Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 101420

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Aggression and Violent Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aggviobeh

T
Public sexual harassment mayhem on public transport in megacities -
Karachi and London: A comparative review
Syeda Hoor-Ul-Ain
⁎

Department of Public Administration, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan

A R TICL E INFO A BSTR A CT

Keywords: Background: Karachi and London as megacities face huge challenges of providing safe environment for women in
Public transport public spaces. Fear of sexual harassment on buses may cause domestic and transit captivity in women as public
Sexual offence space is regarded as male domain. Such situation of hue and cry should be addressed through a social reform to
Sexual harassment empower the women with their mobility rights.
Sexual assault
Purpose: The purpose of this study is to expose the perils of public sexual harassment; women encounter on
Megacity
public transport in the megacities – Karachi & London. The paper reports on the findings from a comparative
Safety
Women mobility review of the existing literature, surveys and reports focusing on the predicaments of sexual offences and assaults
Public order crime women confront in public spaces or transport.
Methodology: Rapid evidence assessment (REA) methodology was employed to: search the all- inclusive litera-
ture within given time constraints; collate descriptive outlines of the available evidences; critically analyse and
evaluate it; sieve out studies of poor quality; and provide an overview of the evidence.
Findings: Comparative review evinced the gravity of sexual harassment in the megacities – Karachi and London
and formulated baseline evidences for the law enforcement agencies to take strict action against the perpetrators
to attenuate the jeopardy of sexual harassment on public transport. Literature on sociological studies and psy-
chiatric assessments reveals that the crime leaves the victims in havoc of psychological, physical and emotional
distresses which in turn damages their mental, social and personal wellbeing.
Comparatively, the prevalence of the crime is much higher in Karachi than London as Karachi fared 2nd most
perilous megacity for women while London named the best having the lowest rates in Thomson Reuters foun-
dation Survey 2017. London has lower incidences of sexual harassment and assault, which may relate to the law
protection provided to the women. Pakistan's Women Protection Act doesn't safeguard women on roads and
buses as it applies to workplaces only. An immediate legislation is required for women to end sexual harassment
on public transport vehicles as well.
Practical implications: More research needs to be done on the prevalence rates of sexual offence, harassment, and
assault in Karachi and London with a view to provide safe and secured transit to women. The rising rates
indicates an urgent need for social development interventions such as gender sensitization to curtail offending
behaviours towards women on public transport.

1. Introduction/background ploitation of women is as old as the time itself. Unlike today's wo-
mankind in megacities,1 women of the ancient times were not only
Degradation, abasement, harassment, disparagement, and ex- deprived of their social identity and mobility rights2 but also viewed

⁎
House No. R-40, Sumair Bungalows, Sector 34-A, KDA Scheme no. 33, Gulzar E Hijri, Karachi, Pakistan
E-mail address: [email protected].
1
Megacity: An urban area with over 10 million inhabitants
[Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2006). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision. Working Paper No.
ESA/P/WP/200.]
2
Mobility right: Free movement in public.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2020.101420

