Question Bank for I B.

Tech; II Semester
Course: Engineering Physics Course Code:
UNIT- 4: Quantum Mechanics and Free Electron Theory
Course Outcome (CO3): Explain fundamentals of quantum mechanics and apply it to one dimensional
motion of particles.

Part-A
1) What are matter waves?
Ans. Matter waves:
The waves associated with moving material particles are called matter waves.
2) How can you say that matter waves are not electromagnetic waves?
Ans.
 Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves.
 Matter waves do not depend on the charge, as electromagnetic waves do.
 The electric and magnetic field components present in the electromagnetic waves are
not seen in the matter waves.
3) Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron raised to a potential of 54V.
4) Write Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
Ans. Heisenberg’s uncertainity principle:
It is a direct consequence of dual nature of matter proposed by Heisenberg in 1927, known
as uncertainity principle.
Principle:
“It is impossible to measure both the position and momentum of a particle simultaneously
to any desired degree of accuracy’’.
h
x.p 
4
h
E.t 
4

h
J . 
4
where ∆x is uncertainty in determining position, ∆p is uncertainty in determining
momentum, ∆E is uncertainty in determining energy, ∆t is uncertainty in determining time, ∆J is
uncertainty in determining angular momentum, ∆θ is uncertainty in determining angular position.

5) What are the necessary conditions of physically acceptable wave function?

Ans.
 The wave function ‘ψ(x)’ must be finite for all values of ‘x’.
 It must be continuous for all values of ‘x’.
 It must be single valued for all values of ‘x’.
6) What is the most probable position for a particle in one dimensional potential box of
width ‘L’ in the first quantum state? Explain graphically.
Ans.
The probability of finding the particle is Zero at the boundaries of the potential box.
It is easy to see that in the state the probability is seen to be largest at , i.e., in the middle of
the box and it decreases towards the walls.

Figure: wave functions and probability density of a particle inside potential well
In the state the probability is seen to be largest at , i.e., the particle will be found either in
the right-half or in the left-half of the box but never in the middle.
As ‘n’ increases, the number of peaks increase and when ‘n’ is large, the distribution
approaches the classical distribution.
7) Derive an expression for the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated through a
potential of V volts.
Ans. De-Broglie wave length associated with an electron accelerated by potential ‘V’:
If a charged particle, say an electron is accelerated by a potential difference V.
The wave length associated with the electron
h

2mVq
By substituting the values, h = plank’s constant = 6.625 x 10-34J.s
e = charge of electron = 1.6 x 10-19C
m = mass of electron = 9.1 x 10-31Kg in above equation and finally
gets
6.625x1034 1
 x
2 x1.6 x1019 x 9.1x1031 V

1.227 x 10 9
 m
V

12.27 x 1010
 m
V
12.27
 Ao
V
It shows the wavelength associated with an electron in the presence of potential difference V.

8) What is wave-particle duality?

Ans. Dual nature: The material particles exhibit particle nature as well as wave nature. This is
called as dual nature of matter or wave-particle duality.
9) What is de-Broglie’s hypothesis?
Ans. De-Broglie hypothesis of matter waves: According to de-Broglie hypothesis
 Every material particle like electron etc. exhibit dual nature (both particle and wave nature).
 Material particles exhibit wave nature under motion.
 The waves associated with moving material particles are called matter waves.
 The wavelength of matter wave is called as de-Broglie wavelength.
The wavelength of matter wave or de-Broglie wave is given by
h h
 
mv p

10) What is the difference between light waves and matter waves?
Ans.

11) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated with the proton moving with velocity 107
m/s.
12) Calculate the wave length associated with an electron accelerated by a potential of
150V.
13) What is the normalization condition for a wave function?
Ans. The probability of finding the particle in volume element dxdydz is
be equal to unity (normalization condition).

   dxdydz  1
*

14) Write Schroedinger time independent wave particle moving along, (i) X-axis (ii) Y-axis
and (iii) Z-axis.
Ans. Schroedinger time independent wave equation for a particle moving,

Along X-axis,
 2 8 2 m
 ( E  V ) ( x)  0
x 2 h2
 2 8 2 m
Along Y-axis,  2 ( E  V ) ( x)  0
y 2 h

 2 8 2 m
Along Z-axis,  ( E  V ) ( x)  0
z 2 h2

15) Write Schroedinger time independent wave particle moving three dimensional space.
Ans. Three-dimensional Schroedinger time independent wave equation for a particle,

8 2 m
 2  ( E  V )  0    (6)
h2
16) If ‘E’ is the ground state energy of the particle confined to move in a 3D potential box,
then what would be the increase in energy from second energy level to next higher energy
level?
17) Define drift velocity and relaxation time.
Ans. Relaxation time
The relaxation time (t) is the time required for the drift velocity to reduce to 1/e of its initial value.
Drift Velocity:
The steady state velocity of electron due to applied electric field is called “Drift velocity”.

