the question of what honor can accomplish,

Verdi inserts another snatch of lyric melody. He sings: "Puo l'onore

riempirir la pancia?" (Can honor fill your belly?) to a charming little

melody (ex. 3).

 220

ex. 3

itE.vo .\rosso

(«) Pud l'o . no re

ME.XO MOSSO Can your hon

Fuol'o - nor ri.rnei . tervi u . no

bro • kca
C* ciA hoa

Falstaff ends the monologue with his statement: "E per me non ne

voglio, no!" (And, for myself, I want none of it, no!), inflected at

higher pitches (centered around e^") with a resulting increase in

emotion. Further emphasis is added with a strong final cadence in G

major, underlining Falstaff's fortissimo g\ The passage, begun in C

major, has culminated in G major which now functions as a dominant used

to return to C major for Falstaff's remonstrances to follow. A sweeping

orchestral interlude, based on the melodic figure cited in example

three, leads to a cabaletta-style coda beginning and ending in the key

of C major, the key now associated with Falstaff, thus rounding out the

tonality of the entire scene.

The extended monologue is dramatically successful largely due to

several factors which interact with each other. Text, accompaniment,

melodic style, and mood all alternate so swiftly that they create a

feeling of excitement for the entire passage. There are different

 221

rhythmic and melodic figures to accompany each change of mood. There

are twelve separate patterns, including groups of sixteenth-notes,

triplet figures, tremolo, syncopations, and staccatos, each unifying a

particular section.

In Act II, scene i, following a dialogue with Ouicklv, Falstaff

sings a brief solo passage, "Va, vecchio John" (Go, old John). The

passage begins and closes with a light, chirping orchestral phrase

which may reflect his elation in anticipation of seducing Alice Ford

(ex. 4). The figure may also suggest Falstaff's silliness.

ex. 4
ALL". SOSTESUTO 9 - 100

•k
£ 3C

mi . a ! )
A - Ucel) j
AL1P.SOSTEKUTO 9 =100

Trumpets, trombones and timpani impart a temporary sense of

dignity to Falstaff, perhaps suggesting his knighthood. The piece is

in A major with an intermediate cadence on the dominant. Falstaff's

great pride in his bulk is seen in these brief lines:

 222

Questa tua vecchia carne This old flesh of yours

Ancora spreme Still squeezes out
Qualche dolcezza a te. Some sweetness for you.

A colorful, deceptive harmonic movement occurs at the words "vecchia

carne" (old flesh), followed by effective word painting on "ancora

spreme" (again squeeze) with a "squeezing" rhythmic figure on the

appropriate word.

In Act II, scene ii, Falstaff pursues Alice Ford with the

miniature solo "Ouandero paggio" (When I was the page), asserting the

fact he was not always fat. '•Then performed up to tempo the brief piece

lasts barely thirty seconds.

Ouand'ero paggio When I was the page

Del Duca di Norfolk Of the Duke of Norfolk
Ero suttile, sottile, I was slim, slim,
sottile; slim;
Ero un miraggio I was a mirage,
Vago, leggiero, Lovely, light.
Gentile, gentile, gentile. Tender, tender, tender.
Quello era il tempo That was the time
Del mio verde aprile, Of my green April,
Quello era il tempo That was the time
Del mio lieto maggio. Of my happy May.
Tant'era smilzo, I was so slender,
Flessibile e snello Flexibile and thin,
Che sarei guizzato That I could have slipped
Attraverso un anello. Through a ring.
Ouand'ero paggio when I was the page
Ero sottile, ecc. I was slim, etc.

The fast, light rhythms and transparent orchestral scoring, piano

and pianissimo throughout, serve to capture an earlier day in Falstaff's

life. There is little of the ponderous style present in "Va_, vecchio

John." Appropriate modulations occur at the textual references to the

other "seasons" in Falstaff's life. Beginning in A major the tonality

moves to the related areas of E major, F'^ minor and again to E major as

Falstaff refers to "Del mio verde April" (Of my green April) and "Del

mio lieto Ttiaggio" (Of my happy May), returning to A major at the textual
 223

recapitulation. Falstaff's highest pitches occur appropriately at the

concluding words, "gentile" (polite) (ex. 5).

ex. 5

- . < < <

a ^
* •
— j A « «—
F.KL
-ragg'io ra.^o, ley. ro, gea-ti - le, jea . ti - £en -
fec-clon.gracs-fiit- ty. :en - der - ly, splen-did^ ly sien - der. so
a * * *-* v V

Peter Conrad has commented on the dramatic significance of this

brief passage.

