Solanaceous Fruits Including Tomato, Eggplant, and Peppers

P Padmanabhan, A Cheema, and G Paliyath, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada

ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction erect and prostrate. Stem is green and covered with glandular
trichomes. Leaves are spirally arranged and the leaflets are
The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is one of the most commer- ovate to oblong covered with hairs. Inflorescence is a cyme
cially important vegetable cultivated worldwide. Tomato is a consisting of clusters of 6–12 flowers known as ‘truss.’ Bright
member of the nightshade family or Solanaceae that includes yellow colored flowers are bisexual, pentamerous, and pendu-
more than 3000 species. This family also includes other popular lous. Flowers are mostly self-pollinated and also partly cross-
species, such as potato, tobacco, peppers, and eggplant (auber- pollinated. Bees and bumblebees are the principal pollinators.
gine). Tomato is the only domesticated species of the section The fruit is an edible berry and the shape is variable with
Lycopersicon of the genus Solanum, which consists of 13 species cultivars. Tomato fruit may be round, oblate, flattened at the
or subspecies. The tomato originated in the western coastal top and bottom, or pear-shaped. Immature berries are pale
plain of South America. It was first domesticated in Mexico green turning to red when ripe. Botanically, tomato is a berry,
and the fruit was introduced to Europe by the Spanish explorers but it is nutritionally classified as a vegetable. Berries are fleshy
in the mid-1500s. For many years, tomatoes were considered and juicy, which can be bi-or multilocular. Fruit is composed
as poisonous and unsafe to eat as they are members of the of pericarp, placental tissue, and seeds. Pericarp or the ovary
nightshade family. Tomatoes were introduced to the United wall can be divided into exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The
States in 1710 but only became popular as a food item later exocarp consists of a cuticle layer that thickens with fruit matu-
in that century. Today, tomato is the second most consumed rity and the skin, which includes an epidermal cell layer and
and widely grown nonstarchy vegetable in the world after three to four layers of collenchymatous tissues. Numerous
potato. The average world production of tomato is estimated flattened straw-colored seeds are attached to the placenta, a
to be around 159 million tons. In the last few years, tomato parenchymatous tissue that becomes gelatinous and softens as
consumption has increased considerably as they became an the fruit matures.
important part of the human diet. Therefore, the area of tomato
cultivation has also expanded globally in the last few years.
The leading tomato producers are China, India, the United
States, Turkey, and Egypt. According to the USDA’s estimate, Tomato Production
35% of raw tomatoes are processed into sauces, 18% into
tomato paste, 17% into canned tomatoes, 15% into juices, Tomato is a frost-sensitive tender warm season crop. It requires a
and 15% into catsup. relatively cool, dry climate for optimum growth and high yield
with good quality. However, it can survive a wide range of
climatic conditions from temperate to hot and humid tropical.
An average daily mean temperature of 20–24  C is considered
Pattern of Consumption optimum for growth, yield, and fruit quality. Plants can survive
a range of temperatures, but the plant tissues are damaged below
Tomatoes form a vital part of a variety of dishes and food 10  C and above 38  C. Fruit set and quality are poor at tem-
products including curries, soups, and pasta. Tomatoes are peratures below 12  C and 35  C. Significantly higher or lower
eaten fresh and commonly consumed as part of salads and temperatures can have negative effects on fruit set and quality.
sandwiches. They are also served roasted, broiled, and stewed. The tomato is a self-pollinating plant and outdoors, can be
Ripe tomatoes are processed into various products including effectively pollinated by wind currents. Tomato prefers deep,
tomato paste, ketchup, sauces, sorbets, juice, and puree. Ripe well-drained, sandy loam soils that are rich in organic matter
tomatoes are also canned and sold as diced or whole tomatoes. and plant nutrients, with a pH value of 6–7. Soils with very high
They are also sundried and used in many products. Wines are organic matter content like peat soils, are less suitable due to
also made from tomatoes. Unripe green tomatoes are also their high water holding capacity and nutrient deficiencies.
eaten deep-fried, pickled, or used in salsa. Tomatoes form an Tomatoes are generally transplanted to the field from
essential part of Indian cuisines especially in curries. They are greenhouse-grown plants. Seeding tomatoes directly into the
also extensively used in Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, Italian field is not recommended due to the high cost of hybrid seed
and Spanish cuisines and are used to make pizzas, spaghetti, and the specific conditions required for adequate germination.
and pastas. Tomato plants can be distinguished into the determinate or
the bush type and the indeterminate or the tall type. Plants are
erect and bushy with restricted flowering and fruiting in deter-
Botany and Plant Description minate types and plant growth stops with the commencement
of reproductive stage. They have a short and concentrated fruit
The tomato is a perennial plant typically growing to 1–3 m tall, set that lasts only 2 or 3 weeks, and the fruits ripen much faster
but it is grown as an annual plant. It is a branching herbaceous than those of indeterminate types. The commonly cultivated
diploid plant (2n ¼ 24), and the growth habit ranges between commercial varieties are mostly determinate types. The

24 Encyclopedia of Food and Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00696-6

 Solanaceous Fruits Including Tomato, Eggplant, and Peppers 25

indeterminate or the tall varieties continue to grow after flow- turns into the mature green (MG) stage during the third
ering and are suitable for a long season cropping and harvest phase. After reaching the MG stage, elaborate metabolic
period. Most heirloom garden varieties and greenhouse toma- changes occur in the tomato fruit, which marks the beginning
toes are indeterminate, and they produce flowers and fruit of the fruit ripening process. The breaking (BR) and the ripen-
throughout the life of the plant. Most cultivated tomatoes ing (RR) stages are the two phases of ripening.
require around 75 days from transplanting to first harvest Skin color is the most widely used external index of tomato
and can be harvested for several weeks before production maturity, and distinct changes in external color can be used to
declines. determine harvest maturity. Seed development and locular gel
Most commercial determinate tomatoes are grown using formation are important internal indexes of maturity. MG fruit
short-stake culture for trellising. This type of culture produces has fully developed straw-colored seeds, which will not be cut
fruits that are higher in quality and easier to harvest and when the fruit is sliced with a sharp knife. The locules of MG
enhances spray coverage. Staking or trellising tomato plants fruit are completely filled with jelly at maturity, and the imma-
with bamboo poles, wood stakes, or other sturdy materials ture green fruits have one or more locules without jelly. Skin
provides support and keeps the fruit and foliage off the ground. color remains green during fruit development on the plant. On
Staking will increase fruit yield and size, reduce fruit rot, and reaching maturity, the blossom end of the tomato fruit changes
make spraying and harvesting easier. Determinate tomatoes to a light green or whitish color followed by the appearance of
often require some level of pruning or the removal of suckers one or more distinct white streaks usually at the blossom end.
(axillary shoots). The need for pruning varies with the variety This stage is referred to as ‘mature green.’
used but can significantly impact fruit quality and yield. Inde-
terminate varieties should be staked to facilitate pruning,
pinching, harvesting, and other cultivation practices. Ripening

