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SUBJECT: COURSE CODE-601

Topic name: introduction to Animal Ecology
1. Population ecology: basic characters, growth and growth curves
2. Population dynamics and regulation
3. Community ecology
4. Ecotones and inter population interactions

Population ecology, study of the processes that affect the distribution and
abundance of animal and plant populations.
 Closed Population
A closed population is not able to exchange with other people after a while. The
population can grow through the birth of new people. This circumstance is usually
seen on islands as a population might be laid out during a storm or any other
influence but no additional members will be added over time. When a brief period
of time is over, a population is bound to be closed. A storm event where more
turtles are added during a single year than 100 years is less likely to happen on an
island. Animals will not be able to cross the river during a normal year if the river
stays at its full level. The population can grow through birth and decline through
death, making it easier to project growth rates. The growth rate is not determined
by the number of organisms or the rate of reproduction.
 Open Population
An open population can acquire and lose different populations over time. The
population isn’t geographically isolated. The longer the period of time, the more
probable it is that the population will open. The typical changes in an
environmental system are the reason for this.
After some time, we expect that rivers will experience times of dry weather,
mountain passes will open and close, and bridges will be destroyed. The capacity
of new individuals to join an existing population will be influenced by these things.
Characteristics of Population Ecology

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Ecologists use diverse terms while understanding and examining populations of

organisms. A population is all of one sort of species living in a particular location.
Population size describes the total number of individuals in a habitat. Population
density refers to how many individuals live in a specific area.
Population size is represented by the letter N, which refers to the total number of
individual organisms in a population. The bigger a population is, the greater its
generic variation and thus its potential for long-term survival. Increased population
size can, however, lead to further issues, such as overuse of resources leading to a
population crash.
Population Density refers to the number of individual organisms in a particular
area. A low-density region would have more organisms spread out. High-density
regions would have more individuals residing closer together, leading to greater
resource competition.
Population Dispersion: Hauls helpful information regarding how species interact
with each other. Researchers can discover more about populations by studying how
they are distributed or dispersed.
Population distribution describes how individual organisms of a species are spread
out, whether they live close or far apart or massed into groups.
 Uniform dispersion means the organisms that live in a distinct territory. One
example would be penguins. Penguins live in parts; within those territories,
the birds space themselves reasonably uniformly.
 Random dispersion means the spread of individual organisms, such as wind-
dispersed seeds, which fall randomly after transiting.
 Clustered or clumped dispersion means a drop of seeds straight to the
ground, instead of being carried, to groups of animals living together, such
as herds or schools. Schools of the fish show this manner of dispersion.

Growth and Growth curves

Population Growth
 In simple terms, population growth refers to the number of individuals in the
group as the population keeps increasing.

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 Mathematical models that study the population growth rate (r) indicate how
fast a population increases or decreases. The population growth curve is
determined for any given population based on the rate.
 Factors That Determine the Growth Rate
The population growth depends on factors such as birth rates, death rates, and
migration. A simple mathematical relation can determine the growth rate:
Growth Rate (r) = Birth rate – Death rate
As long as the birth rate is higher than the death rate, the population growth is
positive (increasing). When the death rate is higher than birth rates, the population
growth begins to decline.
Other factors that influence growth rate include:
 How periodically the organism reproduces
 Age of the organism at first reproduction
 Number of offspring
 The type of parental care
 How long the organism is capable of reproducing
 The survival rates of the offspring
What are the different population growth curves?
There are two types of growth curves: the j shaped growth curve and the s-shaped
growth curve. Both the types of growth curves fit population growth models that
have different environmental pressures.
Exponential growth
One of the easily observable examples of exponential growth occurs in bacteria
that divide rapidly within an hour. If there are 1000 bacteria on a plate, in the next
hour, there will be 2000. In the 3rd hour, there will be 4000 bacteria, and by the 4th
hour, there will be 8000. The characteristics of exponential growth are:
 They occur in ideal environments where the resources are relatively
unlimited.
 There is no competition or limit to the exponential growth

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 The population starts small and grows rapidly as time progresses, giving a J-
type exponential growth curve.