Wearily lying about his age, Shakespeare's Falstaff is en­

gaged in a hopeless battle against time and its retributions.
But Verdi's Falstaff, singing "Quand'ero paggio," makes him­
self juvenile, lean and sprightly by the way he sings,
thinning a bulky voice to an agile wisp. The musical
Falstaff is saved from the deliquescence of the flesh, since
opera employs the body - the singer plays upon an instrument
concealed inside himself - but makes an emanation of the
spirit.

Falstaff's longest solo passage is his opening monologue in

Act III.

Io, dunque, avro vissuto So then, I have lived

Tant'anni, audace e So many years, a bold
Destro Cavaliere, per And skillful knight,
essere portato in un To be carried in a
Canestro Basket
E gittato al canale And thrown into the ditch
Coi pannilini biechi, With the dirty clothes,
Come si fa coi gatti The way they do with cats
E i catellini ciechi. And with blind puppies.

Peter Conrad, Romantic Opera and Literary Form (Berkeley,

California: University of California Press, 1977), p. 63.
 Che se non galleggiava So that, if this puffed belly
Per me quest'epa tronfia Didn't float for me,
Certo affogavo. I would surely have drowned.
Brutta morte. Ugly death.
L'acgua mi gonfia. Water swells me up.
Mondo reo. Evil world.
Non c'e piu virtu. There's not virtue any more.
Tutto declina. Everything's declining.
Va, vecchio John, va, Go, old John, go,
Va per la tua via; cammina Go on your way; walk on
Finche tu muoia. Until you die.
Allor scomparira la vera Then true virility
Virilita dal mondo. Will disappear from the world.
Che giornataccia nera. What a bad, black day.
M'aiuti il ciel! May heaven help me!
Impinguo troppo. I'm growing too fat!
Ho dei peli grigi. I have some gray hairs.

The extended soliloquy is again of the type occurring in each

opera in this study. Godefroy suggests the primary dramatic function

of the monologue. "Falstaff's operatic monologue carries overtones of

Shakespeare's with its sufferings so couched that it achieves the double

20
duty of relieving Sir John's feelings while amusing the audience ..."

The monologue is a series of brief statements, many of then but

one or two measures, punctuated by orchestral interludes. The rather

disjointed stream of consciousness approach coheres largely due to

several orchestral factors. The sudden fortissimo, tutti chord,

followed by a descending passage in violins, which opens Falstaff's

singing is recalled again mid-way as he orders more wine. The black

mood of Falstaff, colorfully mirrored by clarinets and horns in unison

with bassoons and trombones an octave lower, is heard six times

throughout (ex. 6).

">0
Godefroy, II, 316.
 225

ex. 6

PtU mosso « = 126

Jt it4 i # «
I.

ff.
VU07A

asd'.'sostesvto » o 62
lo sUno movimtnto

Ehi! Taver _ nie. re I

Hoi Send the halt let AXD'.'50S7ZXV70 « =63

y _ ! , 1 ~
*

J
-a (6)
— L I
V

*
j

>t—i'1—
0
r—•—»
• «
5
9 I
0^
rfra

The chattering staccato strings which serve as a prelude to the

act are recalled once. Falstaff's "Va, vecchio John" is recalled with

great pathos, a reprise of his Act II, scene i, assertion of self-

confidence. Whereas his great confidence was first heard in A° major,

his present sad plight is now recalled in the more mournful key of A^

minor. Thus, there is a miniature relationship to the Wagnerian leit­

motif.

Two additional factors make the ending of the monologue dramat­

ically effective. One is the transition to a more melodic line

following Falstaff's second call for wine (ex. 7). Godefroy identifies
 226

ex. 7

(unbutton'i his waistcoat)

(si sbocton* il paociotto)

Buo ca.- Ber

Thit'j good.