Available online 04 May 2020

Received 6 July 2019; Accepted 6 April 2020

1359-1789/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

S. Hoor-Ul-Ain Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 101420

subservient to men and restricted to their homes. The upsurgence of street harassment. (Leonardo, 1981; Stop Violence Against Women: A
misogyny3 and sexist stereotypes instituted the exploitative founda- project for the Advocates for Human Rights, 2014; End violence
tion for sex slavery and trafficking of women. Women of the time against women and girls: United Nations entitiy for gender equality
could be sold and purchased in public as sex slaves at any time and by and the empowerment of women, 2015; Vera-Gray, 2016) Theoreti-
anyone (Sun Kim, 2002; Scott & Cavanaugh, 2004; Jones, 2005; Jones, cally, a wolf-whistle is categorized as an abusive and threatening be-
2012). Correspondingly, at present, women are being showcased as haviour and could be treated under ‘public-order act offence’ (Laville,
sex objects on media and are extensively treated as inferior to men in 2016). It includes all kinds of unwelcomed sexual advances and
different spheres of life. Likewise, in various societies, the violent acts physical contact; such as aggressive staring, cat-calling, touching,
against women have not been viewed as violent by women themselves ogling, rubbing, groping, and lewd comments. Sexual assault in public
due to their tattered communal values and social attitudes. (Awan, is referred to an act of threatening and coercing women on streets or
2004; Mangoli & Ganapati, 2009). Over the period, this social di- public transport or forcing women into non-consensual sexual activity
chotomy between men and women has imbibed the misogynistic so- (Lawlink, 1999; Gekoski, Gray, Adler, & Horvath, 2017). A report on
cietal mindset that makes ‘woman’ a natural metonym for ‘sexual at- Violence Against Women5 suggests that criminal codes should make
traction’. The dichotomous chasm led to the worst overtly sexual such conduct a criminal offence punishable by law to provide safe
exploitation of women and added nativity to sexual violence and environment for women in public spaces. (UN Special Rapporteur on
harassment in public places and transport (Gardner, 1995; Long, Violence against Women (SRVAW), 2003).
2001; Scott & Cavanaugh, 2004). Lamentably, the quandary of public Past research on public transport remained silent on the challenges
sexual harassment left ignored in literature until the mid of 20th of gender dimensions for four decades i.e., from 1950s to 1980s. The
century. Furthermore, the continued derogatory and abhorrent soci- literature was completely gender blind on the addressal of women is-
etal attitudes towards the victimized women intensified the ‘agony of sues. Women remained neglected and haplessly ignored during the time
being a woman’ in the megacities of this world. Due to the reason, the (Rivera, 2007). The gender dimension of transport was noted in re-
plight of sexual harassment victims remained unreported in the past. search from the early 1980s and the issue of sexual harassment has now
However, the issue of sexual offence against women has received received a fundamental attention in academic, legal and practitioner
worldwide attention in the recent years and considered as a serious spheres, relatively less attention has been focused on the unique cir-
crime. Recognizing the mounting concern of women mobility and cumstances of reporting this criminal offence (Gekoski et al., 2017). In
safety; sexual crime against women has now been viewed as a public- literature, public sexual harassment on streets and transport is divided
order crime4 (Law Library, 2004; Oxford Bibliographies, 2015). Public into three categories; severe, moderately severe and least severe. Severe
sexual harassment has set to become a violation of social norms, type of street or public sexual harassment includes rape, passing lewd or
customs and values across the world. Sexual offences on public sexually explicit profane comments at a woman, physical acts such as
transport cause immeasurable social harm, deem highly immoral and following a woman, throwing things at her, groping, pinching or poking
objectionable. Legally, such acts are outlawed and severely punished her. Instead, moderately severe type encompasses sexual innuendoes,
as many megacities (societies) have become victim of the crime across references to a woman's gender or body that are not sexually explicit
the globe (Francis, 2001; Larry, 2016). such as cat calling whereas least severe category covers staring or
ogling, whistling and all other offensive comments men make at women
2. Public sexual harassment in megacities: A mayhem that are unwelcomed by them (Kissling, 1991; Heben, 1994; Gardner,
1995).
The magnitude of public sexual harassment in megacities is on the This comparative study is aimed at exploring the causes of public
rise worldwide. Urban scientists, gender studies experts and law- sexual harassment mayhem in the megacities – London & Karachi.
makers view the escalated risk of sexual harassment as a social con- Explicitly, it seeks to determine the prevalence of such negative beha-
sequence of the resurgence of gender equality in megacities (Awan, viours on public transport in the two cities, by reviewing existing lit-
2004; Hossain, 2006; Pradhan, 2011; Arthur-Worrey, 2011; Lecompte erature, surveys and reports focusing on feminine gender's experiences.
& Bocarejo, 2017). On the other hand, they argue that the economies The study aim's to:
of megacities cannot progress while its women regress. In megacities,
majority of women face public or street harassment, sexual harass- • Ascertain and infer the nature and kind of sexual offence (severe,
ment and/or assaults on public transport. Sexual harassment and as- moderately severe and least severe) on public transport in Karachi &
sault on roads and buses causes enormous communal harm and widely London.
viewed as bizarre, unacceptable, harmful, and disruptive to the com- • Spot and discern the overall level of governmental concern to mi-
munity's daily life. Harassment of women of sexual orientation in tigate growing sexual harassment and assaults threats on public
public places; such as parks, shopping-malls, streets, plazas, town transport in the two megacities - London and Karachi.
squares, bus stops, and transport systems, is referred to as public • Acquire precise cognizance of the state law in the two megacities.
sexual harassment which has become a serious problem in megacities • Document the women's confidence and readiness in reporting the
(Bowman, 1993; Gardner, 1995; Phadke, 2013). Public sexual har- cases of sexual offences to stop it.
assment is also known as eve-teasing, wolf-whistling at women or
Literature narrative for the identification of the causes of public
sexual harassment is formed through multi-disciplinary studies in-
3
The term misogyny is derived from a Greek word ‘misogunia’ which means a cluding sociology, psychology, psychiatry, criminology, and healthcare.
cultural attitude of hatred for the feminine gender. Renowned sociologist Allan Their significant perspectives are as follows and play a decisive role in
G. Johnson defined it as a central part of the sexist prejudice and ideology that determining the root causes of the escalating trend in awful attitudes
provides foundation for the oppression of females in male-dominated societies. and behaviours of men towards women in public spaces and on public
“Misogyny can be manifested in numerous ways, including social exclusion, sex
transport (Tables 1 and 2).
discrimination, hostility,………………………………, belittling of women, vio-
lence against women, and sexual objectification”.
4
In criminology, public-order crime is defined by Siegel (2004) as “crime
which involves acts that interfere with the operations of society is the ability of
people to function efficiently, i.e., it is behaviour that has been labelled criminal
5
because it is contrary to shared norms, social values, and customs”. Source: See: Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, para.
http://law.jrank.org/pages/11962/Public-Order-Crimes.html. 48, 2003.

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S. Hoor-Ul-Ain Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 101420

2.1. Sociological perspective on public sexual harassment public order crime. (Haskins & Silva, 2006; Clark et al., 2016; Larry,
2016; Inayathullah, 2017).
Many sociologists adjudged sexual harassment in public transport or
on roads as a common nuisance of daily routine for all those women 2.3. Adverse effects of public sexual harassment on women health
who yearn for ‘civilized’ behaviour in public spaces (Tuerkheimer,
1997; Thomas, 1997; Laniya, 2005; Kearl, 2010). Others are of an Researches have determined that women are a victim class and
opinion that the main reason of this obscene attitude is the breakdown becoming a target of this social crime. Women are victimized by men at
of moral values among the present-day generation. The unprecedented high rates across the globe (Mangoli & Ganapati, 2009; Asian
deterioration of moral and ethical values in the megacity life is a result Development Bank, 2015; Gorbea, 2016). Especially in the megacities
of an uncontrolled exposure of young generation to television, print, where millions of girls and women leave for work and education.
and social media. Openness and exposure to profanity and vulgarity Women are the biggest users of public transport in megacities and
through technology/media has contaminated the value system of the fighting back against rampant public sexual harassment which is a
people living in megacities (Kissling, 1991; Pain, 1991; Plummer, 2002; violent crime affecting their safety, security, and daily commute
Zippel, 2006; Renold & Ringrose, 2011). Awareness campaigns against (Pradhan, 2011). In megacities, public sexual harassment has become a
sexual harassment are not very effective because internet media is also health hazard for women victims. The crime leaves the victim in havoc
playing its negative role in popularizing ‘pro-sexual behaviour’ through of psychological, physical and emotional distresses which in turn have
pornographic websites and infusing uncivil attitude in the young gen- both direct and indirect health effects. The spectrum of psychological
eration (especially in male gender) that damages their value system symptoms includes long-term depression, acute stress, anxiety, sleep-
(Bart, Freeman, & Kimball, 1985; Carse, 1995). The horrifying increase lessness and even post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) whereas phy-
in the number of public sexual harassment incidents can be attributed sical symptoms are spanning over the manifestation of muscle aches,
to the deterioration of values, norms, attitudes and beliefs of the ‘mis- stress headaches, hyper tension & hypotension, diabetes and heart is-
directed’ globalization forces. Bringing attitudinal change by re- sues in chronic cases. Likewise, symptoms of emotional distress ob-
volutionizing the value system of the megacity life are the main keys to served in the victims of sexual harassment. Emotional distress includes
counter these anomic situations (Abeysundara, 2017). feelings of loss of self-esteem, isolation and helplessness, fear and anger,
and nervousness. In-short, the felony of public sexual harassment da-
mages victim's mental, social and personal wellbeing (Roosmalen &
2.2. Public sexual harassment is a paraphilic act: a psychiatric assessment McDaniel, 1998; Spector, 2017).