Logistic growth
Logistic growth is seen in most populations living in realistic conditions with
limited space and resources. Since neither space nor resources are infinite, the
growth rate starts to taper as the population density reaches a stage where it runs
out of food or is poisoned by its waste.
The characteristics include logistic growth curve:
 Start rapidly as a J curve and flatten as it curves hits the environment’s
carrying capacity.
 Carrying capacity refers to the maximum population of a species the
environment can support.
 As the population reaches the carrying capacity (denoted by k), the curve
begins to take an “S” shape.

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 Logistical growth is seen in all stable populations living in a finite

geographic area.

Factors that Influence Population Fluctuation

The fluctuations in the population in a given area are influenced by four major
factors, which include the following:
 Natality – It is the number of births in a given period of time in a population
 Mortality – It is defined as the number of deaths that takes place in a
population at a given period of time.
 Immigration – It is defined as the number of individuals who come from
another population and add to the population under consideration during a
period of time.
 Emigration – It is defined as the number of individuals from a population
who leave the habitat and go to a different habitat at a given period of time.
Thus, it is clearly visible, that Natality (N) and Immigration (I) add to a population,
thus increasing the population whereas, Mortality (M) and Emigration (E) decrease
the population. The population density (Pt) at a given point of time can be given as:
Pt =P0 + (N + I) – (M + E)
where P0 is the initial population density.
We have two growth models which describe the basic growth trend in a population.
These are:
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1. Exponential growth – In an ideal condition where there is an unlimited

supply of food and resources, the population growth will follow an
exponential order. Consider a population of size N and birth rate be
represented as b, death rate as d, the rate of change of N can be given by the
equation
dN/dt = (b-d) x N
If, (b – d) = r,
dN/dt = rN
Where r = intrinsic rate of natural increase
This equation can be represented with a graph which has a J shaped curve.
According to calculus
Nt=N0ert
Where, Nt = Population density at time t
N0= Population density at time zero
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase
e = base of natural logarithms
t = time
2. Logistic growth – This model defines the concept of ‘survival of the fittest’.
Thus, it considers the fact that resources in nature are exhaustible. The term
‘Carrying capacity’ defines the limit of the resources beyond which they
cannot support any number of organisms. Let this carrying capacity be
represented as K.
The availability of limited resources cannot show exponential growth. As a result,
the graph will have a lag phase, followed by an exponential phase, then a declining
phase and ultimately an asymptote. This is known as Verhulst-Pearl Logistic
Growth and is represented using the equation:
dN/dt = rN((K-N) /K)
How do populations change?
Changes in population size over time and the processes that cause these to occur are called population
dynamics. How populations change in abundance over time is a major concern of population

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ecology, wildlife ecology, and conservation biology, and is related to questions asked in evolutionary
biology. The processes and mechanisms that drive population change are varied and include intraspecific
competition with members of the same population, interspecific competition between species, the
availability of food or other resources, extreme weather, inbreeding, predators or parasites.