PPP

(he itowi slowly -ore llvelv, and rejair-s his jovialitv)

FAL

ce e sbotto - nar si al SO
drink is in, rwect wtr.e ani

9*|
this increase in lyricism as a reversion to "middle Verdi."~

The monologue climaxes in an orchestral trill which mirrors

Falstaff's increasing intoxication. Thirteen consecutive measures of

trill and a gradually ascending vocal line combine with modulations to

enhance the effect. The passage culminates in an effective climax on

the words "E il trillo invade il mondo!" (And the trill invades the

world!). Throughout, the vocal range is neither unusually high nor

demanding. The dramatic effectiveness of the passage lies chiefly in

the variety of vocal color demanded, the rapid shifts in mood which are

mirrored orchestrally, and the restlessness inherent in the modulations

employed.

^Godefroy, II, 316.

 227

The role of Falstaff demands considerable vocal and dramatic

variety. The range of vocal color is seen in the many interpretive

markings, such as voce grosso, agitato, legerissimo, stizzoso (testy),

con condisprezzo (with contempt), and antarellando (humming). Falstaff

is even asked to sing falsetto, a precedent for which was Iago's mocking

falsetto in Otello. He sings an implied laugh staccato on the words

•/I
"coste d'oro" (gold coast), and a mezza voce at f' in concluding his

plot for Alice. The first encounter with Quickly involves dynamics

.ranging from triple pianissimo to triple fortissimo. Falstaff does not

require the numerous passages of extended, high, loud, emotional singing

which are demanded in Verdi's earlier operas. There are, however,

instances of high notes. Falscaff's "Honor Monologue" requires a g^"

sung over triple fortissimo accompaniment; in this passage nearly one-

third of the pitches are above c^". Pitches of f^" are not uncommon, but

few are sustained. As a whole the drama results from a combination of

textual, vocal, and orchestral factors rather than merely virtuosic

singing. The extensive use of arioso, recitative, and parlanao styles

are generally written in a more moderate range.

Throughout the opera there is little in Falstaff's singing that is

totally new or innovative. The role seems rather to be a culmination

of previous devices which are synthesized in this final opera. There

are no new extremes in pitch or tessitura, high or low, which have not

occurred in earlier operas. The increased number of interpretive

markings indicates a continuation of Verdi's influence over the

baritone's interpretation of the role.

Some of the picturesque uses of instruments, especially of a

comical nature, may be unique to Falstaff. This may be largely due to

 228

the fact that it is Verdi's only comic opera. Colorfully appropriate

instrumentation did occur in operas of a tragic nature such as Macbeth

and Rigoletto. In Falstaff there is a more even balance between the

role of orchestra and singer. It is not just a singer's opera.

Falstaff is called upon to assume a great variety of dramatic character­

izations. He is variously seen as a decadent gentleman, schemer without

principal, philosopher, lover, drunkard, and a gullible fool. Through­

out, he remains rather lovable and always merry. Except for Act I,

scene ii, he is on stage most of the time. Ernest Newman has observed a

dramatic weakness in that scene.

It has to be admitted, too, that the final scene as a whole

is neither musically nor dramatically on the level of the
other two [acts]. For here Falstaff, who has so far been
the life and soul of the work, passes, at times, almost un­
observed; and a Falstaff x^ithout Falstaff is as lame as
Hamlet without a p r i n c e . 2 2

Harmonically the extended passages for Falstaff are less

adventuresome than in some of the preceding operas. Changes in tonality

are to closely related keys in Falstaff's solo passages. While passages

with numerous deceptive harmonic movements do occur, most modulate con­

ventionally. For example "Quand'ero paggio" modulates from A major to

jl
E major and F minor before returning to A major. When Falstaff

anticipates embracing Alice the tonality is E major, A major, E major.

Throughout the opera there are considerably fewer instances of the so-

called darker, flat keys evident in Otello. It is noteworthy that

Verdi's extension of the same musical/dramatic vocabulary found in his

Ernest Newman, Opera Nights (London: Putnam Press, 1943),

p. 391.
 229

earlier operas nevertheless resulted in a work so uniquely different

from its predecessors.

Although never a Verdi advocate, G. B. Shaw, writing in 1893,

provides this excellent summary of Falstaff.

