1. With a neat sketch explain Compressed Energy Storage systems.

Compressed energy storage systems, also known as compressed air energy storage (CAES), are a
type of energy storage technology that stores energy in the form of compressed air.

Basic Components:
• Compression System: This system compresses air to store energy. It typically consists of
compressors powered by electricity or other energy sources.
• Storage Reservoir: The compressed air is stored in underground caverns, depleted natural gas
reservoirs, or above-ground tanks.
• Expansion System: When electricity is needed, the stored compressed air is released from the
reservoir and expanded through turbines.
• Turbines and Generators: The expanding air drives turbines connected to generators, producing
electricity.
Charging (Energy Storage):

• During times when electricity demand is low or when there is excess electricity production, surplus
electricity is used to power compressors.

• The compressors compress and store air in the storage reservoir under high pressure.

Discharging (Electricity Generation):

• When electricity demand increases or during peak hours, the stored compressed air is released from
the reservoir.

• The expanding air flows through turbines, driving them and generating electricity in the process.

• The electricity generated is fed into the grid to meet the demand

Types of CAES:

• Adiabatic CAES: In adiabatic CAES, the heat generated during compression is stored and later
used to reheat the air during expansion, improving overall efficiency.

• Diabatic CAES: Diabatic CAES systems release the heat generated during compression into the
atmosphere and do not recover it during expansion. This type of CAES typically has lower
efficiency compared to adiabatic CAES.
• Isothermal CAES: Isothermal CAES systems maintain constant temperature during compression
and expansion, which can improve efficiency but may require more complex and expensive
equipment

• Efficiency and Capacity:

• The efficiency of compressed energy storage systems depends on various factors such as the type
of CAES, the design of the system, and operational parameters. Generally, CAES systems have
round-trip efficiencies ranging from 40% to 70%.

• The capacity of a CAES system is determined by factors such as the size of the storage reservoir,
the power rating of the compressors and turbines, and the operating parameters.

• Advantages:

• CAES systems can provide large-scale energy storage, helping to balance supply and demand in
the electricity grid.

• They have relatively long operational lifetimes and can be deployed in a wide range of geographical
locations.

• CAES systems can use existing infrastructure such as depleted natural gas reservoirs, reducing
construction costs and environmental impact.

2. Explain in detail about Pumped Air Energy Storage Systems.

Pumped hydro energy storage (PHES) is a type of energy storage system that stores energy in the
form of gravitational potential energy by pumping water to a higher elevation when excess
electricity is available, and then releasing it through turbines to generate electricity when demand
is high.

Basic Components:

• Upper Reservoir: A high-altitude body of water, such as a reservoir or artificial lake, which stores
water at an elevated position.
• Lower Reservoir: A lower-altitude body of water where the water is released to generate
electricity.

• Turbines and Generators: Turbines are installed between the upper and lower reservoirs. When
water flows down from the upper reservoir to the lower reservoir, it spins the turbines which, in
turn, drive generators to produce electricity.

• Pumps: When excess electricity is available in the grid, the turbines can be reversed to act as
pumps. These pumps transfer water from the lower reservoir back to the upper reservoir.

Charging (Energy Storage):

• During periods of low electricity demand or when there is excess electricity in the grid (e.g., during
the night when wind turbines or solar panels generate more power than needed), surplus electricity
is used to pump water from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir.

• This process involves running the turbines in reverse, essentially converting them into pumps. The
water is pumped uphill to the upper reservoir, where it is stored until needed.

Discharging (Electricity Generation):

• When electricity demand increases or during peak hours, water from the upper reservoir is released
back to the lower reservoir.

• As the water flows down, it passes through the turbines, spinning them and generating electricity
in the process.

• The electricity generated is fed into the grid to meet the increased demand.

Efficiency and Capacity:

• Pumped hydro storage systems typically have high efficiency, with round-trip efficiencies ranging
from 70% to 85%. This means that for every unit of electricity used to pump water uphill, around
70% to 85% of that energy can be recovered when the water is released to generate electricity.

• The capacity of a pumped hydro storage system is determined by factors such as the size of the
reservoirs, the elevation difference between them, and the power rating of the turbines and
generators.

Advantages:

• Pumped hydro storage is a mature and reliable technology with a long operational life.