In psychology, sexual harassment on public transportation is per- 3. Method

ceived as a ‘paraphilic6 act’ in public and has now become an issue of
public concern that affects women mobility across the world (Thomson The research design is built on PICOC7 led Rapid evidence assess-
Reuters Foundation, 2014; Kehoe, 2014; Battered Women's Support ment (REA) methodology to understand what academic research, re-
Services, 2015a; Inayathullah, 2017). Clinical Psychiatrist, Dr. N. Ku- ports and grey-literature has discovered/reported about the prevalence
maranayake defined “paraphilia as the abnormal sexual behaviour or of public sexual harassment in the megacities: Karachi and London.
impulse characterized by intense sexual fantasies and urges that keep Following REA research questions are developed to respond to an ur-
coming back” (Inayathullah, 2017). The research literature in psy- gent social and communal issue of sexual harassment mayhem in
chology provides enormous evidences that paraphilias are the stimulus megacities.
for public sexual harassment (Beech & Harkins, 2012; Patra, Bharadwaj,
Shaha, & Das, 2013; Balon, 2016). Many psychologists and psychiatrists
suggest that two commonly known paraphilic behaviours cause sexual PICOC Grid 1
harassment on the public transport. Those are Exhibitionism and
REA Question no. What is known in the existing scholarly and grey literature about
Frotteurism or Touchrism (Guterman, Martin, & Rudes, 2011; Balon, 1 the drivers of unethical sexual behaviour, violence against
2016; Clark, Jeglic, Calkins, & Tatar, 2016). Exhibitionism involves women, unwanted sexual attention, and misconduct on public
showcasing, flashing, exposing or displaying one's genitals publicly to transport in the megacities: Karachi and London?
strangers. Although, this condition is limited to public offence with no
P: Population Women in public spaces or who commute with public transport.
other harmful effects on any other individual, but this licentious ex-
I: Intervention Existing scholarly and grey literature
posure is prohibited and treated as a criminal act in many countries and C: Comparison Comparison between two megacities: Karachi and London
observed as shameful offence (Bhugra, Popelyuk, & McMullen, 2010). O: Outcome What triggers unethical sexual behaviour in men? What are the
Conversely, frotteurism includes a person's sexual desires such as driving agents?
C: Context Megacities
touching or rubbing his or her genitals against the body of a non-con-
senting, unfamiliar person in a crowded public location. Men are much PICOC Grid 2
more likely to indulge in frotteurism than women (Inayathullah, 2017).
REA Question no. What is known in the existing scholarly and grey literature about
Frotteurism is a criminal act in many jurisdictions, usually classified as 2 the prevalence of public sexual harassment in the megacities:
a misdemeanor (Arboleda-Flórez, 2001). It is difficult to prosecute Karachi and London?
frotteurs as intent to touch is hard to prove in the court of law. In their
defense statements, the accused often claims that the physical contact P: Population Women in public spaces or who commute with public transport.
I: Intervention Existing scholarly and grey literature
was accidental and submits apology in order not to incriminate himself. C: Comparison Comparison between two megacities: Karachi and London
Incidents of exhibitionism and frotteurism most often happened in O: Outcome Prevalence Rate or Frequency of occurrence.
places related to public transportation (e.g., public buses, bus stops, C: Context Megacities
subway trains or platforms) in the urban setting and adjudged as a

6
The term ‘paraphilic attitude’ is derived from paraphilia. In psychiatry,
“paraphilia is defined as a mental disorder characterized by abnormal sexual
desires, typically involving extreme or dangerous activities which may have
7
social and legal consequences.” Source: American Psychiatric Association, PICOC: It is a mnemonic of systematic review that stands for Population,
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, and Context.

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S. Hoor-Ul-Ain Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 101420

PICOC Grid 3 challenges focusing on the issues of how to make travelling in mega-
REA Question no. What is known about factors that may provoke the occurrence of
cities women-friendly; finally led to addressing the megacities London
3 public sexual harassment in the megacities: Karachi and London? and Karachi, the fastest growing cities in England and Pakistan with the
population of more than 10 million and 24 million respectively (Turner,
P: Population Women in public spaces or who commute with public transport. 2012; Cox, 2015; Peters, 2017).
I: Intervention Existing scholarly and grey literature
According to the Thomson Reuters Foundation survey 2017, Karachi
C: Comparison Comparison between two megacities: Karachi and London
O: Outcome Identification of provocation fared 2nd most perilous and unsafe megacity for women while London
C: Context Megacities named the best. The survey asked international experts in women's is-
PICOC Grid 4 sues in 19 megacities on how well women are protected from sexual
violence, from harmful cultural practices, and if they have access to
REA Question no. What strategies for reducing the public sexual harassment may be good healthcare, finance and education (Asian Correspondent, 2017;
4 successful in Karachi and London and making these megacities a GEO, 2017; Reuters Staff, 2017). In megacities, provision of safe travel
safer inhabitant on earth?
for women has become an issue of prime importance in the fields of
P: Population Women in public spaces or who commute with public transport. public policy, law-making and urban planning and development (Asian
I: Intervention Existing scholarly and grey literature Development Bank, 2015). Many researchers in the plenary session –
C: Comparison Comparison between two megacities: Karachi and London ‘How to make megacities women-friendly?’ highlighted the problem of
O: Outcome Spot and discern the overall level of governmental concern to
women safety and protection on public transport and in public spaces
mitigate growing sexual harassment threats on public transport in
the two megacities - London and Karachi. (Trust Conference, 2014).
C: Context Megacities
5.1. Unbridled sexual harassment and women mobility issues in Karachi