Falstaff is lighted and warmed only by the afterglow of the

fierce noonday sun of Ernani; but the gain in beauty conceals
the loss in heat - if, indeed, it be a loss to replace in­
tensity of passion and spontaneity of song by fullness of
insight and perfect mastery of workmanship. Verdi has
exchanged the excess of his qualities for the wisdom to
supply his deficiencies; his weaknesses have disappeared
with his superfluous force; and he is now, in his dignified
competence, the greatest of living dramatic composers. It
is not often that a man's strength is so immense that he can
remain an athlete after bartering half of it to old age for
experience; but the thing happens occasionally, and need not
so greatly surprise us in Verdi's case . . .23

23
Shaw, in Crompton, p. 213.
 CHAPTER IX

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Verdi's appearance as an opera composer was timely in that it

paralleled two important directions for opera in general and the

baritone voice in particular. First was the emergence of a more

dramatic singing style for the male. This is seen in the transition

from bel canto to a more powerful type of singing, eventually to cul­

minate in what is now called verismo. The following point, though made

in reference to the tenor voice, is equally true of Verdi's writing for

baritone.

The style of singing of the eighteenth century, erroneously

called the bel canto period, with its artificiality both in
voice production, (castrati and falsettists) and vocal dis­
play, had been replaced by a new type . . . The natural
tenor, with the chest-voice being carried to the highest
part of the range, became common in the opera house all over
Italy.1

At the same time there was a movement towards a closer synthesis

in opera between music and drama. During the fifty-four years (1839 —

1893) in which he reigned as the supreme Italian opera composer Verdi,

continually sought to more closely unite the drama with the music. In

achieving this, a three-part formula emerged. First, Verdi was very

discriminating in selecting stories and subjects which were dramatically

"'"Virgil Hale, "The Tenor Arias of Giuseppi Verdi" (unpublished

D.M.A. dissertation, University of Kentucky, 1973), p. 212.

230
 231

sound, attested to by the authors noted in this study, including Hugo

and Shakespeare. Second, he always exercised great control over his

libretto and librettists, bending them to his will. Third, his charac­

ters were always placed in situations which allowed them to express the

text dramatically.

The overall influence of a more powerful style of singing and a

greater synthesis of niusico/dramatic factors are seen in the baritone

roles in this study. Several trends are evident, some showing evolution

and growth, and others remaining constant.

Verdi appears to have established the baritone range early in his

writing. While the top pitches do not change significantly, their

frequency does. The use of the tessitura of the fifth from a. to e^

occurs as early as Nabucco in the Act I duet between Nabucco and

Abigaille. Nabucco then sings a considerable number of fP" pitches and

sings once. In Ernani Carlo sings his first passage f to

followed by at least four g^" pitches in Act 1. With Macbeth the _f"^ and

pitches occur with much greater frequency and subsequently are

accepted as standard requirements for the baritone. Important, too, is

the variety of dynamic levels indicated by Verdi; they range from at

pianissimo to ^ at triple forte. The largest range required by the

roles discussed in this study occurs in Otello, with Iago singing from
// 1
Ar in the Credo to a_ in the brindisi. Seldom does the Verdian baritone

sing below d. Not to be overlooked is the power and force necessary to

achieve a dynamic balance with high soprano or tenor against a tutti

orchestra at fortissimo levels.

Verdi's earlier baritone roles generally utilize several tradi­

tional "set" arias; later works move progressively towards the

 232

continuous arioso evident in Otello and Falstaff. However, in each

opera up to Falstaff there remains some reference to traditional aria

types. For example, Nabucco sings nine times in a true solo capacity.

Carlo sings a standard "rage-vendetta" aria. Macbeth sings a conven­

tional brindisi and concludes with a "set" aria in regular ji - _b - a

form. Although Rigoletto's solo singing usually occurs within a larger

duet context he does sing a "rage" aria, directed at Monterone and his

"Pari siamo" is often featured on recitals where vocal opulence is of

more value than dramatic action. Only Falstaff is without a formal

aria, and even he sings the very brief "Quand'ero paggio" solo. While

at no point in this study does lyricism disappear three trends are

evident: first, melodic lines progressively shorten, as the four-bar

phrase gives way to shorter motives; second, there occurs a gradual

insertion of important melodic material into the orchestra; third, the

later arias fit more coherently into the drama rather than being merely

moments of reflection. In a sense it seems accurate to say that as the

voice assumes a more musico-dramatic role, often using a parlando

delivery, the orchestra assumes a greater lyrical role.