Tomato is considered as a climacteric fruit. Fruit ripening

Greenhouse Production System involves a series of biochemical events that convert the green
unripe hard acid tasting tomato fruit into a soft fruit with sweet
Greenhouse production of tomato has many advantages over taste and aroma. An increase in respiration, increase in ethylene
the field production such as careful monitoring of the growth production, fruit acidity changes, and changes in starch and
conditions and proper maintenance techniques, which allows sugar content are some major biochemical changes that occur
for off-season year-round production. Greenhouses can pro- during ripening. Tomato fruit develops coloration following a
duce 15 times more yield per acre than under field condi- typical sequence with ripening. In most red-colored cultivars,
tions. Also, >90% of the yields are marketable fruits in after the MG stage, the tip of the blossom end changes to a
greenhouse compared to 40–60% marketable fruit under pinkish-yellow color, which is referred to as the ‘breaker stage.’
field production. Selection of suitable tomato cultivars is a The breaker stage usually occurs within a day after the MG stage.
prerequisite for greenhouse tomato production. Generally, Later, the entire fruit turns to pink, followed by light red and
most greenhouse tomato cultivars are indeterminate in growth finally deep red. The ripening stages of mature tomato fruit are
habit. Because of high production costs, the number of fruit classified as green, breaker, turning, and pink. Color change in
per plant is very important, so the chosen cultivar or variety tomato from green to red during ripening is due to chlorophyll
should also set a high number of fruit per plant. degradation and carotenoid accumulation. Red color is caused
Cluster tomatoes are grown under greenhouse production by high concentration of lycopene. After red ripe, the last stage is
system. Two systems commonly used for greenhouse tomato the process of senescence, which involves degradation of cellular
production are the soil or the soilless culture. In soil culture, tissue eventually leading to the death of the cells.
tomatoes are grown under a greenhouse in a plot of soil using Tomato flavor involves perception of the tastes and aromas
similar techniques that are used in the field. In soilless culture of many chemical compounds and is achieved by a balanced
(also called hydroponics), the necessary nutrients are delivered interaction and combination between sugars and organic acids
to the plant root system in the irrigation water through a in tomato fruit. The ratio of soluble solids to organic acids is
network of pipes. The commonly used substrates for plant important to sweetness and sourness of tomatoes. Sourness of
growth include rock wool, coco fiber (coir pith), perlite, peat, tomatoes is due to organic acid content, mostly malic and citric
sawdust, and pine bark. Greenhouse tomatoes are started from acids. Citric acid was found to be the principal organic acid in
high-quality transplants to ensure uniform crop establishment. ripe tomatoes and during maturation its level rises. High acid-
ity and low soluble solid contents will produce a tart tomato,
while high soluble solids and low acidity will result in a bland
Fruit Development taste. When both soluble solids and organic acids are low, the
result is a tasteless, insipid tomato. More than 400 volatile
After fertilization, tomato fruit development proceeds through compounds have been identified in tomato, and these volatiles
several stages. In the first stage, rapid cell division follows are usually concentrated in the pulp and locular gel of toma-
immediately after fertilization, leading to a progressive increase toes, but not in the skin and seeds. Sugars and their influence
in pericarp cell number. The end of this stage is marked by a on taste are gauged in several ways. Total soluble solids (TSS),
sharp fall in the rate of cell division, which occurs after 2 weeks the titratable acid (TA) ratio, and the total sweetness index
of pollination. During the second stage, an increase in fruit (TSI) are three common measures of tomato fruit quality. TSS
weight occurs as a consequence of cell expansion. The fruit reflects dry matter content and is inversely proportional to
26 Solanaceous Fruits Including Tomato, Eggplant, and Peppers

fruit size. TSS in beefsteak tomatoes ranges from 3% to 5%, in Table 1 Nutrient composition of solanaceous fruits (tomatoes,
medium-sized fruit from 5% to 7% and in cherry tomato fruit eggplants, and pepper)
from 9% to 15%. A minimum TSS and TA of 5 and a minimum
Tomatoes
TA of 0.4, respectively (TSS:TA of 12.5), are considered desir-
(red, ripe, Peppers (sweet,
able to produce a good-tasting table tomato.
Nutrients Units and raw) Eggplants green, and raw)

Water g 94.52 92.30 93.89

Postharvest Handling and Storage Energy kcal 18 25 20
Protein g 0.88 0.98 0.86
Tomatoes picked at the MG stage have a longer postharvest Total lipid g 0.20 0.18 0.17
shelf life and can withstand the stresses of handling and trans- Carbohydrate g 3.89 5.88 4.64
Fiber g 1.2 3.0 1.7
port much better than the fully ripe fruits, which are easily
Sugars g 2.63 3.53 2.40
bruised and damaged. Properly handled MG tomatoes can
Calcium mg 10 9 10
ripen normally and develop flavor to the same extent as vine Iron mg 0.27 0.23 0.34
ripened fruit. However, if immature green stage fruit is inad- Magnesium mg 11 14 10
vertently picked, eating quality is reduced. Immature green Phosphorus mg 24 24 20
tomatoes will not ripen properly and be of low quality. Tomato Potassium mg 237 229 175
fruits are very delicate with a very short postharvest shelf life Sodium mg 5 2 3
and are easily susceptible to damage and bruises. Appropriate Zinc mg 0.17 0.16 0.13
postharvest handling and storage techniques are essential for Vitamin C mg 13.7 2.2 80.4
maintaining acceptable quality and extending the postharvest Thiamin mg 0.037 0.039 0.057
Riboflavin mg 0.019 0.037 0.028
shelf life of tomatoes. After harvesting, tomatoes are cooled to
Niacin mg 0.594 0.649 0.48
reduce field heat, washed, and sorted by size, color, and vari-
Vitamin B6 mg 0.080 0.084 0.224
ety. Fresh tomatoes can be stored after they have been har- Folate mg 15 22 10
vested and sorted or they can first be packaged before storing. Vitamin B12 mg 0 0 0
Cooling before and during storage is important. Tomatoes will Vitamin A mg 42 1 18
deteriorate if they are kept at temperatures below 10  C for Vitamin E mg 0.54 0.30 0.37
longer than 2 weeks or if kept at 5  C for longer than 6–8 days. Vitamin D mg 0 0 0
Tomatoes are sensitive to chilling. Tomatoes that suffer chilling Vitamin K mg 7.9 3.5 7.4
injury fail to ripen, their color development is irregular, and Fatty acids, total g 0.028 0.034 0.058
they are likely to suffer premature softening, browning of saturated
Fatty acids, total g 0.031 0.016 0.008
seeds, and increased decay.
monounsaturated
Fatty acids, total g 0.083 0.076 0.062
polyunsaturated
Chemical Composition of Fresh Tomato Cholesterol g 0 0 0