4. Procedure Karachi, the megacity of lights is famous for its nightlife, economic
activity, population, and geo-strategic location as the city that stays up
Following theoretical framework defines the scope (inclusion and for 24 hours a day and 7 days a week (Robotka, 2013; Agha, 2017). It is
exclusion criteria) of the research. The salient inclusion criteria cover: the capital of the Sindh Province of Pakistan and fastest growing
megacity of the world with an estimated population of 24 million
• Sample size: Studies published between 1981 and 2018 with special spread over 3530 sq. km (Qureshi, 2010; Demographia, 2014; Hasan,
focus on prevalence of sexual offences on public transport or in 2015).
public spaces in megacities in general; studies/reports published In Karachi, public sexual harassment has become a daily torment for
with special focus on public sexual offences in the megacities – women and girls (DAWN, 2016; Khan, 2016). The evidences found in
Karachi and London; studies focused on preventing/plummeting the scholarly and grey literature are authentic and significant. Many
and counteracting threats of sexual offences on public transport and studies and media reports emphasized on the repeated occurrences of
spaces; the public sexual harassment incidences with a higher frequency on
• Language of publications: English streets, buses and in public spaces in the megacity of Karachi (Social
• Countries: All Countries Policy and Development Center (SPDC), 2014; Hasan, 2015; Hoor-Ul-
• Research Methods used: All research methods. Ain, 2016; Khan, 2016; Hoor-Ul-Ain, 2019).
The Daily Dawn reported a wide ranging of prevalence rates of
Rapid evidence assessment (REA) methodology was employed to: unwanted sexual attention and behaviour encountered by women while
search the all- inclusive literature within stipulated time; collate de- travel on buses on television media – “When will Pakistani men stop
scriptive outlines of the available evidences; critically analyse and harassing women on buses?” Women respondents very boldly shared
evaluate it; sieve out studies of poor quality; and provide an overview of analogous narratives emphasizing the women mobility issues and
the evidence. The details are given in Fig. 1. sexual offences incidences. The report shows that “Men in cars or on
motorbikes stop next to them, offering them a lift, often persistently.
5. The magnitude of public sexual harassment in Karachi and When women refuse and continue waiting for their bus/ride, men start
London: a comparison of two megacities pestering them and harassing them” (DAWN, 2016; Nabi, 2016). The
media file identified the incidences of sexual offences on streets and at
The sexual harassment mayhem on public transport in the mega- bus stops as well. The situation demands the government to take im-
cities of London, UK and Karachi, Pakistan has exacerbated with a large mediate steps to address the daily ordeal and anguish of the survivors of
magnitude over the years. It has now become the most heightened issue the abuse.
being faced by the women living in these megacities. Many surveys on In Karachi, women with high income groups predominantly prefer
public sexual harassment have identified that women safety in public to commute safely with personally owned cars whereas women with
transport is the major issue in the two megacities. (Thomson Reuters low-income face the social ills of public sexual harassment as they rely
Foundation, 2014; Clark, 2015; Mis, 2016). Hoor-Ul-Ain (2019) dis- on public buses, mini-buses, coaches and rickshaws for their daily
cussed the gravity of the issue highlighting the results of Thomson commute (Anwar, 2013). With increasing demand of women travel, the
Reuters Foundation's, 2014 survey covering 16 world's largest capitals city is beholding escalating rate of street crimes against women such as
including several megacities. According to the survey, 3 megacities eve-teasing, ogling, cat-calling, poking and groping. The same has been
namely Tokyo, Beijing and London were rated eviler than New York. supported by the survey analysis presented at the International Con-
The survey was carried out in collaboration with a major UK polling ference on Managing Megacities 2016; jointly organized by the Uni-
company, YouGov. The survey findings were driven from the responses versity of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan and George Mason University, VA,
received from the experts and ambassadors of women's rights, gender USA. According to the megacity survey 2016 on Karachi's transporta-
equality, and gender-friendly urban spaces and as well as women living tion predicaments, 55% of the women respondents face sexual harass-
in those 16 cities. (Thomson Reuters Foundation, 2014). ment on buses; the district East has been declared as the most unsafe
The problem has now been recognized as a global issue for its ul- area for women commuters as 83% women affirming the same response
timate resolve. Many conferences have been held, mainly in the United (Hoor-Ul-Ain, 2016; The Express Tribune, September 21, 2016;
Kingdom, United States and Pakistan to explore its causes, con- National Courier, September 22, 2016; Hoor-Ul-Ain, 2019). It is im-
sequences and resolution. The background research on the megacity portant to record that the Deputy Mayor Karachi of the time – Mr.

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S. Hoor-Ul-Ain Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 101420

•Search terms are coined, refined and developed in line with the research's scope to
address the research questions (See Appendix 1).
1. Search •Four search strings were created to interrogate data on the prevalence, provocation
Terms & of the occurrence of public sexual harassment and strategies for reducing it
Strings

•The first 500 results of each database were reviewed. All results were graded by
relevance and the relevant literature was identified and gathered through the
following three main methods:
•Systematic searches: It includes relevant studies, reports and literature across
high priority academic databases: ISI Web of Science, Scopus database of peer
reviewed literature, Research Gate, Digital Library of L.E. J. National Science
2. Literature Information Centre, Karachi - Pakistan and International Bibliography of the
Searching Social Sciences.
•Experiences documented in grey literature: Online search for grey literature
through Google covers collection of evidences germane to public sexual offences.
•Call for information/ papers: It includes direct requests sent to the identified
researchers/ practitioners for gathering relevant material.

•1,000 papers were identified through academic database search for screening &
250 significant sources were extracted and 55 are cited in this paper.
•Through Google searches,650 items were identified; 208 of which remained after
screening and 55 are cited in this paper .
•5 befitting materials were produced through the “Call for Information”, 2 of which
3. Data were deemed fit to the research topic and are cited in the paper accordingly.
Extraction
•This accumulated into a total of 460 documents, with 1/10th (n = 46) being
relevant (to a greater or lesser degree) to review the most relevant evidences.
However, 112 documents are cited in this scgolarly piece of work.

•All references were evaluated by means of ‘Weight of Evidence (WoE)’ approach

in which the authenticity of the literature was appraised and given a strength rating
of low (1) medium (2), or high (3).
4. Weight of •Each study was weighted against two dimensions;
Evidence •Confidence in the methodological rigor of the source itself.
(WoE) •Relevance of the paper to the REA.
Coding •Methodological rigor assessment: Overall, 42 papers were assigned confidence
scores, with 03 deemed medium and 01 low; 38 papers were rated high confidence
scores. The Weight of Evidence (WoE) table (Appendix II) can be referred to view
confidence and relevance scores of the studies included.

•The studies identified by the REA were re-examined and thoroughly evaluated to
look for the answers of the research questions established in the PICOC grid.
•Data from the 25 studies pertinent to the PICOC grid research questions were
5. Data synthesized and written up, ensuring quality, sensitivity, coherence, and relevance.
Synthesis The statistical and qualitative evidences based data from the papers/ studies with
the highest WoE scores are duly highlighted throughout the findings section.

Fig. 1. Rapid evidence assessment (REA) process.