• It can provide large-scale energy storage for balancing supply and demand in the electricity grid,
helping to integrate renewable energy sources like wind and solar power.

• It offers fast response times, making it suitable for providing grid stability and emergency backup
power.

• It has relatively low operating costs once the infrastructure is in place.

3. Elaborate about Flywheel Energy Storage Systems.

A flywheel energy storage system (FESS) is a mechanical device that stores kinetic energy in the
form of a rotating mass.
 Basic Components:
• Flywheel: The primary component of a flywheel energy storage system is the flywheel itself, which
is a rotating mechanical device. The flywheel is typically made of a heavy material such as steel or
composite materials and is mounted on bearings to reduce friction.
• Motor/Generator: The flywheel is connected to a motor/generator assembly. When energy is
stored, the motor acts as a generator, converting mechanical energy (rotation of the flywheel) into
electrical energy to be stored in a battery or used immediately.
• Control System: A control system monitors the speed of the flywheel and controls the input/output
of energy to maintain stable operation and prevent over-speeding or excessive discharge.
• Enclosure: The entire system is enclosed in a vacuum or in a low-friction environment to minimize
energy losses due to air resistance and friction.
Charging (Energy Storage):
• When excess electricity is available or when energy prices are low, the motor drives the flywheel
to increase its rotational speed, storing kinetic energy in the process.
• The motor acts as a generator during this process, converting electrical energy into mechanical
energy (rotation of the flywheel).
• The rotational speed of the flywheel increases as more energy is stored.
Discharging (Energy Release):
• When electricity is needed or when energy prices are high, the rotational energy stored in the
flywheel is converted back into electrical energy.
• The motor/generator assembly now operates in reverse, using the rotational energy of the flywheel
to generate electricity.
• The electricity generated is supplied to the grid or to the local electrical system.
Efficiency and Capacity:
• Flywheel energy storage systems typically have high round-trip efficiency, ranging from 70% to
90%.
• The capacity of a flywheel energy storage system is determined by factors such as the mass and
diameter of the flywheel, the maximum rotational speed, and the design of the motor/generator
assembly.
• While individual flywheels may have limited energy storage capacity compared to other storage
technologies, multiple flywheels can be used in parallel to increase overall storage capacity.
 Advantages:
• Rapid Response: Flywheel energy storage systems can respond quickly to changes in demand,
making them suitable for providing grid stability and frequency regulation.
• High Efficiency: They have high round-trip efficiency, making them suitable for applications where
frequent charge and discharge cycles are required.
• Long Lifespan: Flywheel systems have a long operational life with minimal degradation over time,
making them a reliable energy storage solution.
• Minimal Environmental Impact: Flywheel systems do not rely on chemicals or hazardous materials,
and they have minimal environmental impact during operation.
4. Explain in detail about Thermal Energy Storage systems.
Thermal energy storage (TES) systems are technologies that store thermal energy in the form of
sensible heat, latent heat, or thermochemical energy for later use. These systems play a crucial role
in various applications, including HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) systems,
industrial processes, and renewable energy integration.
Basic Components:
• Storage Medium: Thermal energy storage systems utilize a storage medium capable of absorbing
and releasing thermal energy. Common storage materials include water, molten salts, phase change
materials (PCMs), and rocks.
• Storage Tank or Container: The storage medium is housed in a tank or container designed to
withstand the operating conditions and maintain the desired temperature range.
• Heat Exchangers: Heat exchangers are used to transfer thermal energy between the storage
medium and the heat source or heat sink. They facilitate the charging (energy input) and discharging
(energy output) processes.
• Insulation: Insulation materials are employed to minimize heat losses during storage, ensuring
efficient energy storage and retrieval.
• Control System: A control system regulates the charging and discharging processes based on
energy demand, storage capacity, and other operational parameters.
Types of Thermal Energy Storage Systems:
• Sensible Heat Storage:
1. Sensible heat storage systems store thermal energy by raising the temperature of a storage
medium, typically water or rocks.
2. During charging, heat is supplied to the storage medium, increasing its temperature. The
stored heat is released when needed by transferring it from the storage medium to the
desired application.
3. Sensible heat storage systems are commonly used in solar thermal power plants, HVAC
systems, and industrial processes.
• Latent Heat Storage:
1. Latent heat storage systems store thermal energy by exploiting the latent heat associated
with phase transitions, such as melting or solidification.
2. Phase change materials (PCMs) are used as storage mediums due to their ability to store
large amounts of energy during phase transition while maintaining nearly constant
temperature.
3. During charging, the PCM absorbs heat and undergoes a phase change (e.g., melting). The
stored energy is released during discharging as the PCM solidifies and releases heat.
 4. Latent heat storage systems find applications in solar heating, thermal energy recovery,
and temperature control in buildings.
• Thermochemical Storage:
1. Thermochemical storage systems store thermal energy through reversible chemical
reactions that absorb or release heat.
2. These systems typically utilize reactive materials capable of undergoing endothermic
(heat-absorbing) and exothermic (heat-releasing) reactions.
3. During charging, the reactive material absorbs heat and undergoes an endothermic reaction,
storing thermal energy. The stored energy is released during discharging as the material
undergoes an exothermic reaction.
4. Thermochemical storage systems are still in the research and development stage but hold
potential for high energy density and long-term storage applications.
Applications and Benefits:
• Renewable Energy Integration: Thermal energy storage systems enable the efficient integration
of intermittent renewable energy sources like solar and wind power by storing excess energy for
later use.
• Load Shifting: TES systems help shift energy consumption from peak to off-peak hours, reducing
electricity costs and alleviating grid stress.
• Process Heat Applications: They support industrial processes requiring continuous or intermittent
heat supply, improving energy efficiency and process flexibility.
• HVAC Systems: TES systems enhance the efficiency of HVAC systems by storing thermal energy
during off-peak periods and using it for space heating or cooling during peak demand.
• Off-Grid Applications: TES systems are valuable in off-grid or remote locations where access to
continuous energy supply is limited, providing reliable thermal energy storage solutions.
5. Explain in detail about Sensible heat storage systems.