Verdi's vocal ornaments, fioratura passages, and use of cadenza

for baritone show definite change from Nabucco to Falstaff. Typical

of the music-over-drama nature of the early operas are the numerous

appoggiaturas that occur for Nabucco on suc.h unimportant words as "che,

"nel," and "del," in the Act III duet with Abigaille. Ke sings a vocal

cadenza in Act IV. With Ernani, Verdi's ornaments for Carlo are on

more significant words like "amore" and "palpito." In Act II Carlo

sings a cadenza but in the Act III soliloquy he concludes without one.

Macbeth is inconsistent, with fewer vocal decorations but still yieldin

 233

to a purely musical cadenza in Macbeth's final aria, interrupting the

drama in favor of musical display. Verdi here seems caught between

theatrical pragmatism and dramatic integrity, not always sure which way

to go.

All of Verdi's baritones share a common trait of the philosopher-

reflector. With the exception of the comic Falstaff, all are serious

character types given to introspection, in every case expressed in a

serious (including comic Falstaff) soliloquy monologue. For Nabucco it

takes the form of a "mad" scene, resulting in character transformation.

Carlo's Act III "Gran Dio" prayer is really psychological introspection.

Rigoletto is intensely philosophical twice, with the Act I "Pari siamo"

and the Act III "Egli e la!" Iago's familiar "Credo" of Act III is an

extended moment of frank, personal, atheistic expression. Falstaff

expresses himself twice, in the Act I "Onorei" monologue and the Act III

"lo, dunque, avro rissuto tanti anni." Verdi uses each of these to

express an inner consciousness and to sharpen characterization.

Verdi shows a consistent predilection for duets involving the

baritone. They occur in a variety of combinations, the favored one

being baritone paired with soprano (when dramatically possible, father

and daughter). This combination occurs twice in Nabucco, once in Act I

and again in Act III; each time Nabucco is in conflict with Abigaille.

The formula for favorable vocal balance was to project and sustain the
1 1
upper third of the baritone register, approximately c_ to . In

Ernani Carlo sings duets with both Elvira and Silva, the bass.

Rigoletto sings several duets with his daughter Gilda, most notably in

Act I at their home and in Act III at her death. The duets in Otello

pit Iago with Roderigo and Iago against Cassio in dialogues just outside
 234

the mold of a lyric duet. However, Iago's Act II duet with Otello is

again a more lyric one, concluding the act with a traditional ensemble.

No true duets occur for Falstaff.

In each of the roles Verdi consistently associates the "darker"

flat keys with devious deeds by baritones. Typical is the pattern of

Nabucco. As he is inserted into the action his singing is in B major,

D major, and E major. From his "mad" scene on, there are numerous

instances of flat keys, only to return to A major, following his con­

version, for the final aria. Rigoletto's treacherous plottings in the

Act III quartet are sung in major. Iago's evil villainy is portrayed

by the use of multiple flat key centers in the Credo, and the numerous

plottings of Act III. In Falstaff there are considerably fewer "dark"

keys.

There is a progressive quantity and exactness of interpretative

instructions which Verdi indicates for his baritones. This would

indicate a growing awareness of the coloristic possibilities of the

baritone voice as well as an increase of interpretative control on the

part of the composer. Markings of "sotto voce" and "sotto voce cupo"

are seen for Nabucco and Carlo. In Macbeth, the instructions include

such specifics as "a voce spiegata" in the Act I duet; the Act III

apparitions scene instructs "cantando con espansion," "voce muta," and

"voce repressa." Iago is given no less than eight separate interpretive

instructions for "Era la notte," including qualities like "aspramente."

As for Falstaff, Verdi was so involved in comic interpretation and in

extracting exactly the appropriate nuances, that the baritone receives

such markings as "voce grosso" and "stizzoso" as well as eight tempo

changes and twenty-five orchestral dynamic markings in the "Onore!"

 235

monologue alone.

Although dramatic integrity was increasingly important to Verdi he

was never completely beyond a moment of pure music at the expense of

dramatic flow. Carlo's "vendetta" aria adds little but a moment of good

singing. Macbeth sings an Act I duet which is not dramatically indis­

pensable, as well as his Act III "ranting" duet with Lady Macbeth.