18) Define drift velocity and mobility of an electron.

Ans.
Drift Velocity:
The steady state velocity of electron due to applied electric field is called “Drift velocity”.

Mobility (µ):
Mobility of electron is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field.

19) What is Fermi level? How do you explain it?

Ans. Fermi level is the maximum energy of the filled states at 0K.
(or)
The fermi level is that state at which the probability of occupation of electron is 1/2 at any
temperature above 0K.

20) Write the Failures of Classical Free electron theory.

Ans. Drawbacks of Classical free electron theory:
1) It fails to explain the classification of metals into conductors, semiconductors and insulators.
2) It fails to explain why experimental values of mean free path are greater than theoretical
values.
3) It fails to explain why experimental values of specific heat are lower than theoretical values.
4) It fails to explain why monovalent metals have high conductivity than divalent and trivalent
metals.
5) It fails to explain why some metals like zinc, cadmium have positive hall coefficient instead of
negative.
6) It fails to explain the dependence of electrical conductivity on temperature. (i.e., σ proportional
to 1/T)
7) According to this theory, K/σT = L, a constant (Wiedmann-Franz law) for all temperatures.
But this is not true at low temperatures. Where k is the thermal conductivity
8) This theory fails to explain ferromagnetism, superconductivity, photoelectric effect, Compton
effect and blackbody radiation.

21) Write the Failures of Quantum Free electron theory.

Ans. Demerits:
1. It fails to explain the classification of metals into conductors, semiconductors and
insulators.
2. It fails to explain why monovalent metals have high conductivity than divalent and trivalent
metals.
 3. It fails to explain why some metals like zinc, cadmium have positive hall coefficient instead
of negative.

22) Define Mean free path and drift velocity of electron.

Ans. Mean free path
The average distance traveled by an electron between two consecutive collisions is called mean
free path (λ) of the electron.
λ = vdt -------------- (6) (drift velocity x time)
Drift Velocity:
The steady state velocity of electron due to applied electric field is called “Drift velocity”.

23) Define Mobility and relaxation time.

Ans. Relaxation time
The relaxation time (t) is the time required for the drift velocity to reduce to 1/e of its initial value.
Mobility (µ):
Mobility of electron is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field.

24) How resistivity depends on area of cross section of the material and write the relation
between them.
Ans.

R
A

Part-B

1) a) Explain de Broglie’s hypothesis? Derive the expression for de Broglie’s wavelength.

Ans. Matter waves: The waves associated with moving material particles are called matter
waves.
De-Broglie hypothesis of matter waves: According to de-Broglie hypothesis
 Every material particle like electron etc. exhibit dual nature (both particle and wave nature).
 Material particles exhibit wave nature under motion.
 The waves associated with moving material particles are called matter waves.
 The wavelength of matter wave is called as de-Broglie wavelength.
The wavelength of matter wave or de-Broglie wave is given by
h h
 
mv p
Where, h = plank’s constant = 6.625x10-34J.S, m = mass of the material particle, v =
velocity of particle and p = momentum of particle.
Expression for de-Broglie wavelength:
Consider a photon travelling with mass ‘m’, velocity ‘c’ and frequency ‘v’.
According to the Planck’s theory of radiation, the energy of a photon (quantum) is given by

hc
E  h  (1)

Where, c = velocity of photon, λ = wavelength, h = plank’s constant, v = frequency.
According to Einstein-mass energy relation
E  mc 2 (2)
From equations (1) and (2)
hc
E  mc 2 

h h
 
mc p
Where, mc = p (momentum associated with photon)
In the same way according to de-Broglie hypothesis if a particle of mass ‘m’ is moving with
velocity ‘v’, then the wavelength associated with the particle is

h h
     (3)
mv p
b) Calculate wavelength associated with an electron accelerated by a potential of 100V.
2) a) Obtain an expression for Schroedinger time independent wave equation. (6M)
Ans. Schroedinger time independent wave equation:
Derivation:
Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ in the space having
coordinates (x,y,z) at a time ‘t’. The classical wave equation of the particle is given as,
1  2
 2  2 _____(1)
v t 2
2 2 2
Where  2  Laplacianoperator   
x 2 y 2 z 2
i t
General solution for Eq.(1) is given as,    o e    (2)
Differentiating Eq,(2) twice w.r.t. ‘t’, we get
 2
  2 o e i t
t 2