Arshad Vohra attended the conference and later seven newspapers Courier, September 22, 2016; Business Recorder, 2016; The News,
wrote about the research findings to raise voice against the violence, September 22, 2016; Express News (Urdu), 2016). It has been two and a
sexual offences and harassment issues on buses (The Daily Dawn, 2016; half years now, but no significant measures are taken by the govern-
PA News, 2016; The Express Tribune, September 21, 2016; National ment to stop this heinous crime on buses and streets.

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S. Hoor-Ul-Ain Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 101420

Facing several mobility issues include waiting for longer hours at Another woman named Katie was harassed by a man while travelling by
the bus stops, unsafe travelling patterns consists of risk of severe, bus. A man pressed himself towards her when she was seated; she
moderately severe, and least severe sexual harassment; Karachi's moved down the bus to get away from him, but he approached her
women stand tall, leave for work and education from their homes again and pressed himself against her. She shouted for help, but nobody
(Sohail, Maunder, & Cavill, 2006; Hussain, 2009; Social Policy and stood for her and she left the bus at the next stop helplessly. She did not
Development Center (SPDC), 2014; Hasan, 2015; Nabi, 2016) to bridge report this offence. Quite a lot of such episodes of public sexual har-
the gender gap at the metropolis level (Kirk, 2004; Hussain, 2009; Syed, assment remain unreported as many women are conditioned to develop
2010; Ali, Krantz, Gul, Asad, & Johansson, 2011; Chaudhary, 2012). self-coping mechanisms in London (Arnold, 2012).
Life of women commuters become more miserable during rush hour Per Thomson Reuters Survey conducted in 2014, one in 10
conditions as majority of men commuters travel by bus & droop on Londoners experienced unwanted sexual behaviour on public transport
doors of women compartments which is already a small segmented but more than 90% did not report it to police (Thomson Reuters
space. The unavailability of apropos number of public buses let the men Foundation, 2014). The survey helped the British Transport Police in
to invade the women vicinity which is already a very scanty and in- running a robust campaign to encourage women to report sexual of-
sufficient space for women to sit-in (Hasan, 2007). Women often en- fences at the police stations. Because of which women gained con-
counter the issues of sexual offences from rikshaw, taxi, and qinjqi fidence in police to report sexual offence and abuse. The reported
rikshaw drivers (Hasan, 2015). sexual offences on public transport had risen by 25% from 1117 to 1399
An NGO – Humans of Pakistan worked in collaboration with UN cases in 2014/15 - BTP10 (Clark, 2015). Another survey released on
Women for campaign on activism against gender-based violence to International Women's Day reports that two-thirds of British women in
educate the masses to end violence against women by sharing 16 stories London faced sexual harassment in public places and more than one-
of different women with an endeavour to make Karachi a gender sen- third have experienced unwanted sexual touching (Mis, 2016). Serial
sitized megacity. Among those 16 women, one reported that Hijabis8 sex attacks have been reported by six different women in London in
face more incidents of sexual offences than those who don't wear January 2017 (British Transport Police, n.d.; Hartley, 2017).
headscarf and veil. Sharing her personal experience with the NGO, she The spiraling crime of sexual abuse, harassment, and assault in
brought this fact on record that she had not been spared in Burqa (Veil London has dwindled under the governance of Mr. Sadiq Khan, the
that covers a woman from head to toe). Highlighting her anguish; she Mayor of London who took up office on May 09, 2016. The mayor
told the NGO that she had been a victim of men gaze, poking, and vowed to make London a safer city for women by publishing his four-
unwanted sexual attention while being fully covered in Burqa (Human year strategy of investing USD 61.03 million up to 2020 to deal with
of Pakistan's and UN Women's Orange the World Campaign, 2016). public sexual harassment against women in the British capital. The
Another documentary recorded by the Daily Dawn broadcast the gal- mayor urged Londoners to report sexist and misogynistic attitudes
loping rate of nefarious activities of public sexual harassment with wherever spotted in public spaces. He funded the programmes: Stalking
Hijabi women on buses, bus stops and streets on television media for Threat Assessment Centre, Sexual Violence Services, and a project to
the conviction of these wicked criminals (DAWN, 2016). rehabilitate perpetrators (Financial Express, 2018). Mayor of London's
100 pages' strategy document entitled “A safer city for women and girls
(The London tackling Violence Against Women and Girls Strategy 2018-
5.2. Unbridled sexual harassment and women mobility issues in London 2021)” encapsulates his crystal clear vision to bridge the gender dis-
parity by making London a safer megacity for women and girls with
London is the capital and most crowded megacity of England with equal rights and opportunities; a counter narrative to violence against
an estimated population of 10 million spread over 1572 sq. km (UK women and girls; a loud call to abhor and discourage misogyny; a bold
Population, 2017). London is an oldest global city and famous for its approach to highlight the voices of survivors of sexual abuse to devise
active lifestyle, tourism, and transportation system. London is also the right plan of action to tackle the misogynistic attitudes and beha-
known for Westminster Palace.9 Newspapers report that London's viours in a tactful manner; robust and effective actions against the of-
transport system is one of the safest and most efficient public transport fenders and perpetrators; high priority protection and support for vic-
networks in the world (Metro, 2007; Metro, 2015). But the system has tims of public sexual harassment to safeguard their psychological,
been incapable of providing safe commute to the millions of girls and social, and emotional well-being; timely provision of criminal justice
women living in London for several years. Sexual harassment on streets service (Mayor of London, 2018). The Mayor's strategy resulted into a
and public transportation is an everyday occurrence for them charter which is an exemplary model for other megacities to follow as it
(Valentine, 1992; Walkowitz, 1998). Sadly, women are not safe in the covers the monitoring of the entire capital and sets out guidance for
city which is known for the adjudication of law. Lamentably, women venues, operators, charities, councils and businesses to improve safety
are subject to unwanted sexual attention on their daily commute in the at night for women. This includes special training of staff, encouraging
city which is the biggest royal residence in the United Kingdom. An the reporting of all kinds of sexual offences/harassment, and ensuring
international poll found that 32% of women in London have been public spaces and transport are safe for women. Fulfilling the demands
verbally harassed on public transport and 19% were victims of direct of the Mayor's charter of improving women's safety at night in London,
physical abuse (MSN News, 2014; Thomson Reuters Foundation, 2014). Deputy Mayor of London for Policing and Crime – Ms. Sophie Linden
The survey suggests that the large number of women have negative called the summit to bring together representatives from policing,
impacts on their mental health and emotional well-being. They ex- transport, charities and the night-time economy to reaffirm their com-
perience feelings of fear, anger, and anxiety because of unwanted at- mitment to improving safety at night (Mayor of London - London
tention from men (Battered Women's Support Services, 2015b). Lon- Assembly, July 23, 2018).
doners face extremely troublesome incidents on public transport over Over 17,000 sexual offences were recorded by BTP in 2017 as a
the last two decades. In 2010, two women were wronged by an old man result of prompt and strict measures to stop public sexual offence on
on the London Underground; he was sentenced for imprisonment for transport. Most of the cases are charged with offences and victims got
making lewd comments, groping their breasts and running away. justice with positive outcomes (BBC News, 2018; Mayor of London,
2018). The vicissitude of this worst offence has been curbed down
8
Women covered in Burqa (Veil). through the monitoring of sex crimes on buses by London Transit and
9
The Palace of Westminster is the meeting place of the House of Commons
and the House of Lords, the two houses of the Parliament of the United
10
Kingdom. British Transport Police.