Rigoletto's Act II father-daughter "Love" duet and his "rage" singing

in Act II add little but music. Even the "continuous" nature of Otello

is interrupted by Iago's "swearing" duet at the conclusion of Act II;

his "Questa e una regna," picturing the spider's web in Act III is more

music than drama. Apparently Verdi sustained the concept throughout

his years of composition that often the drama was in the music itself.

Many opera fans would heartily agree.

Verdi's baritones are continuously involved in a progression of

character transformations. They are never static characters. Or.e

always gains increasing insight with each succeeding act. Events are

manipulated musically and dramatically in such a fashion as to con­

tinually change the character, usually with a view towards redeeming

the base nature of the character. For example the sacrilegious, insane

Nabucco regains sanity, converts, and loves his daughter. Carlo shows

forgiveness in the finale to Act III. Macbeth regrets he cannot say

"Amen." In reality Rigoletto is the lowest of conniving murderers, but

he loves his daughter and the love is expressed in beautiful melody.

Falstaff at least has the good sense to laugh and declare that "All the

world's a joke!" Only Iago is left to his wicked lot with no musical

virtues to restore him.

One ;final point may be made. Verdi depended on his baritone roles
 236

to move, instigate, direct, and prompt much of the action. In each of

the operas studied it is the baritone who either causes or directs the

major dramatic actions of the opera. Sub-plots develop among the other

characters but it is the baritone who remains at the center of events.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

ARTICLES:

Alper, Clifford. "Verdi's Use of the Minor Second Interval in Macbeth."

The Opera Journal, IV (Fall, 1971), 11-14.

Blom, Eric. "Verdi As Musician." Music & Letters, XII (1931), 329-44.

Brenon, Algernon St. John. "Giuseppe Verdi." Musical" Quarterly, II

(1916), 130-62.

Brent-Smith, Alexander. "A Study of Verdi." Musical Times, LXII (1931),

689-93.

Budden, Julian. "Verdi and the Contemporary Italian Scene," in The

Verdi Companion, ed. by William Weaver and Martin Chusid.
New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1979.

Celletti, Rodolfo. "On Verdi's Vocal Writings," in The Verdi Companion,

ed. by William Weaver and Martin Chusid. New York: W. W. Norton
and Co., 1979.

Elvins, Peter. "Verdi and the Voice." Opera News, XXXVI (February 5,
1972), 9-13.

Godefroy, J. V. L. "Some Aspects of the Aria." Music & Letters, XVII

(1*966), 200-09.

Istel, Edgar. "The Otello of Verdi and Shakespeare." Musical

Quarterly, II (1916), 375-86.

Leibowitz, Rene. "The Orchestration of Rigoletto." Verdi. Ed. by

Mario Medici. Translated by Robert W. Mann. Vol. Ill, n. 8.
(January - December, 1973), 1248-74.

Marek, George R. "Otello." Program notes provided with RCA recording

CRL-3-2951. New York: RCA Records, 1978.

Martin, George. "Verdi and the Risorgimente," in The Verdi Companion,

ed. by William Weaver and Martin Chusid. New York: W. W. Norton
and Co., 1979.

Milnes, Sherrill. "The Warren Legacy." Opera News, XXXIX (March 22,
1975), 26-27.

Mohr, Richard. "Ernani." Program notes provided with RCA recording

JSC-6183. New York: RCA-Columbia Records, 1968.

238
 239

Noske, Frits. "Otello: Drama Through Structure," in Essays on Music

for Charles Warren Fox, ed. by Jerald C. Grave. Rochester, New
York: Eastman School of Music Press.

Pleasants, Henry. "How High was G?" Opera News, XXXV (February 20,
1971), 24-25. -

Rosenthal, Harold. "Nabucco." Program notes provided with Angel

recording SCLV-3850. New York: Capitol Records, Inc., 1978.

Rushmore, Robert. "The Baritone." Opera News, XXXI (March 11, 1967),
28-30.

Siegmund-Schultze, W. "Some Thoughts on the Verdian Type of Melody."

Verdi. Ed. by Mario Medici. Anno I, n. 1-3 (December, 1961),
671-710.

Vecchi, G. "The Libretto." Verdi. Ed. by Mario Medici. Translated

from the Italian by Helen Adams. Vol. Ill, n. 8 (January -
December, 1973), 1196-1247.