 2
  2    (3)
t 2

Substituting Eq.(3) in Eq.(1) we get

1
 2  2   2
v
 
4 2
 2  2   0

4 2 m 2 v 2  h 
 2    0    (4)   

 mv 
2
h
The total energy associated with the moving material particle, T.E = K.E + P.E
K .E  T .E  P.E
1 2
mv  E  V
2
m 2 v 2  2m( E  V )      (5)
Substitute eqn. (5) in eqn. (4), we get
 8 2 m
 2
( E  V )  0    (6)
h2
Eq. (6) is known as three-dimensional Schroedinger time independent wave equation for a particle.

b) State and explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle. (4M)

Ans. Heisenberg’s uncertainity principle:
It is a direct consequence of dual nature of matter proposed by Heisenberg in 1927, known
as uncertainity principle.
Principle:
“It is impossible to measure both the position and momentum of a particle simultaneously
to any desired degree of accuracy’’.
h
x.p 
4
h
E.t 
4

h
J . 
4
where ∆x is uncertainty in determining position, ∆p is uncertainty in determining
momentum, ∆E is uncertainty in determining energy, ∆t is uncertainty in determining time, ∆J is
uncertainty in determining angular momentum, ∆θ is uncertainty in determining angular position.

3) a) Derive the time dependent Schroedinger wave equation for a free particle. (6M)
Ans. Schroedinger time dependent wave equation:
Schroedinger time dependent wave equation can be
obtained by eliminating of ‘ E ’ in Schroedinger time independent wave equation.
Schroedinger time independent equation is,
2m
 2  ( E  V )  0    (1)
2
i t
Differentiating the equation    o e with respect to ‘t’, we get
   o e i t

 i  o e i t
t

 i (2)  o e i t
t
 i 2E
 
t h
 2E
 
t ih

E =i -----(2)
t
Substituting Eq.(2) in Eq.(1), we have
 This equation contains the time and hence is called Schroedinger time dependent
wave equation. Eq.(8) van be written as,

The operator is called Hamiltonian and is represented by ‘H’.

b) An electron is bound in one-dimensional infinite well of width10-10m. Find the energy

values in the ground state and first excited state.(4M)
4) a) What is the physical significance of wave function? List out the requirements for a
valid wave function. (4M)
Ans. Physical significance of wave function:
There is an associated wave function ‘ψ’ with the system
and any state of the system is described completely by this wave function.
1. The wave function ‘Ψ’ has no direct physical meaning.
2. Ψ.Ψ* = |Ψ|2 is the probability density (or) probability of finding a particle.
3. The probability of finding the particle in volume element dxdydz is
be equal to unity (normalization condition).

   dxdydz  1
*

4. The wave function ‘ψ(x)’ must be finite for all values of ‘x’.
5. It must be continuous for all values of ‘x’.
6. It must be single valued for all values of ‘x’.
7. Orthogonal condition.
b

 ( x). ( x).dx  0
*
1 2
a
8. ‘Ψ’ vanishes at boundaries.

b) Obtain an expression for Schroedinger time independent wave equation. (6M)

Ans. Schroedinger time independent wave equation:
Derivation:
Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ in the space having
coordinates (x,y,z) at a time ‘t’. The classical wave equation of the particle is given as,
1  2
 2  2 _____(1)
v t 2
2 2 2
Where  2  Laplacianoperator   
x 2 y 2 z 2
i t
General solution for Eq.(1) is given as,    o e    (2)
Differentiating Eq,(2) twice w.r.t. ‘t’, we get
  2
  2 o e i t
t 2

 2
  2    (3)
t 2

Substituting Eq.(3) in Eq.(1) we get

1

 2  2   2
v

4 2
 2  2   0

4 2 m 2 v 2  h 
 2    0    (4)    
 mv 
2
h
The total energy associated with the moving material particle, T.E = K.E + P.E
K .E  T .E  P.E
1 2
mv  E  V
2
m 2 v 2  2m( E  V )      (5)
Substitute eqn. (5) in eqn. (4), we get