The chemical composition of tomatoes is greatly dependent on Nutrient values are for 100 g edible portion.
factors such as cultivars, maturity, light, temperature, weather, Source: The USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference.
and cultural practices. The chemical composition of tomato
fruit is important in the development of various fruit quality
attributes: color, texture, appearance, nutrient value, taste,
flavor, and aroma. Generally, sugar content of tomato is a adhesion. Among the regularly consumed vegetables, only
function of stage of maturity. Sugars contribute to the soluble carrots are a better dietary source of vitamin A than the tomato-
solids portion of the fruit that in turn contribute to the tomato based foods. Tomatoes and tomato products also contain
flavor. Free sugars constitute about 60% of the tomatoes and appreciable amounts of fiber. The tomato paste contains
are mainly D-glucose and D-fructose with traces of sucrose and about 11.8 g fiber per cup. Vitamins C and E have very potent
raffinose. Starch content declines with fruit maturity. It varies antioxidant properties. Tomato fruits are also an excellent
from 1–1.22% in immature fruit to 0.1–0.15% in red ripe fruit. source of ascorbic acid and are the major source of vitamin C
The texture of fruit is greatly controlled by the pectin content. next to citrus. The major phytochemicals in tomato are the
Organic acid content and acidity influence the taste and flavor carotenoids comprising 60–64% lycopene, 10–12% phytoene,
of tomato fruit. Citric acid and malic acid are the principal 7–9% neurosporene, and 10–15% carotenes. Tomato contains
organic acids in tomato fruit. As the fruit matures, acidity significant amounts of a-, b-, g-, d-carotene ranging in concen-
increases to a maximum and then declines. Acidity is maxi- trations from 0.6 to 2.0 mg kg1, significantly contributing to
mum at breaker and pink stages. the provitamin A and vitamin A content. Tomatoes are excel-
Tomatoes represent a low-energy nutrient-dense food with lent dietary sources of potassium. Dietary potassium helps
unique composition of several phytochemicals that may posi- lower blood pressure, reduces the adverse effect of excess
tively affect health. Tomato and tomato-derived products are sodium intake on blood pressure, reduces the risk of kidney
excellent sources of folate and vitamins A, C, and E in the form stones, and possibly reduces age-related bone loss. Tomatoes
of a-tocopherol (Table 1). Alpha-tocopherol can improve can supply at least twice the potassium per 100 kcal compared
endothelial functions by preventing platelet aggregation and with other common sources. Increasing potassium intake
 Solanaceous Fruits Including Tomato, Eggplant, and Peppers 27

through increased tomato consumption is a healthful choice to accounting for its strong antioxidative activity associated with
increase the content of potassium in human diet. its ability to act as free radical scavenger. Generally, tomato and
tomato-based food products can supply at least 85% of lyco-
pene in human diet. Lycopene is a key intermediate in the
Tomato Bioactives biosynthesis of many important carotenoids, such as beta-
carotene, and xanthophylls.
Flavonoids constitute the largest group of phenolics in toma-
toes and influence aroma, fragrance, and color characteristics
of fruit. Flavonols (such as quercetin and kaempferol), flava- b-Carotene
nols (such as catechins), flavanones (such as naringenin), and
stilbenes (such as resveratrol) constitute the main classes of b-Carotene is a strong antioxidant and also a scavenger of singlet
tomato flavonoids. Up to 98% of flavonoids are usually con- oxygen. It is also a provitamin A as it can be converted into
centrated in the tomato skin, and relatively, small quantities retinol. In commercial cherry tomato varieties, b-carotene con-
occur in the other parts of the fruit. According to the USDA tent reached 1.2 mg per 100 g FW. Bioaccessibility of b-carotene
flavonoid database, red tomatoes contain on an average 15 mg from raw tomatoes was reported to be about 0.1%. Studies
flavonoids as aglycones per kg FW. Naringenin (45%) is demonstrated the photoprotective effects of b-carotene on
reported as the principal flavonoid followed by quercetin photooxidative damage and sunburn in humans. A significant
(39%), myricetin (10%), and kaempferol (5%). Besides flavo- reduction in erythema formation was also noticed when
noids, chlorogenic acids and the related compounds form the b-carotene was applied on human skin or with a dietary inter-
main phenolic components in tomato. Other studies also vention alone or in combination with a-tocopherol for 12
detected rutin as another major flavonoid in tomato. Occur- weeks. Low concentrations of serum b-carotene have also been
rence of ferulic, caffeic, chlorogenic, and p-coumaric acid was associated with an increased risk of congestive heart failure and
also identified in tomato fruit and skin. Many of these phyto- cardiac death in men. However, some studies do not favor the
chemicals have potent antioxidant properties and in combina- absolute supplementation of high doses of b-carotene because
tion with lycopene may contribute to the numerous health the initial antioxidant activity of b-carotene is followed by a
benefits of tomatoes. The content of phenolic compounds of prooxidant action at high oxygen tension, which may be related
processed products was lower than that of fresh tomatoes. to its adverse effects. Furthermore, intervention studies have
Tomato fruit usually does not contain anthocyanins, and the shown that b-carotene supplementation had no protective effect
red color in tomato is from the carotenoid pigment, lycopene. on total mortality of diabetic male smokers and also in subjects
Recently, purple-fruited tomatoes were developed through with lethal prostate cancer with the use of b-carotene during
breeding programs in Oregon and Canada and also through radiation therapy compared with that of placebo.
genetic engineering. Purple tomatoes have the added health
benefits from the presence of anthocyanins besides the other
health benefiting components in them. Lutein