Weaver, William. "Aspects of Verdi's Dramaturgy," in The Verdi

Companion, ed. by William Weaver and Martin Chusid. New York:
W. W. Norton and Co., 1979.

. "Macbeth and Macbet." Program notes provided with Decca

recording OSA-13102. London: The Decca Record Company, Ltd.,
1971.

BOOKS:

Abraham, Gearald Ernest Heal. A Hundred Years of Music. Chicago:

Aldine Publishing Co., 1964.

Austin, William W. New Looks at Italian Opera. Ithaca, New York:

Cornell University Press, 1968.

Blom, Eric, ed. Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 5th ed.
New York: St. Martin's Press, 1954.

Budden, Julian. The Operas of Verdi. New York: Praeger Publishers,

1973.

Conrad, Peter. Romantic Opera and Literary Form. Berkeley, California:

University of California Press, 1977.

Dwight, John S. Dwight's Journal of Music. Vols. 1-41 (April 10, 1852 -
September 3, 1881). New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1968.

Frisell, Antony. The Baritone Voice. Boston: Crescendo Publishing

Company, 1964.
 240

Gatti, Carlo. Verdi, the Man and His Music. Translated from the
Italian by Elizabeth Abbott. New York: Putnam, 1955.

Godefroy, Vincent. The Dramatic Genius of Verdi. 2 Vols. New York:

St. Martin's Press, 1975.

Grout, Donald J. A History of Western Music. New York: W. W. Norton

and Co., Inc., 1980.

. A Short History of Opera. New York: Columbia University

Press, 1965.

Henderson, William James. Early History of Singing. New York: G. P.

Putnam's Sons, 1932.

Hughes, Spike. Famous Verdi Operas. New York: Chilton Book Company,
1968.

Hume, Paul. Verdi, the Man and His Music. New York: E. P. Dutton, in
association with the Metropolitan Opera Guild, n.c.

Hussey, Dyneley. Verdi. London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., 1973.

Kerman, Joseph. Opera as Drama. New York: Vintage Books, published

by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1956.

Knapp, Gustav. The Complete Opera Book. New York and London: G. P.
Putnam's Sons, 1932.

Martin, George Whitne}/. Verdi; His Music, Life and Times. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Co., 1963.

Medici, Mario, ed. Verdi. Parma, Italy: Bollettino Dell'istituto di

studi veraiani.
Vol. I, N. 1 (April, 1960).
Vol. I, N. 2 (August, 1960).
Anno I, N. 3 (December, 1960).
Anno II, N. 1-3 (January - December, 1961).
Anno III, Vol. II, N. 5 (January - December, 1962).
Anno III, Vol. II, N. 6 (January - December, 1966).
Anno III, Vol. Ill, N. 7 (January - December, 1969).

Newman, Ernest. Opera Nights. London: Putnam Press, 1943.

Osborne, Charles. The Complete Operas of Verdi. New York: Alfred A.

Knopf, 1979.

. Letters of Giuseppe Verdi. London: Victor Gollancz, Ltd.,

1971.

Pleasants, Henry. The Great Singers. London: Victor Gollancz, Ltd.,

1967.

Prawy, Marcel. The Vienna Opera. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1970.
 241

Shaw, George B. The Great Composers. Ed. by Louis Compton. Berkeley,

California: University of California Press, 1978.

Sheean, Vincent. Orpheus at Eighty. London: Cassell and Company, Ltd.,

1958.

Toye, Francis. Giuseppi Verdi. New York: Vintage Books, Inc.,

reprinted in arrangement with Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1959.

Waleffe, Pierre. Verdi. Translated by Adel Nero. Paris: Editions

Hermes, 1966.

Walker, Frank. The Man Verdi. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962.

Weaver, William. Verdi, A Documentary Study. London: Thames and

Hudson, n.d.

Wechsburg, Joseph. Verdi. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1974.

Williams, Steven. Verdi's Last Operas. London: Hinrichson Editions,

Ltd., 1950.

Ybarra, Thomas Russell. Verdi, Miracle Man of Opera. New York:

Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1955.

SCORES:

Verdi, Giuseppe. Ernani. Milan: G. Ricordi and Co., 1945.

. Ernani. Boston: Oliver Ditson and Co., n.c,

. Falstaff. New York: Edwin F. Kalmus, 1968.

. Macbeth. Milan: G. Ricordi and Co., 1948.

. Nabucco. Milan: G. Ricordi and Co., 1945.

. Otello. New York: International Music Co., n.c.

. Otello. Milan: G. Ricordi and Co., 1887.

. Rigoletto. Milan: G. Ricordi and Co., 1944.

. Rigoletto. New York: Edwin F. Kalmus, n.c.

TRANSLATIONS:

Cochrane, Peggie. Macbeth. English translation provided with Decca

recording OSA-13102. London: The Decca Recording Companv, Ltd.,
1971.
 242

. Nabucco. English translation provided with Decca recording

OSA-1382. London: Decca Recording Company, Ltd., 1966.

Weaver, William. Ernani. English translation provided with RCA

recording JSC-6183. New York: RCA-Columbia Records, 1968.

Seven Verdi Librettos. New York: W. W. Norton and Company,

Inc., 1975.
 VITA

The author was born August 23, 1942, in Saginaw, Michigan. He

entered Vennard College in 1960 and was graduated from that institution

in 1964 with a Bachelor of Arts degree. He continued his education at

Drake University where he received the Bachelor of Music Education degree

in 1967 and the Master of Music degree in 1969.

His teaching experience includes Vennard College in Oskaloosa, Iowa,

College of the Open Bible of Des Moines, Iowa, Whitworth College of

Brookhaven, Mississippi, and Asbury College of Wilmore, Kentucky where

he has been a member of the music faculty since'1971.

He is a member of the American Choral Director's Association, the

National Educator's Association, the National Association of Teacher's

of Singing, and the Fellowship of Christian Musicians.

 ABSTRACT

William C. Goold

The Graduate School

University of Kentucky

1981
 THE VERDIAN BARITONE:

A STUDY OF SIX REPRESENTATIVE OPERAS

ABSTRACT

An abstract submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts
at the University of Kentucky

By

WILLIAM C. GOOLD

Wilmore, Kentucky

Director: Dr. Donald Ivey, Professor of Music

Lexington, Kentucky

1931
 ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION

THE VERDIAN BARITONE:

A STUDY OF SIX REPRESENTATIVE OPERAS

The seeds for this study were first sown nearly fifteen years ago

when the author heard Metropolitan Opera baritone Sherrill Milnes

rehearse a now-forgotten Verdi aria in which the composer required an

f\ sustained at pianissimo level. The Verdian baritone, I realized,

was a unique phenomenon, a trespasser on tenor territory.

This study attempts to identify the devices used by Verdi in

creating his baritone roles. No attempt is made to add to the wealth of

biographical information or to the works dealing with Verdi's dramatic

evolution in his progression from Oberto to Falstaff.

The study is limited to six of Verdi's twenty-six operas. Each

has been chosen because of its contribution to the evolution of Verdi's

conception of the baritone voice. For this reason, operas were chosen

because they featured baritones as principal singers. Nabucco, in

Verdi's words his real beginning as an opera composer, and Falstaff, his

concluding work seemed to be logical choices. Ernani is included

because of the continuous character development and psychological

insight given to the major role of Carlo. Macbeth, one of Verdi's own

favorites, offers to the title role both the splendid character created

by Shakespeare and baritone singing which is particularly demanding.

Rigoletto seemed a likely choice for both its character portrayal and its

enlarged use of arioso and parlante singing. The character of Iago in

Otello seemed a necessary choice, for both its dramatic/vocal demands

and the opera's seamless musical fabric. The roles selected, then,

cover the nearly sixty-year span of Verdi's career as a composer.

In terms of methodology, the roles in the first five operas are

discussed with the musico/dramatic elements following the events scene

by scene, act by act. The final role, Falstaff, appearing in an opera

that is organic in nature, is discussed in more general terms.

Some biographical and other pertinent information is presented for

each opera studied so that each role may be seen against the backdrop of

Verdi's interaction with librettist, casting, theater, publisher,

censors, and, in some instances, press.

A synopsis of each opera is provided in order to place the

baritone in his dramatic context.

The final chapter presents the problem of defining a trend or

formula. The conclusions are derived from varying musical processes

found with some regularity in each opera studied. Ever present is

Verdi's admonition that in the end theater can be accurately assessed

only in the theater.

Author's Name