8 2 m
 2  ( E  V )  0    (6)
h2
Eq. (6) is known as three-dimensional Schroedinger time independent wave equation for a
particle.
5) a) Show that the solution of Schrodinger wave equation for a particle in an infinite
potential well leads to the concept of quantization of energy. (7M)
Ans. Particle in one dimensional potential well or box of infinite height:
Consider a material particle of mass ‘m’ moving along x-axis between the two rigid walls A
and B at x = 0 and x = a, as shown in below figure.
The particle is free to move between the walls. So, the potential
energy of the particle between the walls is constant because no force
is acting on the particle. For simplicity, the potential is taken as zero
between the walls.
When the particle strikes any one of the walls, the force acting on the
particle changes from zero to finite value within a small distance.
So, the potential function can be defined as
V (x) = 0 for 0<x<a
And V (x) = ∞ a ≤ x ≤ 0 ----- (1)
The Schroedinger wave equation for the particle in potential box is given by

As V = 0,  2 ( x) 8 2 m
 2 E ( x)  0   (2)
x 2 h
Let, 8 2 m
2
E  k 2    (3)
h
then eqn. (2) becomes  2 ( x)
 k 2 ( x)  0   (4)
x 2

The general solution of eqn. (3) is given by

 ( x)  A sin kx  B cos kx   (5)
Where A and B are constants. These values can be obtained by applying boundary conditions.

Boundary conditions:  ( x)  0 at x =0 and x = a.

Applying these conditions, we get

i) At x = 0
 (o)  A sin 0  ( x) cos 0
B0
i.e., B =0 and Eq. (5) becomes,
 ( x)  A sin kx    (6)
ii) At x = a
 (a )  A sin 0  ( x) cos 0
A sin ka  0
i.e., A  0 (or ) sin ka  0
 sin ka  0
ka  n (n  1, 2,3,...)
n
k    (7)
a
Eigen values of Energy of particle:

From eqn. (3) and (7) n 2 2 8 2 mEn

k2  
a2 h2
n2h2
En     (8)
8ma 2

Where, n = 1, 2, 3 …
En  n2 E1
This is the expression for energy of a particle in one dimensional potential box (or) well.
The energy of the particle never be zero. It possesses
h2
minimum energy 1 E  . The energy ‘E1’ is called
8ma 2
“Zero-point Energy”.
The expression indicates that the particle can have
only discrete set of values of energy, i.e., the energy of the
particle is quantized. According to classical mechanics, the
particle may take any continuous range of values between
zero and infinity.

Figure: Energy level of a particle inside an

infinite potential well
 b) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron moving with velocity 107m/s. (3M)
6) a) What are matter waves? Explain their properties. (5M)
Ans. Matter waves:
The waves associated with moving material particles are called matter waves.
Properties of matter waves:
1. Lighter is the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
2. Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
3. When v = 0, then λ = ∞, i.e wave becomes indeterminate.
If v = ∞, then λ = 0, i.e the waves are produced by motion of particles.
4. The velocity of matter wave depends on the velocity of particle (The velocity of EM wave
is constant).
5. The velocity of matter wave is greater than the velocity of light.
6. The wave and particle nature of moving bodies can never appear together.
7. The wave nature of matter introduces an uncertainty in the location of the position of the
particle.
8. They are Non-electromagnetic (EM) waves (independent of charge)
9. They exhibit diffraction like other waves.
10. Matter waves are pilot waves they guide the material particles.

b) If the kinetic energy of the neutron is 0.025ev, calculate its de Broglie wavelength.
(Mass of neutron = 1.674X10-27Kg). (5M)
7) a) Derive Schroedinger wave equations. (6M)
Ans. Write the answer of 2(a) and 3(a)
b) An electron is confined to a box of length 2 x 10-9 m. Calculate the minimum
uncertainty in the measurement of its velocity. (4M)
8 a State and explain Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle. (5M)
Ans. Heisenberg’s uncertainity principle:
It is a direct consequence of dual nature of matter proposed by Heisenberg in 1927, known
as uncertainity principle.
Principle:
“It is impossible to measure both the position and momentum of a particle simultaneously
to any desired degree of accuracy’’.
h
x.p 
4
h
E.t 
4

h
J . 
4
where ∆x is uncertainty in determining position, ∆p is uncertainty in determining
momentum, ∆E is uncertainty in determining energy, ∆t is uncertainty in determining time, ∆J is
uncertainty in determining angular momentum, ∆θ is uncertainty in determining angular position.
Applications of uncertainty principle:
1. Non-existence of electrons and existence of protons and neutrons in nucleus.
2. Binding energy of an electron in an atom.
3. Radiation of light from an excited atom.

b An electron has a velocity of 600 m/s with an accuracy of 0.005%. Calculate the
uncertainty with which we can locate the position of the electron. (5M)
9) a) Derive an expression for the wave function and energy of a particle confined in a
one-dimensional potential box using Schrodinger’s wave equation. (10M)
Ans. Particle in one dimensional potential well or box of infinite height:
Consider a material particle of mass ‘m’ moving along x-axis between the two rigid walls A
and B at x = 0 and x = a, as shown in below figure.
The particle is free to move between the walls. So, the potential
energy of the particle between the walls is constant because no force
is acting on the particle. For simplicity, the potential is taken as zero
between the walls.
When the particle strikes any one of the walls, the force acting on the
particle changes from zero to finite value within a small distance.
So, the potential function can be defined as
V (x) = 0 for 0<x<a
And V (x) = ∞ a ≤ x ≤ 0 ----- (1)
The Schroedinger wave equation for the particle in potential box is given by

As V = 0,  2 ( x) 8 2 m
 2 E ( x)  0   (2)
x 2 h
Let, 8 2 m
2
E  k 2    (3)
h
then eqn. (2) becomes
 2 ( x)
 k 2 ( x)  0   (4)
x 2

The general solution of eqn. (3) is given by

 ( x)  A sin kx  B cos kx   (5)
Where A and B are constants. These values can be obtained by applying boundary conditions.

Boundary conditions:  ( x)  0 at x =0 and x = a.

Applying these conditions, we get

i) At x = 0
 (o)  A sin 0  ( x) cos 0
B0
i.e., B =0 and Eq. (5) becomes,
 ( x)  A sin kx    (6)
ii) At x = a
  (a )  A sin 0  ( x) cos 0
A sin ka  0
i.e., A  0 (or ) sin ka  0
 sin ka  0
ka  n (n  1, 2,3,...)
n
k    (7)
a
Eigen values of Energy of particle:

From eqn. (3) and (7) n 2 2 8 2 mEn

k2  
a2 h2
n2h2
En     (8)
8ma 2

Where, n = 1, 2, 3 …
En  n2 E1
This is the expression for energy of a particle in one dimensional potential box (or) well.
The energy of the particle never be zero. It possesses
h2
minimum energy E1  . The energy ‘E1’ is called
8ma 2
“Zero-point Energy”.
The expression indicates that the particle can have
only discrete set of values of energy, i.e., the energy of the
particle is quantized. According to classical mechanics, the
particle may take any continuous range of values between
zero and infinity.

Figure: Energy level of a particle inside an

infinite potential well
Wave-function of the particle:
Substitute Eq.(7) in Eq.(6), we get
 n x 
 n ( x)  A sin      (9)
 a 
By Normalization factor, we have a

  ( x) dx  1
2

nx
a

A dx  1
2
sin 2
0
a
2
A ,
a

2 n x
 ( x)  sin    (10)
a a
 2  n x 
 n2 ( x)  sin 2      (11)
a  a 
Eq. (10) represents the wave function of the particle in One Dimensional potential box.
Eq. (11) represents the probability density of finding the particle in One Dimensional
potential box.
From Eq.(10) we conclude that the wavefunction of the particle is quantized.
The probability of finding the particle is Zero at the boundaries of the potential box.
a
It is easy to see that in the state ' 1 ' the probability is seen to be largest at x  , i.e., in the middle
2
of the box and it decreases towards the walls.

Figure: wave functions and probability density of a particle inside potential well
a 3a
In the state ' 2 ' the probability is seen to be largest at x  and , i.e., the particle will
4 4
be found either in the right-half or in the left-half of the box but never in the middle.
As ‘n’ increases, the number of peaks increase and when ‘n’ is large, the distribution
approaches the classical distribution.
10) a) Discuss the mathematical properties of wave function graphically which satisfy the
Schrodinger wave equation and give the probabilistic interpretation of wave function of a
particle.
Ans. The probability of finding the particle is Zero at the boundaries of the potential box.
It is easy to see that in the state the probability is seen to be largest at , i.e., in the middle of
the box and it decreases towards the walls.

Figure: wave functions and probability density of a particle inside potential well
In the state the probability is seen to be largest at , i.e., the particle will be found either in
the right-half or in the left-half of the box but never in the middle.
As ‘n’ increases, the number of peaks increase and when ‘n’ is large, the distribution
approaches the classical distribution.

b) Find the lowest energy of an electron moving in one dimension in an infinitely high
potential box of width 1Å. Given that mass of the electron is 9.1 x 10 -31 kg and h = 6.63 x 10-
34 Js.
 11) a) Deduce Eigen values of energy for a particle moving one potential box of width ‘a’.
Ans. Eigen values of energy for a particle moving one potential box of width ‘a’:
Consider a material particle of mass ‘m’ moving along x-axis between the two rigid walls A
and B at x = 0 and x = a, as shown in below figure.
The particle is free to move between the walls. So, the potential
energy of the particle between the walls is constant because no force
is acting on the particle. For simplicity, the potential is taken as zero
between the walls.
When the particle strikes any one of the walls, the force acting on the
particle changes from zero to finite value within a small distance.
So, the potential function can be defined as
V (x) = 0 for 0<x<a
And V (x) = ∞ a ≤ x ≤ 0 ----- (1)
The Schroedinger wave equation for the particle in potential box is given by

As V = 0,  2 ( x) 8 2 m
 2 E ( x)  0   (2)
x 2 h
Let, 8 2 m
2
E  k 2    (3)
h
then eqn. (2) becomes
 2 ( x)
 k 2 ( x)  0   (4)
x 2
The general solution of eqn. (3) is given by
 ( x)  A sin kx  B cos kx   (5)
Where A and B are constants. These values can be obtained by applying boundary conditions.

Boundary conditions:  ( x)  0 at x =0 and x = a.

Applying these conditions, we get

i) At x = 0
 (o)  A sin 0  ( x) cos 0
B0
i.e., B =0 and Eq. (5) becomes,
 ( x)  A sin kx    (6)
ii) At x = a
 (a )  A sin 0  ( x) cos 0
A sin ka  0
i.e., A  0 (or ) sin ka  0
 sin ka  0
ka  n (n  1, 2,3,...)
n
k    (7)
a
Eigen values of Energy of particle:

From eqn. (3) and (7) n 2 2 8 2 mEn

k2  
a2 h2
n2h2
En     (8)
8ma 2

Where, n = 1, 2, 3 …
En  n2 E1
This is the expression for energy of a particle in one dimensional potential box (or) well.
The energy of the particle never be zero. It possesses
h2
minimum energy E1  . The energy ‘E1’ is called
8ma 2
“Zero-point Energy”.
The expression indicates that the particle can have
only discrete set of values of energy, i.e., the energy of the
particle is quantized. According to classical mechanics, the
particle may take any continuous range of values between
zero and infinity.

Figure: Energy level of a particle inside an

infinite potential well

b) Find the 1st and 2nd excited state energy of an electron confined in a box of length
0.1 nm.
12) a) Discuss merits and demerits of classical free electron theory. (7M)
Ans. Drawbacks of Classical free electron theory:
 It fails to explain the classification of metals into conductors, semiconductors and
insulators.
 It fails to explain why experimental values of mean free path are greater than theoretical
values.
 It fails to explain why experimental values of specific heat are lower than theoretical values.
 It fails to explain why monovalent metals have high conductivity than divalent and trivalent
metals.
 It fails to explain why some metals like zinc, cadmium have positive hall coefficient instead
of negative.
 It fails to explain the dependence of electrical conductivity on temperature. (i.e., σ
proportional to 1/T)
 According to this theory, K/σT = L, a constant (Wiedmann-Franz law) for all
temperatures. But this is not true at low temperatures. Where k is the thermal conductivity
 This theory fails to explain ferromagnetism, superconductivity, photoelectric effect,
Compton effect and blackbody radiation.
Demerits of Quantum free electron theory:
 It fails to explain the classification of metals into conductors, semiconductors and
insulators.
  It fails to explain why monovalent metals have high conductivity than divalent and
trivalent metals.
 It fails to explain why some metals like zinc, cadmium have positive hall coefficient
instead of negative.

b) Explain the terms mean free path, mean collision time and drift velocity. (5M)
Ans.
Mean free path
The average distance traveled by an electron between two consecutive collisions is called
mean free path (λ) of the electron.
λ = vdt -------------- (6) (drift velocity x time)
Mean collision time:
The average duration of time that elapses between two successive collisions is called mean
collision time.

 

Drift Velocity:
The steady state velocity of electron due to applied electric field is called “Drift velocity”.

13) a) What are the postulates of quantum free electron theory? Explain. (4M)
Ans. Postulates of quantum free electron theory
1. The eigen values energy of an electron in a metal is quantized.
2. The distribution of electrons among the various energy levels is as per the Pauli’s exclusion
principle.
3. Electron moves in the metal of constant potential.
4. The attraction between ions and electrons as well as repulsion between electrons are
neglected.
b) Derive the expression for electrical conductivity based on quantum free electron
theory. (6M)
Ans. Expression for Electrical conductivity (σ): (based on Quantum free electron theory)
When an electric field ‘E’ is applied the force exerted on the electron is,
F  eE
dp
 eE ( Force is rate of changeof momentum)  (1)
dt
Since momentum can be given as, p =

Because of collision with imperfections, displacement of ‘k’ space becomes steady (=Δk) and dt is
then average collision time ‘τ’.

Since p = mv = , incremental velocity Δv is given as,

We know that current density ‘J’ is given as,
J  n(e)vd
ne2 E
J
m
From Ohm’s law we have, J   E
Where electrical conductivity is given as,

*
In terms of effective mass ‘m ’, expression for conductivity is given as,

14) a) Explain Fermi-Dirac distribution function. Plot this function for various
temperatures including 0K. (5M)
Ans. Fermi Dirac Distribution Function
Fermi-Dirac distribution function gives the probability of occupation of electron among the
various energy levels at a temperature.

Where EF is called Fermi

level. Fermi level is the highest filled energy level at 0 K.
Energy corresponding to Fermi level is known as Fermi
energy.
At T=0K, for E<EF,
At T=0K, for E> EF,
i.e., All the quantum states with energy below EF are
occupied and those above EF are unoccupied as shown in
figure.
Hence, Fermi level is the maximum energy of the filled states at 0K. (or)
The fermi level is that state at which the probability of occupation of electron is 1/2 at any
temperature above 0K.

b) Find the mobility of electrons in copper if there are 9x1028 valance electrons/m3 and
the conductivity of copper is 6x107 mho/m.

15) a) What are the drawbacks of the classical free electron theory? Derive an expression
for electrical conductivity of a conducting material based on quantum mechanical
treatment.
Ans. Drawbacks of Classical free electron theory:
1) It fails to explain the classification of metals into conductors, semiconductors and
insulators.
2) It fails to explain why experimental values of mean free path are greater than theoretical
values.
3) It fails to explain why experimental values of specific heat are lower than theoretical values.
4) It fails to explain why monovalent metals have high conductivity than divalent and trivalent
metals.
5) It fails to explain why some metals like zinc, cadmium have positive hall coefficient instead of
negative.
6) It fails to explain the dependence of electrical conductivity on temperature. (i.e., σ proportional
to 1/T)
7) According to this theory, K/σT = L, a constant (Wiedmann-Franz law) for all temperatures.
But this is not true at low temperatures. Where k is the thermal conductivity
8) This theory fails to explain ferromagnetism, superconductivity, photoelectric effect, Compton
effect and blackbody radiation.

Expression for Electrical conductivity (σ): (based on Quantum free electron theory)
When an electric field ‘E’ is applied the force exerted on the electron is,
F  eE
dp
 eE ( Force is rate of changeof momentum)  (1)
dt
Since momentum can be given as, p =

Because of collision with imperfections, displacement of ‘k’ space becomes steady (=Δk) and dt is
then average collision time ‘τ’.

Since p = mv = , incremental velocity Δv is given as,

We know that current density ‘J’ is given as,

J  n(e)vd
ne2 E
J
m
From Ohm’s law we have, J   E
Where electrical conductivity is given as,

*
In terms of effective mass ‘m ’, expression for conductivity is given as,

b) Find the relaxation time of conduction electrons in a metal of resistivity 1.54 x10 8
ohm- m. If the metal has 5.8 x1028 conduction electrons m-3. (4M)
 16) a) Explain Fermi–Dirac distribution function and also its variation with temperature.
Ans. Fermi Dirac Distribution Function
Fermi-Dirac distribution function gives the probability of occupation of electron among the
various energy levels at a temperature.

Where EF is called Fermi

level. Fermi level is the highest filled energy level at 0 K.
Energy corresponding to Fermi level is known as Fermi
energy.
At T=0K, for E<EF,
At T=0K, for E> EF,
i.e., All the quantum states with energy below EF are
occupied and those above EF are unoccupied as shown in
figure.
Hence, Fermi level is the maximum energy of the filled states at 0K. (or)
The fermi level is that state at which the probability of occupation of electron is 1/2 at any
temperature above 0K.

b) In a solid, consider the energy level lying 0.01 eV below Fermi level. What is the
probability of this level not being occupied by an electron? (4M)

17) a) Derive the expression for the density of energy states in metals. (7M)
Ans. Expression for Density of States:
The density of states is defined as the number of energy levels available per unit volume per
unit energy centered at ‘E’.
The product of Z(E)dE gives the number of states per unit volume between the energy
levels ‘E’ and ‘E+dE’,
i.e., N(E) = Z(E)dE – – – (1)

 Z ( E )dE  n 2 dn    (2)
2
According to quantum mechanics, the energy of an electron confined within one dimensional
potential well of width ‘a’ is given by,
n2 h2
E
8ma 2
8ma 2 E
n2     (3)
h2
Differentiating Eq.(3), we get,
8ma 2 E
2n dn 
h2
4ma 2 E
n dn     (4)
h2
Substituting Eq.(4) in Eq.(2), we get,
 1
  8ma 2 E  2
4ma 2 E
Z ( E )dE    dE
2  h2  h2
3
  8ma 2  2
1
Z ( E )dE   2  E 2
dE
4 h 
Since each energy level is occupied with two electrons of opposite spin as per Pauli’s exclusion principle.
3
  8ma 2  2
1
 Z ( E )dE    E 2
dE
2  h 2 
4 3 1
Z ( E )dE  3
(2m) 2 a 3 E 2 dE
h
The density of states is given as number of energy states per unit volume per unit energy range is,
4 3 1
Z ( E )dE  3
( 2 m ) 2
E 2
dE
h

b) For the metal having 6.5x1028 conduction electrons per m3 find the relaxation time of
conduction electrons if the metal has resistivity 1.43x10-8Ωm

18) a) Derive an expression for the density of energy states and carrier concentration in a
metal by using Fermi distribution function.
Ans. Expression for Density of States:
The density of states is defined as the number of energy levels available per unit volume per
unit energy centered at ‘E’.
The product of Z(E)dE gives the number of states per unit volume between the energy
levels ‘E’ and ‘E+dE’,
i.e., N(E) = Z(E)dE – – – (1)

 Z ( E )dE  n 2 dn    (2)
2
According to quantum mechanics, the energy of an electron confined within one dimensional
potential well of width ‘a’ is given by,
n2 h2
E
8ma 2
8ma 2 E
n 
2
   (3)
h2
Differentiating Eq.(3), we get,
8ma 2 E
2n dn 
h2
4ma 2 E
n dn     (4)
h2
Substituting Eq.(4) in Eq.(2), we get,
1
  8ma 2 E  2
4ma 2 E
Z ( E )dE    dE
2  h2  h2
3
  8ma 2  2
1
Z ( E )dE    E 2
dE
4  h 2 
Since each energy level is occupied with two electrons of opposite spin as per Pauli’s exclusion principle.
 3
  8ma 2  2
1
 Z ( E )dE    E 2
dE
2  h 2 
4 3 1
Z ( E )dE  3
(2m) 2 a 3 E 2 dE
h
The density of states is given as number of energy states per unit volume per unit energy range is,
4 3 1
Z ( E )dE  ( 2 m ) 2
E 2
dE
h3

b) Find the relaxation time of conduction electrons in a metal of resistivity 1.54 x 10-8 Ω-
m, if the metal has 5.8 x 1028 conduction electrons per m3.
19) a) Derive the equation for fermi energy of a metal.
Ans. Expression For Fermi Energy:
“Fermi energy is defined as the maximum energy of filled energy states at 0K”. (or)
It can also be defined as, “ The energy level at which the probability of occupation of electron is
one-half at a temperature T>0K”.
At absolute temperature (T=0K), the electrons fill the available states starting from the
lowest energy level.
The number of free electrons is equal to number of quantum states upto energy EF.
EF

i.e., N   Z ( E )dE
0

4
EF
3

1
N 3
(2m) 2 a 3 E 2 dE
0
h
4 F E
3
N  3 (2m) a  E 2 dE
1
2 3
h 0

4
 
3 3
N (2 m ) 2 3
a E F (0) 2
h3
2
h 2  3N  3
EF (0)   
2m  8 V 
In terms, of electron concentration ,
2
h2  3nC  3
EF (0)     (1)
2m  8 
Eq.(1) represents the fermi energy at 0K.
Fermi energy decreases with increase in the temperature of the metal, and it ca n be given
as,
  2  kT 2 
EF  EF (0) 1        (2)
 12  EF (0)  
Above equation shows that variation of fermi energy with temperature is very slight and
for all practical purposes it is assumed that .
b) Calculate the Fermi energy for copper, given that the number of conduction
electrons per unit volume is 8.49×1028 m−3.