Average lutein content of raw tomato was reported as 32 mg per

Lycopene 100 g FW, while cherry tomatoes were reported to contain up
to 800 mg per 100 g FW. These carotenoids have also attracted
Lycopene content of fresh tomatoes often varies with cultivars attention for their role in preserving eye health and vision in
and cultivation practices. On a fresh weight (FW) basis, tomato association with zeaxanthin. It has also been reported to be
(on average) contains about 35 mg kg1 of lycopene, with red used in atrophic age-related macular degeneration. The associ-
cultivars containing an average 90 mg kg1 of lycopene and yel- ation between the consumption of lutein and the maintenance
low ones only 5 mg kg1. Processed tomatoes (sauce, paste, juice, of visual function and eye health has not been clearly demon-
and ketchup) contain two- to 40-fold higher lycopene content strated so far.
than fresh tomatoes. Nearly 85% of the average daily intake of
lycopene in the human diet (about 25 mg day1) is obtained
from fresh and processed tomato products. According to some Health Benefits
studies, field-grown tomatoes appear to contain higher levels of
Antioxidant Activity
lycopene ranging from 5.2 to 23.6 mg per 100 g FW than
greenhouse-grown tomatoes (0.1 and 10.8 mg per 100 g FW). Several studies have investigated on the antioxidant effects of
Lycopene is the most abundant carotenoid in tomatoes and lycopene and tomato supplementation in human diet. Data
tomato-based foods, which is responsible for the characteristic from studies that examined the antioxidant effects of lycopene
red color of ripe tomato fruits. Unlike some carotenoids, lyco- and tomatoes consistently show improved antioxidant status
pene lacks the provitamin A activity. Lycopene is about 2 times with tomato/tomato product consumption and after lycopene
greater than b-carotene and 10 times greater than vitamin E in supplementation. However, two clinical trials of lycopene sup-
its potency to quench singlet oxygen and is one of the most plementation reported neutral effects on oxidative stress
potent antioxidants in food. Lycopene occurs in all-trans- markers. One study conducted in relatively healthy individuals
configuration (95%) in fresh tomatoes, while processing and (n ¼ 60) and two studies (n ¼ 40 and n ¼ 57) in individuals
cooking can convert trans-form into the more bioavailable cis- with type 2 diabetes showed decreased lipid peroxidation
form. Lycopene is the principal phytochemical in tomatoes rates and decreased susceptibility of low-density lipoproteins
28 Solanaceous Fruits Including Tomato, Eggplant, and Peppers

(LDLs) to oxidation after daily consumption of tomatoes or kaempferol, and naringenin, inhibited cancer cell proliferation
tomato juice. Others have reported less susceptibility to oxida- in both types of cell lines in a dose-dependent manner, without
tion of DNA and LDL after tomato product consumption. having cytotoxic effects. Lycopene administration (10 mg) for 3
Studies also reported that the plasma antioxidant capacity months decreased PSA level, tumor grade, bone pain, and uri-
decreases when tomatoes and tomato products are removed nary tract symptoms in patients with metastatic prostate cancer.
from the diet and increased when they are added back. However, lycopene is not potent enough to be used clinically as
a drug for prostate cancer because high concentrations are
needed to achieve significant response in humans.
Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD)
In addition, lycopene can inhibit other cancer types (breast,
Oxidative modification of LDL is a key step in the development colorectal, endometrial, lung, oral, and pancreatic). Mixed
of atherosclerotic lesions. Consuming antioxidant-rich plant results have been noticed in the epidemiological studies exam-
foods such as tomatoes may be one way to reduce the risk of ining the association between lycopene and colorectal cancer
cardiovascular atherosclerotic disease through inhibition of risk. Some clinical trials have also reported beneficial effects of
the oxidative process of LDL. High levels of tomato-based lycopene-containing supplements on colorectal and breast
product intake were associated with a reduced risk of cardio- cancer biomarkers. Several possible mechanisms of the action
vascular disease (CVD) and myocardial infarction in women. of tomato phytochemicals responsible for the anticancer
Furthermore, some clinical trials have also supported a rela- effects have been suggested including antioxidant activities,
tionship between CVD and lycopene intake. Studies have also alteration of xenobiotic metabolism, modulation of the
shown that lycopene may reduce cholesterol synthesis and IGF-1, inhibition of cell-cycle progression, and increase in the
increase LDL degradation. Decreased triglyceride levels and formation of gap junctions.
LDL cholesterol and increased high-density lipoprotein choles-
terol levels were noticed in subjects who consumed fresh
Metabolic Diseases, Obesity, and Other Conditions
tomato and tomato juice. Consumption of tomato products
daily for 2–4 weeks has been shown to reduce plasma lipid Evidence to support the benefits of tomatoes in terms of protec-
peroxides and susceptibility of LDL to oxidation and also to tion against diseases associated with metabolic syndrome and
increase antioxidant enzymes. An inverse association between obesity is available. In particular, lycopene reduces transcript
greater consumption of tomato-derived product intakes (>7 levels of proinflammatory cytokines with the downregulation
servings per week) and CVD risk was observed in women, and of interleukin-6 expression. The effect of tomato-derived lyco-
such an association was not observed with lycopene intake pene consumption on markers of inflammation and oxidative
alone. Epidemiological data and results from in vitro and ani- stress was monitored in a group of patients with extreme obe-
mal experiments partly showed promising role of lycopene and sity. Abnormally higher markers of inflammation and oxidation
tomato products in preventing CVD. However, there is still a products and lower plasma carotenoids were noticed in obese
lack of more well-organized human clinical trials and dietary patients compared to control subjects. Studies also showed that
intervention studies using well-defined subjects to provide anti-inflammatory effects derived through consumption of
clear evidence for the protective mechanism of lycopene in tomato products were superior to that of lycopene ingested as
the prevention of CVDs. a single compound. Supplementation of a low-tomato diet with
tomato products resulted in changes in inflammatory markers
such as C-reactive protein (CRP), IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-
Cancer
a (TNF-a). A decline in CRP and cholesterol level was noticed
Consumption of tomatoes and tomato-based products had been after a 2-week dietary tomato juice supplementation (containing
found to be associated with a decreased risk of chronic diseases, 21 mg lycopene and 45.5 mg and 435 mg each vitamin C),
such as cancer. Epidemiological studies and various in vitro and and this effect was stronger with higher dose of vitamin C
in vivo studies also support the protective effects of high intake of addition. It has been demonstrated that lycopene can stimulate
tomato and tomato products containing lycopene on some types the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10 to
of cancer including prostate cancer. The Health Professionals control inflammation and can inhibit the activation of the
Follow-Up Study, a prospective epidemiological study of about transcription nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) and the generation
47 000 men, is of particular importance since it provided the of the proinflammatory cytokines including TNF-a, IL-6, and
strongest epidemiological evidence to support an association IL-8 in macrophages and adipocytes.
between tomato product consumption and a reduced incidence Two studies reported reduced blood pressure after dietary
of prostate cancer. This study showed that consumption of 2–4 lycopene supplementation. Studies also demonstrated an
servings of raw tomatoes per week was associated with a signif- inverse association between serum lycopene and markers of
icant 26% reduced risk of prostate cancer when compared with oxidative stress and bone resorption in postmenopausal
no servings per week. women aged 50–60 years. Also, significant increase (20.6%)
Some clinical trials also observed a reduction in prostate- in the bone resorption marker NTx was noticed after 30 days of
specific antigen (PSA) levels as a surrogate marker for prostate dietary lycopene restriction, which could lead to a long-term
cancer status, while other studies showed a weak effect or no increased risk of fracture. Health beneficial effects of the dietary
effect of tomato consumption or lycopene supplementation on intake of a- and b-carotene and of lycopene on glucose metab-
prostate cancer risk. Preliminary cell culture studies conducted olism in men have been noticed. Studies also reported a linear
using human prostate and mouse hepatic cancer cell lines indi- decrease in b-carotene and lycopene content in persons with
cated that tomato aglycone polyphenols, including quercetin, impaired glucose tolerance and in persons with newly
 Solanaceous Fruits Including Tomato, Eggplant, and Peppers 29