Sensible heat storage systems are a type of thermal energy storage (TES) system that store thermal
energy by changing the temperature of a storage medium without changing its phase.

Basic Principle:

• Sensible heat storage systems utilize the heat capacity of a material to store and release thermal
energy.

• During the charging process, heat is added to the storage medium, increasing its temperature. This
stored heat energy can later be retrieved by transferring the heat back to the desired application.

• The storage medium can be any material with a high specific heat capacity, such as water, rocks,
or even certain metals.
 Components of Sensible Heat Storage Systems:

1. Storage Medium:

• Water: Water is one of the most common storage mediums due to its high specific heat
capacity and abundance. It can be stored in tanks or reservoirs.

• Rocks: Certain types of rocks, such as gravel or concrete, can also be used as storage
mediums. They have high thermal mass and can retain heat well.

• Other Materials: Some metals and phase change materials (PCMs) can also be used for
sensible heat storage, although their specific heat capacities may be lower compared to
water or rocks.

2. Storage Tank or Container:

• The storage medium is housed in a tank or container designed to withstand the operating
conditions and maintain thermal stability.

• Insulation is often applied to the storage tank to minimize heat losses during storage.

3. Heat Exchangers:

• Heat exchangers are used to transfer thermal energy between the storage medium and the
heat source or heat sink.

• During charging, heat is supplied to the storage medium through a heat exchanger,
increasing its temperature.

• During discharging, heat is extracted from the storage medium through a heat exchanger,
transferring the thermal energy to the desired application.

4. Control System:

• A control system regulates the charging and discharging processes based on energy
demand, storage capacity, and other operational parameters.
 • It monitors temperature levels within the storage system and controls the flow of heat to
maintain stable operation.

Applications of Sensible Heat Storage Systems:

1. Solar Thermal Energy: Sensible heat storage is commonly used in solar thermal energy systems
to store heat collected from sunlight during the day for use at night or during periods of low solar
radiation.

2. District Heating and Cooling: Sensible heat storage systems can be integrated into district heating
and cooling networks to store excess heat or cold generated by central plants during off-peak hours
for later use.

3. Industrial Processes: Industries often require continuous or intermittent heat supply for various
processes. Sensible heat storage systems can provide a reliable and flexible solution for meeting
these heat demands efficiently.

4. Space Heating and Cooling: Sensible heat storage can be used for space heating or cooling in
buildings, particularly in conjunction with HVAC systems, to reduce energy consumption and peak
demand on the grid.