Biotic interactions and abiotic conditions limit the sizes of populations

Population dynamics can be regulated in a variety of ways. These are grouped into
density-dependent factors, in which the density of the population at a given time
affects growth rate and mortality, and density-independent factors, which influence
mortality in a population regardless of population density. Note that in the former,
the effect of the factor on the population depends on the density of the population
at onset. Conservation biologists want to understand both types because this helps
them manage populations and prevent extinction or overpopulation.
Density-Dependent Regulation
Most density-dependent factors are biological in nature (biotic), and include
predation, inter- and intraspecific competition, accumulation of waste, and diseases
such as those caused by parasites. Usually, the denser a population is, the greater
its mortality rate. For example, during intra- and interspecific competition, the
reproductive rates of the individuals will usually be lower, reducing their
population’s rate of growth. In addition, low prey density increases the mortality of
its predator because it has more difficulty locating its food source.
An example of density-dependent regulation is shown in Figure 9.3.4 with results
from a study focusing on the giant intestinal roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides), a
parasite of humans and other mammals (Croll et al. 1982). Denser populations of
the parasite exhibited lower fecundity: they contained fewer eggs. One possible
explanation for this is that females would be smaller in more dense populations
(due to limited resources) and that smaller females would have fewer eggs. This
hypothesis was tested and disproved in a 2009 study which showed that female
weight had no influence (Walker et al. 2009). The actual cause of the density-
dependence of fecundity in this organism is still unclear and awaiting further
investigation.
Density-Independent Regulation and Interaction with Density-Dependent
Factors
Many factors, typically physical or chemical in nature (abiotic), influence the
mortality of a population regardless of its density, including weather, natural
disasters, and pollution. An individual deer may be killed in a forest fire regardless
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of how many deer happen to be in that area. Its chances of survival are the same
whether the population density is high or low. The same holds true for cold winter
weather.
In real-life situations, population regulation is very complicated and density-
dependent and independent factors can interact. A dense population that is reduced
in a density-independent manner by some environmental factor(s) will be able to
recover differently than a sparse population. For example, a population of deer
affected by a harsh winter will recover faster if there are more deer remaining to
reproduce.

In this population of roundworms Ascaris lumbricoides, fecundity (number of

eggs) decreases with population density (Croll et al. 1982).
Community Ecology
What is Community Ecology?
Community ecology, also known as synecology, examines interactions between
species in groups over a wide range of temporal and spatial scales, including
distribution, population dynamics, structure, abundance, and demography.

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Community ecology primarily focuses on the interactions among populations as

influenced by particular genotypic and phenotypic traits.
Community ecology studies focus on the interactions and competition of creatures
that coexist in a particular ecological niche, such as a lake, prairie, or wooded area.
Examples
Community ecology involves a wide range of ecological interactions that are
constantly evolving. A forest community comprises the plant community, including
trees, squirrels, birds, deer, fungi, foxes, fish, insects, and other local or seasonal
species.
Similarly, a coral reef community comprises various distinct coral, fish, and algae
species. The biotic community is strongly influenced by dispersion and abundance.
Characteristics of a Community Ecology
Community ecology’s main characteristics include diversity of species, growth
form and structure, dominance, self-reliance, relative abundance, and trophic
structure.
Diversity of Species
Different creatures, including plants, animals, bacteria, and others, constitute each
community. They are taxonomically distinct from one another. The species
diversity could be local or regional.
Growth Form and Structure
Primary growth forms, including trees, shrubs, and herbs, can be used to analyse a
community. Different plant species, such as broadleaf trees, evergreen trees, etc.,
may be found in each growth form found in trees. These many growth forms
influence the structure of a community.
Dominance
Not all species in a community are equally significant. A selected few species
determine a community’s characteristics. These few species dominate the
community and exercise control over it.
Self-reliance

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Each community has a variety of heterotrophic and autotrophic creatures.

Autotrophic plants can survive bythemselves.
Relative Abundance
Relative abundance is the concept that different populations in a community
coexist in relative proportions.
Trophic Structure
Each community has its own trophic structure that controls how food and energy
move from plants to herbivores to carnivores.
Periodicity
This includes studying different life processes, including respiration, growth, and
reproduction, in the dominant species of a community. Periodicity is the regular
occurrence of these essential biological processes for a year and how they present
themselves in the natural world.
Edge-effect and Eco-tone
Eco-tone refers to a region of vegetation that extends between or separates two
distinct types of ecosystems. It is easy to identify these as marginal zones.
Eco-tones frequently have greater species diversity than any of the nearby
communities. Edge-effect is a term used to describe plants’ increased variety and
density along a common intersection.
Community Structure
Several species and their relative abundances included in the community structure
describe the composition of a community. The types and quantities of organisms
that inhabit distinct ecological communities can vary significantly.
Communities with the most prominent species are typically located close to the
equator, whereas communities with the fewest species are commonly found close
to the poles.
The Trophic Pyramid Structure
The trophic pyramid is a common structure found in all biological groups. There
are four or five tiers in each pyramid. Food energy is transferred from one food

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chain level to the next. Every level of the pyramid loses energy to heat; therefore, it
takes a lot of species at a given trophic level to maintain those in the next level.