diagnosed diabetes compared to persons with normal glucose system, which eventually releases chylomicrons into the blood.
concentrations. Competition by other carotenoids or cholesterol may also
influence lycopene absorption.
UV Protection
The protective effect of tomato products and lycopene against Solanum melongena L. (Eggplant)
UV-induced sunburn has been reported. In these studies, sub-
jects who consumed synthetic lycopene alone, a softgel encap- Solanum melongena L. or eggplant is also known as aubergine in
sulated tomato extract, or a tomato drink showed a decrease in England or brinjal in India. Eggplant is believed to have orig-
solar simulator-induced sunburn indicating the skin-protective inated in India. Solanum melongena belongs to the tribe
effects of tomato and tomato products. Solaneae and is a member of the subgenus Leptostemonum,
the largest subgenus of the genus Solanum which includes
almost one-third of the species within the genus Solanum.
Bioavailability
Eggplant is a diploid species (2n ¼ 24) with a basic chromo-
Lycopene bioavailability is influenced by a number of factors some number of 12. Eggplant is a perennial plant but culti-
including food processing and dietary composition. In plant vated as an annual for its edible fruit. The plant has an erect
foods, lycopene can occur in a number of forms such as woody branching stem with or without spines. Purple flowers
carotenoid–protein complexes in chloroplasts or in crystalline have 5 calyx lobes and occur singly or in clusters of 2 or more
form inside the chromoplasts. Lycopene bioavailability can be flowers. Fruit are borne singly or in clusters. Eggplant fruit is a
greatly enhanced by various processing methods that break pendant berry and shows high variability in their shape
down the cell walls, making lycopene more accessible, and (round, ovoid, cylindrical, or elongated), size, and fruit color
also through enhanced cis-isomerization. Bioavailability of lyco- (green, white, violet, purple, black, or orange with or without
pene is higher in processed tomato products than in unpro- patches or stripes). The presence or absence of chlorophylls
cessed fresh tomatoes. Furthermore, lycopene bioavailability is and anthocyanins as well as their distribution pattern
also affected by processing methods and storage. Improper pro- determines the fruit color diversity in eggplants. Two other
cessing methods, handling, and storage (i.e., exposure to light Solanum species S. aethiopicum and S. macrocarpon L. are also
and oxygen) can degrade lycopene or alter the ratio of lycopene commonly known as ‘eggplants’ and cultivated for their edible
isomers. fruits. Solanum aethiopicum also known as the scarlet eggplant is
In fact, thermal processing greatly improves lycopene bio- a native of Africa. It differs from S. melongena in its small white
availability by disrupting cellular membranes releasing lycopene corollas and usually bright scarlet fruit that often resemble
from the tissue matrix. Multiple studies have demonstrated that Capsicum peppers. This species is widely grown in Africa and
lycopene from thermally processed tomato products is more South America for its edible fruits. Solanum macrocarpon L., the
bioavailable than lycopene from fresh tomatoes. Lycopene bio- gboma eggplant, is also a native to central Africa and is grown
availability is greatly affected by dietary composition and food for its edible fruits and leaves. The presence of deeply lobed
matrix. Consuming lycopene-containing food with fat increases leaves and very large calyxes usually distinguishes this plant
its bioavailability as lycopene is a lipid-soluble compound. For from S. melongena.
instance, a study found that the consumption of tomato salsa
with avocado (as lipid source) led to a 4.4-fold increase in
Economic Importance, Production, and Uses
lycopene absorption as compared with salsa without avocado.
On ingestion, lycopene is released from the food matrix, Today, eggplant is cultivated globally for its edible fruits. In
and once inside the enterocyte, lycopene is packaged with 2011, total eggplant production accounted to about 46.8 mil-
other dietary lipids into chylomicrons. Then, it is incorporated lion tons. China and India lead the world production of egg-
into mixed micelles. Micelles contain bile salts, cholesterol, plant followed by Turkey, Egypt, Japan, and Italy. Eggplant is
and fatty acids from the meal, and the amphiphilic nature of grown in many countries throughout the tropics, subtropics,
the micelle structure helps to keep the lipophilic nutrients and Mediterranean area, since it requires a relatively long
soluble in the aqueous phase. Heat processing of tomatoes season of warm weather to give good yields. It grows best
converts the all-trans lycopene to various cis-isomers. Cis- between 20 and 35  C, while temperatures below 20  C and
lycopene isomers are regarded as more bioavailable because above 40  C retard growth. Growth is halted at temperatures
they are more soluble and better absorbed from the intestinal below 10–12  C and the crop is frost-sensitive. It thrives well in
lumen than the all-trans isomer. Isomerization may also take fertile well-drained soils with a pH of 5.5–6.8. A growing
place in vivo and the gastrointestinal lumen, liver, and enter- season of about 120 days is required for its successful produc-
ocytes were identified as potential sites of lycopene isomeriza- tion. Eggplant is transplanted rather than directly seeded in the
tion in vivo. Lycopene passively diffuses across the apical field to establish uniform plants. Eggplant is commonly grown
membrane of the intestinal cells. Studies have shown that in open field, but it is also commercially grown in greenhouses.
lycopene absorption can also be facilitated by a cholesterol Grafting is mostly used in conditions of intensive production.
membrane transporter known as scavenger receptor class B Eggplant is grafted mostly onto tomato or tomato interspecific
type I (SR-BI). It has been suggested that lycopene absorption hybrids (L. esculentum  L. hirsutum), which are resistant to
may be facilitated by other transporters, but this has not yet several soil pathogens and also tolerant to low soil tempera-
been confirmed. Chylomicrons are then transported across the tures. Eggplant cultivar diversity differs from country to coun-
basolateral membrane and make their way into the lymphatic try. Most European and American commercial cultivars are
30 Solanaceous Fruits Including Tomato, Eggplant, and Peppers