Advantages of Sensible Heat Storage Systems:

• High Energy Density: Sensible heat storage systems can achieve relatively high energy densities,
particularly when using materials with high specific heat capacities like water.

• Simple Design and Operation: Sensible heat storage systems are often simpler in design and
operation compared to other TES technologies, making them cost-effective and easier to
implement.

• Reliable and Long Lifespan: Sensible heat storage systems are known for their reliability and
long operational lifespans with minimal degradation over time.

• Versatility: Sensible heat storage systems can be adapted to a wide range of applications and
operating conditions, making them versatile solutions for thermal energy storage needs.

5. Explain Latent heat storage systems in detail.

Latent heat storage systems are a type of thermal energy storage (TES) system that store and release
thermal energy by exploiting the latent heat associated with phase transitions, such as melting or
solidification.

Basic Principle:

• Latent heat storage systems utilize materials known as phase change materials (PCMs) that undergo
a phase transition (e.g., melting or solidification) at a specific temperature.

• During the charging process, heat is added to the PCM, causing it to change phase from solid to
liquid (melting) or from liquid to solid (solidification). This process occurs at a constant
temperature known as the melting or freezing point.

• The latent heat absorbed or released during the phase transition is stored or released as thermal
energy, respectively.
• Latent heat storage systems can store significantly more energy per unit mass compared to sensible
heat storage systems, making them attractive for certain applications.

Components of Latent Heat Storage Systems:

1. Phase Change Materials (PCMs):

• PCMs are materials that undergo a phase transition, such as melting or solidification, at a
specific temperature.

• Common PCMs include paraffin wax, hydrated salts, organic compounds, and certain
metals/alloys.

• PCMs are selected based on their melting/freezing temperature, latent heat of fusion,
thermal conductivity, and stability.

2. Storage Containers or Enclosures:

• PCMs are typically encapsulated or enclosed in containers to prevent leakage and facilitate
handling.

• Containers may be made of materials compatible with the PCM and designed to withstand
the operating conditions.

3. Heat Transfer Mechanisms:

• Heat exchangers or heat transfer fluids are used to transfer thermal energy between the
PCM and the heat source or heat sink.

• During charging, heat is supplied to the PCM, causing it to melt and store thermal energy.

• During discharging, heat is extracted from the PCM, causing it to solidify and release
thermal energy.

4. Insulation:
 • Insulation materials are applied to the storage container to minimize heat losses during
storage and retrieval processes.

• Insulation helps maintain the PCM at the desired temperature and reduces energy
consumption.

Applications of Latent Heat Storage Systems:

1. Solar Thermal Energy: Latent heat storage systems are commonly used in solar thermal energy
applications to store heat collected from sunlight during the day for use at night or during periods
of low solar radiation.

2. Building Thermal Management: Latent heat storage systems can be integrated into building
materials (e.g., walls, ceilings) to regulate indoor temperatures by absorbing excess heat during the
day and releasing it at night.

3. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning: PCMs with suitable melting temperatures can be used for
thermal energy storage in refrigeration and air conditioning systems to reduce energy consumption
and peak demand.

4. Temperature Control in Electronics: Latent heat storage systems can be employed for thermal
management in electronic devices and batteries to maintain optimal operating temperatures and
enhance performance and lifespan.

Advantages of Latent Heat Storage Systems:

• High Energy Density: Latent heat storage systems offer high energy density due to the
large amount of energy stored during the phase transition.
• Constant Temperature Operation: Latent heat storage systems operate at nearly constant
temperature during the phase transition, providing stable thermal energy storage and
release.
• Long-Term Stability: PCMs are typically stable over many cycles of melting and
solidification, allowing for long-term use without significant degradation.
• Space-Saving Design: Compared to sensible heat storage systems, latent heat storage
systems can store the same amount of energy in a smaller volume, making them suitable
for space-constrained applications.
5. Explain with a neat sketch Thermo chemical Energy Storage systems
Thermochemical energy storage (TCES) systems are a type of energy storage technology that store
and release energy through reversible chemical reactions. These systems store energy by converting
it into chemical potential energy during the charging phase and release it during the discharging
phase by reversing the chemical reaction.
Basic Principle:
• Thermochemical energy storage systems utilize reversible chemical reactions to store and release
thermal energy.
• During the charging phase, the system absorbs thermal energy from a heat source, causing an
endothermic chemical reaction to occur. This reaction converts the reactants into higher-energy
chemical compounds or intermediate states, storing the energy as chemical potential energy.
• During the discharging phase, the stored energy is released by initiating the reverse exothermic
reaction, converting the higher-energy compounds back into the original reactants and releasing
thermal energy in the process.
Components of Thermochemical Energy Storage Systems:
1. Reactants:
• Thermochemical energy storage systems require suitable reactants capable of undergoing
reversible chemical reactions with high energy density and stability.
• Common reactants include metal oxides, metal halides, and certain salts or organic
compounds.
2. Reaction Vessel:
• The reaction vessel contains the reactants and provides the necessary environment for the
chemical reactions to occur.
• The vessel must be designed to withstand the operating conditions, including temperature,
pressure, and potential corrosive effects of the reactants.
3. Heat Source/Heat Sink:
• A heat source is required to provide thermal energy for the charging phase of the chemical
reaction.
• A heat sink may be used during the discharging phase to absorb excess heat generated by
the exothermic reaction.
4. Catalysts (optional):
• Catalysts may be used to accelerate the rate of chemical reactions and improve overall
system efficiency.
• Catalysts can enhance reaction kinetics and reduce the temperature required for reaction
initiation.
5. Control System:
• A control system monitors and regulates the charging and discharging processes,
controlling factors such as temperature, pressure, and reaction kinetics.
• The control system ensures safe and efficient operation of the thermochemical energy
storage system.
Types of Thermochemical Energy Storage Systems:
1. Adsorption/Desorption:
• Adsorption-based TCES systems store thermal energy by adsorbing gases onto solid
adsorbent materials during the charging phase and releasing them during the discharging
phase through desorption.
• Common adsorbent materials include activated carbon, zeolites, and metal-organic
frameworks (MOFs).
2. Solid-Gas Reactions:
 • Solid-gas reactions involve reversible chemical reactions between solid reactants and
gaseous species.
• Examples include reactions between metal oxides (e.g., iron oxide) and reducing gases
(e.g., hydrogen) to form metal and water during charging, and the reverse reaction during
discharging.
3. Chemical Redox Reactions:
• Chemical redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons between reactants, leading to
changes in oxidation states.
• Examples include reactions between metal oxides (e.g., cerium oxide) and reducing agents
(e.g., hydrogen) to form metal and water during charging, and the reverse reaction during
discharging.
Applications and Benefits:
• Solar Thermal Energy Storage:
1. Thermochemical energy storage systems can be used to store thermal energy collected
from solar radiation during the day for use at night or during periods of low solar intensity.
2. They enable continuous and dispatchable solar power generation, enhancing the reliability
and efficiency of solar energy systems.
• Industrial Processes:
1. TCES systems can provide thermal energy for various industrial processes requiring high-
temperature heat, such as steam generation, metallurgical processes, and chemical
production.
2. They offer flexibility and scalability to meet the dynamic energy demands of industrial
facilities.
• Energy Grid Integration:
1. Thermochemical energy storage systems can contribute to grid stability and load balancing
by storing excess energy during off-peak hours and releasing it during peak demand
periods.
2. They help mitigate variability and intermittency issues associated with renewable energy
sources and enhance the integration of renewables into the energy grid.
• Transportation:
1. TCES systems have the potential to be used for onboard thermal energy storage in vehicles,
particularly in applications such as hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, where they can store and
release thermal energy for efficient hydrogen production and utilization.
6. Explain with suitable examples of Lithium Ion Battery
Components:
1. Cathode:
• The cathode is typically made of a lithium metal oxide compound such as lithium cobalt
oxide (LiCoO2), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), or lithium manganese oxide
(LiMn2O4).
• It is the positive electrode where lithium ions are stored during charging.
2. Anode:
• The anode is typically made of graphite or other carbon-based materials.
• It is the negative electrode where lithium ions are released and stored during charging.
3. Separator:
 • The separator is a thin permeable membrane that keeps the cathode and anode electrodes
apart.
• It allows the flow of lithium ions between the electrodes while preventing electrical contact
between them.
4. Electrolyte:
• The electrolyte is a conductive solution or gel containing lithium salts (such as LiPF6)
dissolved in a solvent (typically a mixture of ethylene carbonate and dimethyl carbonate).
• It facilitates the movement of lithium ions between the cathode and anode during charging
and discharging.
5. Current Collectors:
• Current collectors are conductive metal foils (typically made of aluminum for the cathode
and copper for the anode) that collect and distribute electrical current to and from the
electrodes.
Charging Process:
1. During charging, a voltage is applied across the battery terminals.
2. Lithium ions move from the cathode through the electrolyte to the anode.
3. At the anode, lithium ions are stored in the carbon structure of the graphite, releasing electrons in
the process.
4. The electrons flow through the external circuit, powering connected devices or charging.
5. At the cathode, lithium ions are stored in the lithium metal oxide compound.
6. The battery is now charged and ready for use.
Discharging Process:
1. During discharging, the battery provides electrical power to connected devices or the circuit.
2. Lithium ions move from the anode through the electrolyte to the cathode.
3. At the anode, lithium ions are released from the carbon structure of the graphite, absorbing electrons
from the external circuit.
4. The electrons flow through the external circuit, powering connected devices.
5. At the cathode, lithium ions are stored in the lithium metal oxide compound.
6. The battery continues to discharge until the voltage drops to a predetermined level, indicating the
need for recharging.
 This sketch represents a cross-section of a lithium-ion battery. The cathode, separator, and anode
are sandwiched together, with the electrolyte filling the space between them. The current collectors
are attached to the electrodes, allowing for the flow of electrons into and out of the battery. During
charging and discharging, lithium ions move back and forth between the cathode and anode through
the electrolyte, while electrons flow through the external circuit, providing electrical power.
7. List types of Battery Storage systems
Lead-Acid Batteries:
• Lead-acid batteries are one of the oldest and most widely used types of rechargeable batteries.
• They consist of lead dioxide (positive electrode), lead (negative electrode), and a sulfuric acid
electrolyte.
• Lead-acid batteries are commonly used in automotive starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI)
applications, as well as in uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) and backup power systems.
Lithium-Ion Batteries:
• Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are widely used in portable electronics, electric vehicles, and energy
storage systems.
• They utilize lithium compounds as the active material in both the positive and negative electrodes.
• Li-ion batteries offer high energy density, lightweight design, and relatively long cycle life
compared to other battery chemistries
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries:
• Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries were once common in portable electronics but have largely been
replaced by newer battery technologies.
• They consist of nickel hydroxide (positive electrode), cadmium (negative electrode), and an
alkaline electrolyte.
• NiCd batteries are known for their robustness, high discharge rates, and long cycle life, but they
suffer from the "memory effect" and contain toxic cadmium.
Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries:
• Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries are commonly used in applications such as hybrid electric
vehicles, cordless power tools, and portable electronics.
• They use a nickel oxyhydroxide positive electrode, a hydrogen-absorbing negative electrode
(usually a metal alloy), and an alkaline electrolyte.
• NiMH batteries offer higher energy density and are more environmentally friendly than NiCd
batteries, but they have lower specific energy compared to lithium-ion batteries.
Lithium Polymer Batteries:
• Lithium polymer (LiPo) batteries are a type of lithium-ion battery that uses a solid or gel-like
electrolyte instead of a liquid electrolyte.
• They are commonly used in small electronic devices such as smartphones, tablets, and wearable
devices.
• LiPo batteries offer higher energy density and can be manufactured in various shapes and sizes,
making them suitable for compact and lightweight applications.
Flow Batteries:
• Flow batteries are a type of rechargeable battery where energy is stored in electrolyte solutions
contained in external tanks.
• They are used in stationary energy storage applications, grid-level energy storage, and renewable
energy integration.
• Flow batteries offer scalability, long cycle life, and the ability to decouple power and energy
capacity.
Sodium-Ion Batteries:
• Sodium-ion batteries are a relatively new type of rechargeable battery that uses sodium ions as the
charge carriers.
• They are being researched for use in grid-scale energy storage, where cost-effectiveness and
abundant raw materials are important factors.
• Sodium-ion batteries have the potential to offer lower cost and higher safety compared to lithium-
ion batteries.