6
S. Hoor-Ul-Ain Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 101420

Sexual Assault Centre. The Center made the London buses equipped rated as the 3rd most unsafe country in the world for women in 2011,
with video cameras and police may ask for the video records to in- says Thomson Reuters Foundation's Trust Law Polls (Anderson, 2011)
vestigate complaints of threats or assaults. Three complaints reported and now it's megacity – Karachi is fared as the second most dangerous
last year and two resulted in convictions. Consideration was only given city for women in the world as mentioned earlier in the literature
to the incidents reported to police. However, most of the incidents re- findings (Reuters Staff, 2017).
main unreported. To encourage women to report incidents of sexual Conversely, the existing literature illustrates a dramatic transition of
offence, assault, and harassment, the London Transit Commission the megacity of London from a category of ‘severe’ to ‘least severe’ type
launched a campaign with an effort to make people more aware of the of public sexual harassment. Two decades ago, London was a city with a
safety program in place since 1990s (Richmond, 2017). misogynistic mind-set where men assume it is their national duty to
rape women who wear ripped, provocative, and sheer clothes (BBC
6. Discussion News, 2012; Martinson, 2012; Express Tribune, 2017; Statistica, 2018).
According to Thomson Reuters Survey 2014, London's public transport
This comparative review of the two megacities: Karachi and London system ranked very unsafe for women. The paradigm shift came when
evinces the plight of public sexual harassment on transport with a high Mr. Sadiq Khan, the city's Mayor assumed his office in 2016. He took
prevalence rate. Literature review as a reality check; accentuates the excellent measures to devise and publish a five-year strategy plan to
prevalence of sexual offences, harassment, and assaults in the two big fight and end violence against women and girls (VAWG) (Mayor of
cities with ever-progressive population, which warrant a safe and an London, 2018). For delivering this strategy, he called for a broad
intelligent public transport system, service, and network along with the partnership of police communities, agencies, and local organisations to
social justice. achieve the shared ambitions to prevent VAWG and arrest perpetrators
The literature reveals that the megacities are found to be the safe and protect victims. First, he urged Londoner's to call out public sexual
havens for the perpetrators involved in this crime and dangerous for harassment if spotted anywhere and secondly, he made it possible by
women (PTI, 2013). The role of governments is critical in addressing investing USD 61 million to establish a strong and effective network to
sexual harassment on buses and sincere effort is required to overhaul monitor such cases though well-equipped and intelligent transportation
the “inefficient policing system” in megacities with an aim to safeguard system. Upon receiving any sexual harassment complaints on women
women from such undesirable incidents (UN Special Rapporteur on passengers, the concerned department of the VAWG protection network
Violence against Women (SRVAW), 2003; Social Policy and becomes active, disseminate information, and extend support services
Development Center (SPDC), 2014; Asian Development Bank, 2015; to the survivor of the abuse. Mayor Sadiq Khan's efficacious strategy
Thakran, 2015). The ‘Planet 50–50’ campaign of gender equality and brought a goodly declining trend in the number of cases filed on the
rapid urbanizations bring with it an urgent need of provision for safe complaints of public sexual harassment. Now, London has been re-
mobility and access (i.e., safe public transport) for women in megacities garded as a safest megacity for women because the of the high-impact
(UN Women, 2017). governmental concern to mitigate growing sexual harassment and as-
In the light of evidences found in the scholarly and grey literature, saults threats on women in public spaces and on transport. London
Karachi falls under the category of severe type of street or public sexual believes in the supremacy of the law and British Law provides absolute
harassment that includes physical violence against women, passing protection to the women on roads and buses; they only need to report
lewd or sexually explicit profane comments at women, physical acts public sexual harassment cases to the British Transport police to stop it
such as following a woman, pinching, poking or groping her, or (British Transport Police, n.d.). Conviction of the perpetrators are
throwing things at her. Sexist gender norms, practices, and social guaranteed by the law.
structures contribute to violence against women in the region. They
also make it harder for survivors to get the support, help, and justice 7. Conclusion and recommendations
they need to escape abuse and rebuild their lives. Moreover, the city
government's services (health, legal, and social) are neither working The issue of public sexual harassment is one of the persistent and
together effectively nor in alignment with international best practices emerging challenges in both the megacities: Karachi and London. It
to provide the necessary support to the survivors of the abuse. However, causes mental fatigue and trauma to the women commuters and defile
the literature does not provide a definitive solution to the problem but their mental health and wellbeing. London's case may be used as a
identifies the reasons why public sexual harassment go unreported in model for improving the safety conditions for women commuters in
Karachi. Research investigation suggests that majority of the women Karachi. To lessen the risk of sexual offence, harassment, and assault on
are unaware of their rights on sexual harassment. Lack of awareness of transport in Karachi, the provincial and city governments must call the
legal relief on sexual harassment prevention. Victims' fear of ag- law enforcement agencies to deal with the prevalent jeopardy and take
gravating the situation and making matter worse such as fear to harm to strict action against such perpetrators. Comparatively, the provincial
one's social reputation leaves them helpless. Society's fear of being and city governments of Karachi seem to be reluctant in taking the
blamed as victim-survivor multiplies the number of victims globally. On mayhem of public sexual harassment as top priority item on their
top of that the criminal justice system and the law enforcement au- agenda book and laying out a strategic framework for Karachi's women
thorities do not encourage complaints as there is no law available in the commuters as an ultimate resolve of the issue. The city with its growing
city to protect women and girls against public sexual harassment yet; number of women commuters looks for an increasing safety measures.
this puts the survivors of the abuse in an afflicted and bewildered state Ironically, no policy or strategy have been introduced to stop the
of mind (Awan, 2004; Hoor-Ul-Ain, 2019). Despite of several evidences quandary of public sexual harassment for years (Hasan, 2015). The
highlighted in the news through television and print media on the government and law enforcement agencies remained ineffective in
quandary of public sexual harassment, no special heed was ever paid by providing any relief to women commuters despite having received
the government for the legislation and enactment of the law to end thousands of complaints against the sexual offences because there is no
violence against women on streets and public transport. law to safeguard or provide protection to women on roads and travel-
Corresponding to previous researches, this study also manifests the ling on public transport (Hasan, 2015). Provision of safe public trans-
jeopardies of public sexual harassment women experience in Karachi portation system is observed as the critical most challenge and is a
while commuting from one place to another. Women cannot commute principal determinant of Karachi's repute at the international front as it
to their workplaces and back home in a respectful and safe manner. is fared as the second most minacious megacity for women in the last
Similarly, girls experience the same while commuting with public Thomson Reuters survey (Reuters Staff, 2017).
transport to their education institutes and back home. Pakistan was Escalating trend in the daily public sexual harassment incidents on

7
S. Hoor-Ul-Ain Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 101420

public transport puts a pressure on the governmental machinery to minimizing psychological damage in the event of post-abuse social
address the Karachi's women mobility afflictions by taking following exclusion by peers and family.
immediate steps:
The research stipulates a dire need to draw the attention of the
• The enactment of ‘The Protection Against Harassment of Women at Karchi's city government to provide safer travel to the women and girls.
the Workplace Act11’ in 2010 does not protect women from sexual The government should monitor the hideous crime of public sexual
harassment on the roads and buses. The act applies to the workplace harassment in Karachi to catch the perpetrators red-handed on the spot.
only. Hence, legislating another law protecting women from sexual Absence of law to protect women on transport and in public spaces
harassment on public transport has become a dire need of the time. refrains the governmental administrative agencies to function effec-
• In spirit of sustainability to end violence against women, a compe- tively. Karachi's existing public transport is not able to cope with the
tent and well-equipped surveillance cell should be established to increasing travel demand of women commuters and indicates an urgent
monitor the incidents of public sexual harassment on transport need to adopt London's model of safer city and provide mass transit
system. options at a subsidized rate.
• Karachi's Local Government should:
o call out immediate legislation to hold all transporters accountable Acknowledgment
legally by the concerned authorities by means of an accountability
mechanism to report all incidences of sexual offences as a witness I presented this paper at the Elsevier's International Conference on
to provide safer transportation to women. Urban Transitions 2018 – Integratining Urban and Transport Planning,
o run civic education campaigns on gender parity, diversity, inclu- Environment and Health for Healthier Urban Living held on November
sion and sensitization for men to educate them about respecting 25-27, 2018 at Sitges, Barcelona, Spain as a poster presentation. I would
and safeguarding their opposite gender's rights and treating them like to express my gratitute to the Conference Chair Prof. Dr. Mark J.
as equal. Nieuwenhuijsen, ISGlobal, Spain, Prof. Dr. Jennifer Mindell, University
o introduce and run civic education campaigns to help women learn College London, England, Prof. Dr. Julio Celso Borello Vargas, UFRGS,
about their legal rights and obligations by means of civic en- Brazil, Prof. Dr. Teresa Attracta Harms, University of Oxford, England,
gagement. In this connection, women of the region may feel em- Prof. Dr. Nancy A. Nix, University of Alaska Anchorage, US and other
powered by: attendees for logical and constructive questions/feedback which have
▪ seeking awareness of their rights strengthened the analysis. I want to acknowledge Mr. Muhammad Ali,
▪ getting united to stand for each other in solidarity Assistant Manager Education & Training (Graphic Designer) at The
▪ speaking out against the incidences of sexual offences Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan (ICAP) for the poster's
• Self defense trainings should be made compulsory in all educational graphics credits. Last but not the least, the names of my family mem-
institutions and workplaces to spread awareness among the women bers: Syed Ali Nawaz Akhtar, my dad; Syeda Narjis Bano, my mum;
commuters about their safety rights. Syeda Itrat Famita, my younger sister; Syed Ali Niaz Akhtar, my uncle;
• The government should establish ‘Mental Health Rehabilitation Syeda Nageen Fatima; my aunt are also important to mention as they
Centers’ at the district level to provide peer therapy support com- made this trip possible for me. I shall remain indebted for their kindness
prised of an empathic group of women who meet to help each other and moral support. Their continuous encouragement has made this
navigate the incredibly painful and devastating aspects of sexual brave effort possible for the ultimate resolve of the public sexual har-
offences and assaults. Such support groups may be useful in assment mayhem through scholarly medium.

Appendix

Table 1
Search terms for “Public sexual harassment mayhem on public transport in megacities - Karachi and London: A comparative review”.

Behavioural terms Transport terms or public Consequential terms Prevention/cure terms

spaces terms

Sexual harassment Public transport Consequences of public sexual harassment Impact

Public sexual harass- Public buses Rising rate of sex offences Prevent
ment
Street harassment Public space Psychological distress Campaign
Sexual violence Subway Suicide attempt in women Intervene
Sexual abuse Underground Mental health issues such as long-term depression, acute stress, anxiety, sleeplessness and even post- Legal solution
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), etc.
Sexual assault Transit Physical health symptoms: manifestation of muscle aches, stress headaches, hyper tension & Restoration of emo-
hypotension, diabetes and heart issues in chronic cases tional well being
Sexual offence Mass transit Ill emotional health issues such as temperament, anger and self destruction. Mediation
Sexual offence Coach Social vulnerability Reconstruction of Self
Types of sexual harass- Minibus Financial and economic constraints such as layoffs, demotions, etc., Emotional support
ment
Severe type of sexual Rapid transit Low self esteem Peer therapy
harassment
Moderate-severe sexual Tram Low self worth Social support
harassment
Less-severe sexual har- Shuttle Poor self-concept Social solidarity
assment
Ogling Bus stop Lack of confidence Parental support
Gropping Station Substance abuse Scheme
(continued on next page)

11
Source: The Women Protection Against Harassment Act can be read at https://www.qau.edu.pk/pdfs/ha.pdf.

8
S. Hoor-Ul-Ain Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 101420

Table 1 (continued)

Behavioural terms Transport terms or public Consequential terms Prevention/cure terms

spaces terms

Cat-Calling Train Religious deterrence Civic education

Misogyny Street Emotional distress Gender sensitization
Lewd comments Double-decker bus Inferiority complex Social development in-
terventions
Sexist stereotypes Cab Rejection, embarrassment, social exclusion, bitterness, nervousness and anger Surveillance
Public indecency Taxi Psychiatric morbidity CCTV
Eve-teasing Rikshaw Mentally incapacitated Monitoring
Wolf-whistling at wo- Qinjqi Outcast Patrolling
men
Pro-sexual behaviour Tube Societal vilification Law making and legis-
lation
Rape Social exclusion Implementation of law
Sexual attack Police
Mayhem British transport police
Sex objectification of Karachi traffic police
women
Paraphilia Call-out!
Exhibitionism
Frotteurism or touchri-
sm
Derogatory treatment
Immorality and dis-
honor
Unwanted sexual expo-
sure
Sexual behaviour
Sexual behaviour
Mental torture
Emotional violence
Emotional abuse
Physical abuse

Table 2
Sources, references, and weight of evidence scores.

Category of Source References Relevance Confidence

megacity Score Score

Megacities in Academic Gekoski, A., Gray, J. M., Adler, J. R., & Horvath, M. A. (2017). The prevalence and nature of sexual harassment and High High
General assault against women and girls on public transport: an international review. Journal of Criminological Research, Policy
and Practice, 3(1), 3–16. doi:https://doi.org/10.1108/JCRPP-08-2016-0016
Megacities in Academic Clark, S. K., Jeglic, E. L., Calkins, C., & Tatar, J. R. (2016). More than a nuisance: the prevalence and consequences of High High
General frotteurism and exhibitionism. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 28(1), 3–19. Retrieved May 20, 2017,
from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/107906321452564
Megacities in Academic Larry, S. J. (2016). Public Order Crime: Sex and Substance Abuse. In S. J. Larry, Criminology: Theories, Patterns and Medium High
General Typologies (13th ed., pp. 475–520). Boston, USA: Cengage Learning. Retrieved 11 01, 2017, from http://ebooks.
narotama.ac.id/files/Criminology%20(11th%20Edition)/CHAPTER%2014%20Public%20Order%20Crime;%20Sex
%20and%20Substance%20Abuse.pdf
Megacities in Academic Lawlink. (1999). Plan it safe: from wasteland to heartland. Retrieved June 05, 2017, from www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/swp/ Medium High
General swp
Megacities in Google Asian Correspondent. (2017, October 18). What are the most dangerous megacities for women in Asia? Retrieved from High High
General Asian Correspondent: https://asiancorrespondent.com/2017/10/dangerous-megacities-women-asia/#
BrbzrxeiduieL8jD.97
Megacities in Google Reuters Staff. (2017, October 16). EXCLUSIVE -Cairo named most dangerous megacity for women; London best - poll. High High
General Retrieved from REUTERS: https://af.reuters.com/article/africaTech/idAFL8N1L74J3
Megacities in Google Peters, S. (2017, January 3). The World's 31 Mega-Cities. Retrieved April 14, 2017, from http://247wallst.com/special- Low Medium
General report/2017/01/03/the-worlds-31-mega-cities/2/
Megacities in Google Cox, W. (2015, April 19). The World's Ten Largest Megacities - The Huffington Post. Retrieved April 14, 2017, from http:// Medium Low
General www.huffingtonpost.com/wendell-cox/the-worlds-ten-largest-me_b_6684694.html
Megacities in Google Thomson Reuters Foundation. (2014, November 06). Thomson Reuters Foundation Poll. Ranking the most dangerous High High
General transport systems for women in major cities. Thomson Reuters Foundation News. Retrieved from http://thomsonreuters.
com/en/articles/2014/most-dangerous-transport-systems-for-women.html
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Megacities in Google UN Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women (SRVAW). (2003). The United Nations Special Rapporteur on Violence High High
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doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2019.01.004
Karachi Academic Hasan, A. (2015). Karachi: The Transport Crisis - A Report. Karachi, Pakistan: Urban Resource Center. Medium High
(continued on next page)

9
S. Hoor-Ul-Ain Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 101420

Table 2 (continued)

Category of Source References Relevance Confidence

megacity Score Score

Karachi Academic Social Policy and Development Center (SPDC). (2014). Rapid Assessment of Sexual Harassment In Public Transport and High High
Connected Spaces in Karachi. Karachi: Asian Development Bank for ADB RETA 7563: Promoting Gender Inclusive
Growth in Central and West Asia Developing. Retrieved from https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/project-
document/152881/44067-012-tacr-19.pdf
Karachi Academic Hussain, I. (2009). Problems of working women in Karachi, Pakistan. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Medium High
Publishing.
Karachi Academic Sohail, M., Maunder, D. A., & Cavill, S. (2006). Effective regulation for sustainable public transport in developing Low Medium
countries. Transport Policy, 13(3), 177–190.
Karachi Call for Khan, N. (2016, September 22). “Exclusive report on eve-teasing and harassment of women including cat-calling, ogling and High High
Information teasing in public buses of Karachi.”. Retrieved from
https://www.facebook.com/nazahat.khan/videos/vb.100002225817434/1146963962054453/?type=2&theater
Karachi Call for Hoor-Ul-Ain, S. (2016, September 22). Tehalka. (SAMAA TV, Interviewer) Retrieved from High High
Information https://www.facebook.com/Syeda.Hoorulain.Naqvi/videos/vb.685696718/10154557939446719/?type=3
Karachi Google The Daily Dawn. (2016). Vohra seeks Karachi's financial share. Retrieved September 20, 2018, from Low High
https://epaper.dawn.com/DetailNews.php?StoryText=22_09_2016_118_006
Karachi Google Business Recorder. (2016). ‘Karachi needs more funds to overcome major municipal challenges. Retrieved September 20, Medium High
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Karachi Google National Courier. (September 22, 2016). 55pc Female Commuters Sexually Harassed: Research. Retrieved from https:// High High
nationalcourier.pk/metropolis/55pc-female-commuters-sexually-harassed-research/
Karachi Google DAWN. (2016, May 12). How often do Pakistani women get harassed on public transport? You would be surprised. High High
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Karachi Google Nabi, I. (2016, May 12). When will Pakistani men stop harassing women on buses? Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan: The Daily High High
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