characterized by fruits that are globose, intermediate, or long, antimicrobial, insecticidal, fungicidal, hypocholesterolemic,
with an almost black and shiny epidermis and weighing anticancer, and hypotensive activities. Eggplants also
200–400 g. Asian countries such as Thailand, China, and have nicotine than any other edible vegetable (100 ng g1).
India are also characterized by astonishing diversity in eggplant The nicotine content in eggplant or any other food is negligible
fruit sizes, shapes, and colors. Eggplants are used in a variety of compared to passive smoking. Eggplant also contains measur-
ways such as grilled, stewed, and fried. It is also added to able amounts of oxalates, which at high concentration can
various curry dishes in India and Thailand. crystallize and cause health problems such as kidney calcium
oxalate stones.
Nutritional Composition
Health Benefits
Eggplant is low in calories and fats and contains mostly water
(Table 1). It also has some protein, fiber, and carbohydrate. Numerous health benefits are associated with the consump-
Eggplant fruit is a good source of various vitamins like B1, B2, tion of eggplants. Besides having potent antioxidant potential,
B6, C, K, thiamine, niacin, and pantothenic acid and minerals eggplant has been used to lower blood cholesterol. A human
like magnesium, potassium, manganese, and copper. In gen- trial showed only a modest and transitory effect of the con-
eral, the purple varieties showed more protein content than the sumption of eggplant powder on total cholesterol and its
white and green varieties. Purple eggplant also contained sig- fractions, triglycerides, and apolipoproteins in blood. Some
nificant amounts of essential amino acids, such as leucine, in vivo studies also have demonstrated that eggplant fruit phe-
valine, lysine, and isoleucine. Additionally, eggplant fruit con- nolic compounds had a significant hypolipidemic property.
tains various antioxidant bioactive compounds including phe- Another study found no effects at all on serum cholesterol
nolic compounds, such as caffeic, p-coumaric and chlorogenic levels and does not recommend eggplant as a replacement to
acid, and flavonoids, such as nasunin and delphinidin in the statins. Among the eight commonly consumed vegetables, egg-
peel of colored varieties. Nasunin is an anthocyanin purple plant showed the lowest bile acid binding capability, several-
pigment (delphinidin-3-coumaroylrutinoside-5-glucoside), fold less than okra and beets. Circulation of bile acids in the
which is the predominant phytochemical in eggplant. Nasunin body is prevented by binding bile acids resulting in reduced fat
is mainly confined to the peel of eggplant and it represents absorption and the utilization of cholesterol from the blood-
between 70% and 90% of the total anthocyanins in the peel. stream to synthesize more bile acids, thereby lowering choles-
Nasunin is a potent antioxidant that effectively scavenges reac- terol levels. Also, eggplant extracts have been found to inhibit
tive oxygen species, such as hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl, and protein-activated receptor-2 inflammation associated with ath-
superoxides. Chlorogenic acid is another predominant pheno- erosclerosis. Eggplant phenolics are touted as having antican-
lic compound found in eggplant, which is also a powerful free cer properties. Nasunin, the major anthocyanin in eggplant
radical scavenger found in plant tissues. Some of the health skins has antioxidant activity, and it has been shown to sup-
benefits associated with chlorogenic acid include antimuta- press the development of blood vessels required for tumor
genic (anticancer), lipid-lowering, antimicrobial, and antiviral growth and metastasis in an ex vivo animal study and an
activities. Besides chlorogenic acid, 13 other phenolic acids in vitro human cell assay. Nasunin is bestowed with numerous
have been identified at varying levels in different commercial health beneficial biological properties such as protecting blood
eggplant cultivars, although chlorogenic acid was the predom- cholesterol from peroxidation, preventing cellular damage,
inant phenolic compound in all of them. The phenolic acids and lessening free radical damage in joints, which is a primary
are responsible for eggplants’ bitter taste and the browning that factor in rheumatoid arthritis. The eggplant glycoalkaloids
result when the flesh is cut. Eggplant is ranked as a vegetable solamargine and solasonine and their common aglycone sola-
with high antioxidant activity that is attributed to the anthocy- sodine showed antiproliferative activities against human colon
anins and phenolic compounds contained in eggplants. Phe- (HT29) and liver (HepG2) cancer cells.
nolic composition of skin and pulp of eggplant fruit differs.
Generally, eggplant peels contain more phenolic compounds
than the pulp. Eggplant fruits also contain other antioxidants Capsicum sp. (Peppers)
including the carotenoids lycopene, lutein, and a-carotene, as
well as the flavonoids myricetin and kaempferol. Peppers are members of the genus Capsicum, which is comp-
The presence of two kinds of steroidal saponosides imparts osed of more than 200 varieties and is native to the tropics of
bitter taste to eggplant. They are glycoalkaloids and melongo- Central and South America. The genus name Capsicum is
sides. The principal glycoalkaloid specific to eggplant is sola- believed to be originated from the Greek word capsicon via
sonine and is the eggplant analogous of the potato solanine the Latin kaptein, which mean ‘to bite.’ The five principal
(aglycone solanidine) and the tomato tomatine (aglycone domesticated species of Capsicum are Capsicum annuum, Capsi-
tomatidine). The glycoalkaloids solamargine and solasonine cum baccatum, Capsicum chinense, Capsicum frutescens, and Cap-
and their common aglycone solasodine were also found in sicum pubescens. Capsicum annuum is, perhaps, the most
eggplant. High concentration of solasonine and melongosides economically important widely cultivated species today and
in the fruit can cause bitterness, making the fruit unpalatable. includes sweet, bell, hot, and jalapeño peppers. The species
Most cultivated species of eggplant normally do not contain C. baccatum include aji amarillo, a chili that is an integral part
high levels of alkaloids. Eggplant fruit bitterness is influenced of Peruvian cuisine, Bishop’s crown, peppadew, and aji limon.
by cultivars, fruit maturity, cultivation and harvest methods. Habanero, bhut jolokia, and Scotch bonnet peppers are some
These steroidal saponosides are characterized by their C. chinense varieties known for their heat and pungency.
 Solanaceous Fruits Including Tomato, Eggplant, and Peppers 31