Every biological community has a base of species known as autotrophs — living

things that directly harvest sunlight (or heat) through photosynthesis. The
remaining species in the pyramid are referred to as heterotrophs.
At various stages of their development, animals may consume multiple meals. A
food chain typically consists of four or five connections, starting with autotrophs
and ending with a carnivore as the top predator. However, a lot of creatures
consume multiple species.

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Many species consume both plants and animals, feeding at multiple trophic levels.
As a result, food chains are frequently connected to create highly complex food
webs.
In a community, animals compete for resources and engage in other interactions
besides consuming one another. In establishing the structure of biological
communities, non-trophic connections between species are just as essential as the
food chain and food webs of trophic levels.
Keystone species
Food webs include both strong and weak interactions between species, and these
differences in interaction strength influence the organization of communities. Some
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species, called keystone species, have a disproportionately large effect on the

communities in which they occur. They help to maintain local diversity within a
community either by controlling populations of species that would otherwise
dominate the community or by providing critical resources for a wide range of
species.
The starfish Pisaster ochraceus is a keystone species in the rocky marine intertidal
communities off the northwest coast of North America. This predatory starfish
feeds on the mussel Mytilus californianus and is responsible for maintaining much
of the local diversity of species within certain communities. When the starfish have
been removed experimentally, the mussel populations have expanded rapidly and
covered the rocky intertidal shores so exclusively that other species cannot
establish themselves. Consequently, the interaction between Pisaster and Mytilus
supports the structure and species diversity of these communities. In other
communities in which Pisaster occurs, however, the starfish has little overall effect
on the structure of the community. Therefore, a species can be a keystone species
in some communities but not in others.
Guilds and interaction webs
Guilds often are composed of groups of closely related species that all arose
from a common ancestor. They exploit resources in similar ways as a result of
their shared ancestry. Hence, several species within a single genus may
constitute a guild within a community. A less common but not unknown
occurrence is for unrelated species to make up a guild.
 Patterns of community structure
Ecological succession
The structure of communities is constantly changing. All communities are subject
to periodic disturbances, ranging from events that have only localized effects, such
as the loss of a tree that creates a gap in the canopy of a forest, to those that have
catastrophic consequences, which include wildfires that sweep across vast
landscapes or storms that pound immense stretches of shoreline. Each
new disturbance within a landscape creates an opportunity for a new species to
colonize that region. New species also alter the character of the community,
creating an environment that is suitable to even newer species. By this process,
known as ecological succession, the structure of the community evolves over time.
Types of succession
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Two different types of succession, primary and secondary, have been distinguished.
Primary succession occurs in essentially lifeless areas—regions in which the soil is
incapable of sustaining life as a result of such factors as lava flows, newly formed
sand dunes, or rocks left from a retreating glacier. Secondary succession occurs in
areas where a community that previously existed has been removed; it is typified
by smaller-scale disturbances that do not eliminate all life and nutrients from the
environment. Events such as a fire that sweeps across a grassland or a storm that
uproots trees within a forest create patches of habitat that are colonized by early
successional species.
The process of succession
Primary and secondary succession both create a continually changing mix of
species within communities as disturbances of different intensities, sizes, and
frequencies alter the landscape. The sequential progression of species during
succession, however, is not random. At every stage certain species have evolved
life histories to exploit the particular conditions of the community. This situation
imposes a partially predictable sequence of change in the species composition of
communities during succession. Initially only a small number of species from
surrounding habitats are capable of thriving in a disturbed habitat. As new plant
species take hold, they modify the habitat by altering such things as the amount of
shade on the ground or the mineral composition of the soil. These changes allow
other species that are better suited to this modified habitat to succeed the old
species. These newer species are superseded, in turn, by still newer species. A
similar succession of animal species occurs, and interactions between plants,
animals, and environment influence the pattern and rate of successional change.
 Ecotones
Ecosystems are almost always a patchwork of communities that exist at different
successional stages. The sizes, frequencies, and intensities of disturbances differ
among ecosystems, creating differences in what is called the patch dynamics of
communities. Along the edges of each of the patches are areas called ecotones.
These junction zones often contain species of each of the overlapping communities
as well as some species that have become adapted specifically for living in these
zones. In many cases, the number of species and the population density are greater
within the ecotone than in the surrounding communities, a phenomenon known as
the edge effect.

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In North America the parasitism of bird nests by brown-headed cowbirds

(Molothrus ater) is particularly frequent in ecotones between mature forests and
earlier successional patches. Cowbirds lay their eggs in the nests of other birds and
are active mainly in early successional patches. Forest birds whose nests are deep
within the interior of mature forests are less likely to be attacked than those within
ecotones. The cutting of mature forests has increased the extent of ecotones,
concomitantly increasing the rate of cowbird parasitism across North America.
Interspecific interactions and the organization of communities
The interactive relationships that arise between populations of different species
form the interactive web of communities. These interactions range from
antagonistic to cooperative and have either positive, negative, or neutral effects on
the species involved. In antagonistic relationships the interaction is detrimental to
individuals of either one or both species; in commensal relationships
(commensalism) one species benefits while the other remains unaffected; and in
mutualistic relationships (mutualism) both species benefit. The organization and
stability of biological communities results from the mix of these different kinds of
interaction.

These relationships between species are not static; they evolve as natural selection
continually shapes and reshapes them. The defenses and counterdefenses seen in
the relationships between hosts and parasites, or between prey and predators, are
snapshots of one point in time during the ongoing process of the evolution of
interactions. As interactions between species evolve, relationships may shift from
antagonism to commensalism to mutualism. As a result, the organization of
biological communities is no more fixed than are the characteristics of the species
or their environments. Charles Darwin called this ever-changing mix of species and
their interactions the “entangled bank” and stressed its importance in the
evolutionary process.
There are five types of interactions between different species as listed below:
Competition And Predation
When one entity hunts another animal to suffice its nutritional requirements, it is
referred to as predation. A predator is an entity that hunts its prey. For example, a
snake eats a frog. Here snake is the predator and the frog is its prey. Competition,
on the other hand, is when populations or even an individual compete for food
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resources. It is often referred to as exploitative or consumptive competition. When

there is a competition for territory it is interference competition and preemptive
competition is when they compete for a new piece of territory and have arrived
first.
Commensalism
It is an imbalanced type of interaction wherein one entity benefits while the other
is neither harmed nor benefited. There are four types of commensal associations.
 Inquilinism – An entity occupies living habitat of another species(burrow,
nest)
 Chemical commensalism – A bacteria produces a chemical which nurtures
another bacteria
 Phoresy – An organism tentatively attaches itself to another entity for
transportation requirements.
 Metabiosis – One entity is dependant on the other for survival

Parasitism
One entity benefits from other entities and is harmed, but not necessarily killed.
The entity that is harmed is the host and the one benefited is the parasite. When the
host is killed, this type of behaviour is referred to as parasitoidism. These parasites
can be living on the surface of the host, often addressed as ectoparasites (fleas,
leeches) while endoparasites live inside the host. Endoparasites can be subdivided
into intracellular parasites(live inside cells) and intercellular parasites(live in
spaces between cells).
Mutualism
Both species involved in the interaction are benefited. These interactions take place
in three patterns:
 Facultative mutualism – Species survive on their own under favourable
conditions
 Obligate mutualism – One species is dependent for survival on the other
 Diffusive mutualism – One entity can live with multiple partners

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These relationships have three purposes:

 Defensive mutualism
 Trophic mutualism
 Dispersive mutualism
Amensalism
In this type of interaction, when one population finds itself in danger the other
population is not majorly affected. For instance, Tall and wide plants hinder the
growth of comparatively smaller plants. Some plants even secrete substances that
repress the growth of nearby plants in order to remove competition.

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