Capsicum chinense is the most commonly cultivated and dis- provitamin A activities. More than 30 different carotenoid
tributed species of northern South America and West Indies. pigments have been identified in pepper fruit. These include
Capsicum frutescens known indigenously as the ‘bird pepper’ are b-carotene and a number of xanthophylls including lutein,
usually very small, pungent and include the famous tabasco zeaxanthin, violaxanthin, cucurbitaxanthin A, and b-cryptox-
pepper. Capsicum pubescens is primarily found in Central and anthin. Among them, only b-carotene and b-cryptoxanthin
South America and is characterized by hairiness of leaves and possess provitamin A activity and the oxidative cleavage of
black seeds, and some varieties like the rocoto and manzano these compounds yields retinal. Beta-carotene contents vary
can thrive in higher elevations. within varieties of peppers. Some cultivars of hot pepper have
Capsicum fruits show great variations in their pod color, as much as 12 mg kg1 total carotenoids, while in others, its
shape, size, pungency, and flavor. Bell pepper is a cultivar level is undetectable. The main carotenoids responsible for the
group of Capsicum annum. All five species yield pungent fruits red color of pepper fruits are the three xanthophylls unique to
commonly called red pepper or simply capsicum. Varieties of Capsicum, that is, capsanthin, capsorubin, and capsanthin 5,6-
C. annuum produce mild fruits commonly known as paprika, epoxide. Though these carotenoids lack provitamin A activity,
bell pepper, sweet pepper, or green pepper. Bell peppers are they are effective antioxidants and a source of red pigments.
grown for their edible bell-shaped colored fruits with three or Carotenoid content is often an indicator of nutritional
four lobes. The color of bell peppers can be red, yellow, orange, value and quality in pepper. The predominant carotenoids in
green, purple, brown, white, and black. Green peppers are unripe fruit are lutein, b-carotene, and violaxanthin. During
unripe, less sweet and slightly bitter than the colored varieties. maturation, lutein levels decline and levels of b-carotene,
Purple varieties also tend to be less sweet and bitter than the b-cryptoxanthin, and zeaxanthin increase. At the breaking stage
orange, red, or yellow varieties. Plants are branched, mostly of fruit development, the red carotenoids, capsanthin and cap-
erect, annual or perennial herbaceous shrub that grows to sorubin, are produced. Capsanthin levels continue to increase as
30–80 cm tall. Small, off-white, pendent flowers are borne fruit ripen composing between 37% and 80% of total carotenoid
singly or in clusters of one to two flowers. Corolla is five- content. Carotenoids accumulate as the fruit ripens and the red
lobed with five stamens and with bluish/purplish anthers. color of some peppers results from the carotenoid accumulation.
Fruit is a berry with a fleshy, firm, and hollow pericarp. Usu- Antioxidant phytochemicals, carotenoids, and anthocyanins are
ally, fruits of the purple and white varieties do not have a green responsible for the pigmentation of peppers. The principal red
stage. pigments are capsanthin and capsorubin, while lutein, beta-
carotene, zeaxanthin, violaxanthin, and antheraxanthin are the
yellow and orange pigments. Red peppers also contain lycopene,
Method of Consumption
which has many health beneficial attributes. Besides being rich
Capsicum annuum and C. frutescens are the most consumed in phytochemicals, peppers provide dietary fiber.
spices in the world. Peppers form a significant part of the Though the pericarp, flesh, and seed of pepper contain
human diet in many parts of the world. Fruits are consumed flavonoids, pepper is not considered to be a rich source of
in fresh, cooked, or processed forms. Fresh peppers are often flavonoids. Flavones and flavonol aglycones constitute the
used in salads. Chilies are also sold as frozen, canned, dried most prevalent flavonoid groups in pepper. Quercetin and
(whole or crushed pieces), and pickled fruit. Fruit is also pro- luteolin are the prevalent flavonoids in peppers. Luteolin
cessed into various fermented products, powders, sauces, curry and its derivatives form the primary flavones, while quercetin
pastes, and salsas. Dried chilies are often ground into powders and its derivatives are the primary flavonol aglycones. Querce-
and added into various culinary preparations and other dishes. tin is the major flavonoid in chili pepper. Quercetin derivatives
Fresh or dried chilies are also used to make hot sauce. Chili in also dominate in green pepper. Other flavones identified in
the form of powder or paste is a vital ingredient of Indian pepper include apigenin, O-glycosyl flavones, and C-glycosyl
curries. Fresh market types, such as bell, Cuban, and squash, flavone. Several studies also reported that total flavonoid con-
are usually nonpungent and eaten raw or stir-fried. Leaves of tent and the levels of individual flavonoids decline with fruit
Capsicum are edible and are eaten or added to soup and stews maturity. Studies also found that colored peppers generally
in many parts of Southeast Asia. Carotenoid extracts (oleo- had higher quercetin and luteolin contents (red peppers had
resins) are used as a coloring agent by the food, cosmetics, higher contents than yellow and orange peppers).
and pharmaceutical industries. The major phytochemicals in hot peppers are capsaici-
noids. They are a group of phenolic alkaloids specific to the
genus Capsicum. More than 20 capsaicinoids have been identi-
Nutritional Value
fied in pepper. Capsaicin is the predominant component of the
Peppers are good sources of vitamins C and A. Significant pungent flavor in hot pepper, followed by its analog dihydro-
cultivar differences exist in the content of vitamin C. On a capsaicin and these two compounds together contribute more
FW basis, vitamin C content has been shown to increase with than 80% of the total capsaicinoid content. Capsaicin is the
fruit maturity. A serving (100 g) of raw green sweet pepper can primary component of pepper spray. Capsaicinoids are synthe-
provide more than the recommended dietary allowance sized in the fruit placenta. A sensation of heat and pain is
(60 mg) of this vitamin. Peppers also contain vitamins B2 caused by the binding of the capsaicinoids to receptors in
(riboflavin), B3 (niacin), E, K, and B6 (Table 1). Vitamin A mouth and throat resulting in sensing ‘heat’ and serves as a
occurs in pepper as b-carotene and provitamin A. Vitamin A natural defense against herbivory. Birds are not affected by
content and its accumulation increase with fruit maturity. these compounds. Domestication and breeding efforts have
Carotenoids serve as powerful antioxidants and have reduced pungency and capsaicinoid content of some peppers
32 Solanaceous Fruits Including Tomato, Eggplant, and Peppers

especially the bell peppers. Capsaicinoid content is a major Epidemiological studies also have revealed that consumption
quality factor in spice peppers (chili, tabasco, and paprika). of chili peppers in large quantities was at higher risk of devel-
There is a direct correlation between total capsaicinoid levels oping gastric cancer than nonconsumers, thus demonstrating
and pungency (as measured in Scoville heat units, which is a the carcinogenic properties of capsaicin. Evidence from animal
subjective organoleptic measure, and chili hotness is now experiments and clinical studies has suggested that capsaici-
determined by high-performance liquid chromatography). noids possess antiobesity properties by enhancing energy
Capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin are undetectable in sweet pep- expenditure and reducing body fat accumulation.
per varieties, but significant amounts of these compounds are
present in chili and paprika types. Significant variations in the
profile of capsaicinoids are found between and within pepper See also: Phenolic Compounds: Bioavailability and Health Effects;
species. Phenolic Compounds: Occurrence, Classes, and Analysis.

Health Benefits and Medicinal Uses

Further Reading
Capsicum is used internally to treat diarrhea, cramps, colic, and
toothache, and it acts as stomachic, carminative, and stimu- Anand PA and Bley K (2011) Topical capsaicin for pain management: therapeutic
lant. It can clear the lungs and sinuses, protect the stomach by potential and mechanisms of action of the new high-concentration capsaicin 8%
increasing the flow of digestive juices, trigger the brain to patch. British Journal of Anaesthesia 107: 490–502.
Burton-Freeman B and Reimers K (2011) Tomato consumption and health: emerging
release endorphins, and help protect the body against cancer
benefits. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine 5: 182–195.
through antioxidant activity. Peppers have anti-inflammatory Canene-Adams K, Campbell JK, Zaripheh S, Jeffery EH, and Erdman JW Jr. (2005) The
activity and shown to have both antihyperglycemia and anti- tomato as a functional food. Journal of Nutrition 135: 1226–1230.
hypertension potential. Pepper occupies a top place among Charles DJ (2013) Capsicum. Antioxidant properties of spices, herbs and other sources.
various vegetables and ranks high for antioxidant activity. New York: Springer Science, 189–197.
Clinton SK (1998) Lycopene: chemistry, biology, and implications for human health and
Antioxidant vitamins such as A and C help to prevent inflam- disease. Nutrition Reviews 56: 35–51.
mation, cell damage, cancer, and age-related ailments and help Frary A, Doganlar S, and Daunay MC (2007) Eggplant. In: Kole C (ed.) Vegetables.
to boost immunity. Vitamin K helps protect cells from oxida- Genome mapping and molecular breeding in plants, Vol. 5. Berlin, Heidelberg:
tive damage, promotes proper blood clotting, and strengthens Springer-Verlag.
Frary A and Frary A (2012) Physiology of peppers. In: Russo VM (ed.) Peppers: botany,
bones. Beta-cryptoxanthin, a carotenoid in red peppers, has
production and uses, pp. 176–188. USA: CAB International.
shown promise for helping to prevent lung cancer related to Giovannucci E (1999) Tomatoes, tomato-based products, lycopene and cancer: review
smoking and passive smoke. of the epidemiologic literature. Journal of the National Cancer Institute
Capsaicin, the pungent compound in chili peppers, is an 91: 317–331.
ingredient of several commercial medicinal formulations for Luo X-J, Peng J, and Li Y-J (2011) Recent advances in the study on capsaicinoids and
capsinoids. European Journal of Pharmacology 650: 1–7.
the treatment of muscle pains, toothaches, burning-mouth Rao AV (2002) Lycopenes, tomatoes, and the prevention of coronary heart disease.
syndrome, gastric ulceration, painful diabetic neuropathy, Experimental Biology and Medicine 227: 908–913.
and arthritis. Various topical and injectable formulations con- Rao AV, Waseem Z, and Agarwal S (1998) Lycopene content of tomatoes and tomato
taining capsaicin have been developed for the treatment of products and their contribution to dietary lycopene. Food Research International
31: 737–741.
pain. The capsaicin in hot peppers has been shown to decrease
Slimestad R and Verheul M (2009) Review of phenolics and other phenolics from fruits
blood cholesterol and triglycerides and reduce the risk of of different tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) cultivars. Journal of the Science
stomach ulcers. Although capsaicinoids demonstrated gastro- of Food and Agriculture 89: 1255–1270.
protective effects in several animal studies, it can also have Story EN, Kopec RE, Schwartz SJ, et al. (2010) An update on the health effects of tomato
detrimental effects on the gastrointestinal system at very high lycopene. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology 1: 189–210.
Viuda-Martos A, Sanchez-Zapata E, Sayas-Barbera E, et al. (2014) Tomato and tomato
doses. Capsaicin also has analgesic, antibacterial, and antidia- byproducts. Human health benefits of lycopene and its application to meat products:
betic properties. It is also used to treat bladder hypersensitivity, a review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 54: 1032–1049.
vasomotor rhinitis, and hyperreflexia of spinal origin. Capsai-
cin has been reported to have substantial anticarcinogenic
effects in several in vitro and in vivo studies suggesting its use
Relevant Websites
for chemoprevention. Capsaicin showed its antitumorigenic
activities in breast cancer and prostate cancer cells. Capsaicin http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/
exerted a number anticarcinogenic and tumor-preventive complementaryandalternativemedicine/dietandnutrition/lycopene – American
mechanisms such as prevention of cell proliferation and migra- Cancer Society.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsicum – Wikipedia.
tion and induction of apoptosis. Capsanthin and related carot- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomato – Wikipedia.
enoids from fruits of C. annuum were found to have in vitro http://www.lycocard.com/index.php/lyco_pub/tomatoes/ – LYCOCARD.
antitumor activity in some animal and in vitro studies. http://ndb.nal.usda.gov – USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference.