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BIOLOGY
Form 1

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I. PREFACE

Biology summarized notes book has been written comprehensively to cater for needs of Biology
students. It covers Biology Topics for Form One students as prescribed in Tanzania new
syllabus.

The pedagogical approach used in the writing of this book aims at providing students with
knowledge and skills that can be used to enhance their understanding of physical and social
world. It covers the following topics.

1. Introduction to biology
2. Safety in our environments
3. Infections and Diseases
4. Cell structure and organization
5. Classification I

It is hoped that students and teachers will find the book a resourceful aid to better
understanding of Biology

II. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Bright vision publishers has great pleasure to deliver his sincere hand of gratitude to all those
who might have assisted in one way or another during the entire process of preparing this book.
These include.

1. Almighty God, the creator of Earth and Universe for keeping us alive until now.
2. Professor Gerald Misinzo: Bsc, Msc, PHD in Molecular biology at Sokoine University
(Morogoro) for teaching and providing the biological knowledge to me.
3. Sir Deogratius Kalolo, Senior biology teacher, Katunguru secondary school for helping me
in the preparation of this book.
4. Dk Halima Sembe, Lab technician at Tanzania Medicine and Medical device Authority
(TMDA) for giving me advice during the preparations of this book.
5. The family of Mr and Mrs Domician Felician for giving me the hand of assistance during
the process of accomplishing this book
Thank you.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, in a retrieval system or transcribed in

any form or by any means, be it electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior permission of BRIGHT VISION PUBLISHERS.

Davy Domician,
The Managing Director,
Bright Vision Publishers,
Mwanza, Tanzania,
January, 2024

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TOPIC 01: INTRODUCTION TO within living

BIOLOGY organisms.

BASIC CONCEPTS AND Characteristics of living things

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN BIOLOGY Living things have characteristics which make
them different from non- living thing. These
The term biology comes from two Greek are;
words “bios” that means “life” and “logos”
which means “study”. 1. Nutrition/ feeding
Therefore biology is branch of science which All living things take in food or make their
deals with the study of life. own food. Food enables living things to grow,
develop and carry out on life process.
A person who study biology is called
Biologist.

LIFE: Is the state of living in which plants,

animals and other living organism have and
non living things do not have.

BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
There are two branches of biology 2. Respiration
i. Botany Respiration is a process by which food
ii. Zoology substances are broken down to produce useful
energy in a cell.

1. Botany 3. Excretion
Is the study of plants. A personal who study Is the process by which excess waste or
botany is called Botanist. harmful material resulting from the chemical
reaction occur in body cell are removed out of
2. Zoology body.
Is the study of animals. A person who study
zoology is called Zoologist. 4. Sensitivity/ irritability
It is the ability of an organism to detect and
Other branches of biology respond to a change in its environment
Branch Study of:
Anatomy Physical structure of
organism
Cytology Cell structure and
functions
Ecology Relationship between
organisms and 5. Growth
environments Growth is an increase in size and mass of an
Entomology Insects organism that becomes more complicated and
Genetics Heredity and more efficient.
variations
Immunology Immune system
Microbiology Micro organisms
Mycology Fungi
Parasitology Parasite
Taxonomy Classification of
organisms
6. Movement/ locomotion
Physiology Physical and chemical
Is an action of changing posture or position of
process taking place
an organism.
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2. Medicine and pharmacy

Medicine is the study of prevention and
treatment and cure of disease. Pharmacy is the
science of preparation and administration of
drugs.

7. Reproduction 3. Nutrition
Is the process whereby living things give rise Biology is used by dieticians to determine the
to new individuals of their own kinds. This kind of diets suitable for people with different
ensures that there is continued existence of the health problems.
species and life forms.
4. Forestry
Importance of studying biology Biologists have developed varieties of trees
a) It helps a man to understand that grow well in dry areas, also that mature
himself/herself better fast so as to prevent desertification.
b) It enables human being to conserve the
environment.
c) It helps to understand cause,
symptoms, method of transmission,
prevention, and treatment of diseases.
d) It provides answer to fundamental
questions.
e) It helps us to enter in careers such as
medicine, agriculture, reproductive,
health and genetic Engineering. BIOLOGY LABORATORY

The relationship between biology and other A laboratory is a special room designed for
subject field carrying out scientific experiment. A biology
Biology related to many other field of study laboratory is a special building designed for
such as agriculture, medicine, pharmacy and carrying out biological experiments.
nutrition.
Requirements for good laboratory
1. Agriculture A laboratory should have adequate space for
Biology research finding on crops and carrying out experiment, proper lighting, good
livestock have led to improve agriculture ventilation, source of water, means of heating
production. and adequate space for storing apparatus,
chemicals and specimens.
Biological research findings on crops and
livestock have led to improved agricultural Laboratory rules
productions. 1. Do not go into the laboratory without
permission
Scientists have developed breeds of crops and 2. Do not taste/ eat substances during
animals that mature quickly and produce high experiment
yields. Fore example indigenous breeds of 3. Turn off gas and water taps when not
chickens. in use
4. Do not play or run in the laboratory
5. Read the labels or containers before
using the contents. Do not interchange
label.
6. Report all accidents immediately to
your teacher or technician

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7. Do not take laboratory equipment, These are collected organisms or part of

chemicals or specimens out of the organism that are preserved for learning
laboratory purpose.
8. Avoid touching yourself while
performing experiment, clean your Organisms are preserved by using special
hands with soap and water after chemicals in order to prevent rotting and they
Experiment. stay for long time.

OBJECTS FOUND IN BIOLOGY

LABORATORY
i. Biological charts
ii. Models
iii. Specimens
iv. Cages
v. Aquaria Examples: Lizard, Crayfish, Millipede,
vi. Chemicals Worms, Toad, Snake, Tilapia etc.
vii. Apparatus
Functions
1. Biological charts Are used during teaching and leaning process.
Are presentations of complex biological
systems into simple pictures or diagrams. 4. Cages
Example Digestive system, circulatory system. Is an enclosures often made of wire mesh or
bars, in which birds, mice, rabbits or small
animals are kept.

Function
For storage of live animals such as rabbit.
Function
Are used during teaching and leaning process. 5. Aquarium
Are special vessels that are used in the
2. Biological models laboratory for keeping live aquatic animals
These are object that represents a particular such as fish.
organ or system of real organisms. Example
Ear, Eye, Skeleton, Respiratory system,
digestive system.

Function
For keeping live aquatic animals such as fish.

6. Chemicals
Function
The chemicals are used to test different
Are used during teaching and leaning process.
biological test during practical.

3. Preserved specimens Examples of biological chemicals

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Function sample
The chemicals are used to test different -Motor
biological test during practical. Crushing or
grinding solid
substance
7. Apparatus and equipments 9. Crucible Used for heating
and lid substance at very
Apparatus Functions
high temperature
1. Hand lens Magnify
specimens under
observations 10. Thermomet For measuring
er temperature

2. Sweep net For catching

small flying
organisms such as
butterflies and
grasshoppers 11. Heat source For heating
various things in
3. Scoop net For catching fish the laboratory.
and other aquatic Examples are
animals Bunsen burners,
Sprit burners and
4. Pooter Is used to pick Kerosene stove
small organisms
12. Dropper Add liquids into
such as insects
experimental
without hurting
containers drop
them
by drop
5. Quadrant Used to estimate
the number of 13. Test tube Holding
organisms in an chemicals
area Heating
substance at short
period of time
6. Specimen Storage of
bottle specimens 14. Test tube For storing test
rack tube
7. Petri dish -Close
observations of
specimens
-Growing of 15. Test tube For holding test
micro organisms holder tube during
heating
8. Motor and -Pestle
Pestle Crushing
specimen or
16. Beaker -Used for mixing
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substances 25. Microscopi Hold specimen

-Measuring or c slide and under
heating liquids cover slip observations

17. Measuring To measure the

cylinder volume of liquids

26. Dissection For dissecting

kit specimens such
as Frog and
18. Filter Separate solid
mouse
funnel from liquids
during filtration

Components of dissection kit

19. Stoppers To seal test tube
and other glass
containers Forceps For holding
specimens

20. Syringes Transferring Pair of scissors For cutting

small quantities specimens or
of liquids objects

Scalps For cutting

21. Spatula Used for
scooping powder
or crystalline
substance from
containers

22. White tiles It help to note Needles For loosening

color change internal parts

23. Watch -Evaporating Pins For holding

glass surface specimen in
-Cover beakers place

Hand lens For magnifying

24. Mounting To lift small small specimen
needles delicate or their parts
organisms

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MICROSCOPE piece objectives lens

Is an instruments that is used during scientific -Rotate to allow
studies to magnify very small specimens so changes from one
that their details can be seen. lens to another
4. Objective lens Magnify the object
Types of microscope under observations
(a) Electronic microscope The three objectives
(b) Light microscope lens are
Low power (X40)
1. Electronic microscope Medium power
Is the type of microscope which uses beams of (X60)
electrons to magnify specimens. High power (X100)
They are very expensive and are used in 5. Coarse focus Rise or lower the
research centers. knob or Coarse body tube in order to
adjustment bring the image into
2. Light microscope knob focus
Is the type of microscope that depends on light 6. Fine focus Rise or lowers body
to illuminate and magnify specimens. knob or Fine tube in order to bring
adjustment the image into sharp
Types of Light microscope knob focus
 School microscope 7. Arm It is holding part
 Hospital microscope when moving
microscope
These entire microscopes can use either sun 8. Ocular tube Allow light to pass
light or electricity as source of light to straight from the
illuminate the specimens. objective lens to the
eye piece lens.
9. Stage Surface on which the
specimen is placed
10. Stage clip Hold the slide
containing the
specimen in place
11. Mirror Reflects and directs
light to the
specimens under
observations
12. Condenser Concentrates light
onto the specimen
that is placed on the
stage
Parts of light microscope and their 13. Diaphragm Regulate amount of
functions light passing from
Part Function the mirror to
1. Eyepiece To magnify condenser
specimen. 14. Hinge screw Rises and lowers the
It magnify either stage to keep the
five times (X5), ten specimen into the
times (X10) or right position for
(X15) fifteen times. observations
2. Body tube Support the eye 15. Base Provides firm
piece and rotating support for the
nosepiece microscope
3. Rotating nose -Support the
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How to use light microscope 2. No smoking Fire can erupt or it

1. Place the microscope on the laboratory can cause health
bench or table related problems to
smokers and non
2. Mount the specimen on the smokers.
microscope slide, Cover it with cover
slip. 3. Fragile Items can easily
break and results
3. Make sure that the low objectives lens into loss.
is in line with eyepiece lens
4. Explosive Can explode and
4. Place the slide with the specimen on
cause injury to
the stage, hold it in place with the
person
stage clip.

5. While looking through the eyepiece, 5. Corrosive Can cause body

use your hand to adjust the mirror so wounds or burn
that the light is directed to the various things such
specimen on the stage. as clothes and
furniture
6. Adjust the coarse adjustment knob to
bring the specimen into focus. 6. Flammable Can cause fire
accidents
7. Adjust the fine adjustment knob to
bring the specimen into sharp focus.

Total magnification:
7. Toxic, poison Can cause death if
or danger touched, swallowed
Eyepiece magnification X
or inhaled
Objective lens magnification

8. Rotate the nosepiece to a high power

8. High voltage A person can get
objectives lens if you want to observe
electric shock that
more details.
may cause death

SAFTEY SIGNS
These are instructions and warning signs found
9. Strong Can cause dangerous
on apparatus and chemical containers in the
radiations effects such as skin
laboratory.
damage, blindness
The following table show safety sign.
and various types of
cancers
Safety sign Effects of failure to
observe the
precautions 10. Biohazards Can cause disease or
1. No entry One can get health infections
related effects in
case he or she enters
or passes in the
restricted area
11. Slippery floor A person may slip,

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fall down and get (Km)

injuries Temperature Kelvin K Degree of
Celsius
(0C),
12. Cautions Accidents can occur Degree of
Fahrenheit
(0F)
Time Second S Minutes
(min),
Hour (Hr)
13. Emergency Injuries or death can
exist occur (i) Mass
Mass is the quantity of matter in an object.
Mass is measured using a Weighing balance or
weighing scale.

SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES IN BIOLOGY

These are basic skills that are essential in
scientific studies
These skills includes
i. Observations
Measurements in mass
ii. Measurements
iii. Experimentation
Kg: 1
1. Observations Hg: 10
Through observations one can study living Dg: 100
things by using sense organs. We have five g: 1 000
sense organs which are dg: 10 000
cg: 100 000
(i) Eyes (ii) Ears (iii) Skin (iv) Nose (v) mg: 1 000 000
Tongue
Key: Kg-Kilogram, Hg-Hectogram, Dg-
2. Measurements Dekagram, g-gram, dg-decigram, cg-
Scientist use specific instruments and units of centigram, mg-milligram
measurement in their investigations.
(ii) Length
The standard system of measurement used by Is a measurement of the distance or dimension
scientist all over the world is called from one point to another. For example we can
International system of units (SI units) measure the length of a piece of Thread, a
desk, a wall.
Common measurements with their units
used in biology
Measuremen SI unit Symbo Other
t l common
units
Mass Kilogra Kg Gram (g)
m
Length Meter M Millimeter
Instruments used in length measurements.
(mm),
(a) Ruler (b) Tape measure
Centimete
r (cm),
Kilometer
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5. Data analysis and interpretation

6. Conclusion
7. Reporting results

1. Problem identification
Units in expressing length Is the first step to identify the problem which
Km: 1 needs solution or something to prove e.g.
Hm: 10 LOW MAIZE YIELDS AT NYAKALILO
Dm: 100
m: 1 000 2. Formulation of hypothesis
dm: 10 000 A hypothesis is a suggestion of the answer to
cm: 100 000 the question asked. It is an intelligent guess
mm: 1 000 000 that tries to explain as an observation for
example, It is odserved that low maize yield at
Key: Km-Kilometer, Hm-Hecktameter, Dm- Nyakalilo is due to lack of fertilizers during
Decameters, m-meter, dm-decimeter, cm- planting.
centimeter, mm-millimeter
A hypothesis can’t be termed as a biological
(iii) Temperature acceptable to explain action. Therefore
Is the degree of hotness or coldness experiment should be designed, proved or
The common units used to measure disapproved. If hypothesis is correct we say it
temperature are is accepted, if disapproved we say rejected.
1) Kelvin (k)
2) Degree of Celsius (0C) 3. Experimentation
3) Degree of Fahrenheit (0F) An experiment is a test that is carried out
K= 0C + 273 under controlled conditions to determine
whether a hypothesis is correct or not.
0
F = {(9/5) x 0C} + 32
(a) Test experiments
0
C= 5/9(0F-32)  1 Acre of farm
 Plant 100 maize seed
 Apply 1 kg of fertilizers
The instrument used to measure temperature is
called Thermometer (b) Control experiments
1 Acre of farm
Plant 100 maize seed
No application of 1kg fertizers.

4. Observation and data collection

The scientists observe what happens from the
time the experiment was set up to the time it
Example of common temperature ends. It is important to note all the changes
Body temperature = 360C or 370C made from the beginning to the end of the
Boiling point of water = 100 0C experiment and recording.
Freezing point of water = 0 0C
(a) Test experiment
THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS 1 Acre = 100 maize plant
Is the way of studying things by testing facts
systematically. (b) Control experiments
It follow seven (7) steps which are 1 Acre= 50 maize plants
1. Problem identification
2. Hypothesis formulation 5. Data interpretation
3. Experimentation
4. Observation and data recording
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At the end of experiment the scientist analyses (i) It save life

the observations and Data recorded. The (ii) Reduce pain and suffering
scientist may look for pattern or in the data. (iii) Brings hopes
(iv) Prevent illness or injury to become
Time Test Control worse
(Week) experiment experiment (v) Remove fear of death
(Maize plant) -No fertilizers (vi) Help patient to recover
-Fertilizer used
used FIRST AID KIT
Wk 1 10 2 Is the container in which first aid equipments
Wk 2 20 10 are kept.
Wk 3 40 15 This container should be labeled First Aid Kit
Wk 4 60 30 and kept in a safe and easily accessible place.
Wk 5 70 40
Wk 6 85 42 Components of first aid kit
Wk 7 100 50 Item Uses

6. Conclusion 1. Soap Washing hands,

A conclusion is a statement that summarizes wounds and
what a scientist has learnt from an experiment. equipments.
2. Painkillers Relieving pain
When scientist read conclusion, they taste 3. Scissors or razor Cutting dressing
whether the data or information collected blades material such as
support the hypothesis (accepted) or not gauze, bandages,
support the hypothesis (reject), if so another plasters and
hypothesis must be formulated and repeat the threads
whole experiment. 4. Safety pins Securing bandages
5. Bandages Keeping dressing
Example from our experiments in place and
From the data above it shows that lack of securing features
fertilizer in (in control experiments) resulted in and dislocated
low maize yields. bones or muscles
6. Cotton wool Cleaning and dry
So the hypothesis which stated that It is wounds
odserved that low maize yield at Nyakalilo is 7. Thermometer Measuring body
due to lack of fertilizers during planting temperature
accepted 8. Disposable -Covering the
sterile gloves hands to avoid
TOPIC 02: SAFTEY IN OUR infections of
ENVIRONMENTS wound
-Prevent direct
This new topic covers the following sub topics contact with
a) First Aid victim body fluids
b) Waste disposal 9. Petroleum jelly -Soothing bruised
c) Personal hygiene and good manners skin
d) Health immunity and diseases. -Treatment of
burns and blisters
1. FIRST AID 10. Liniment Reducing muscle
Is an immediate assistance given to a person pain
soon after an injury or illness before the victim 11. Torch Source of light
get professional medical help. 12. Whistle Blown to call for
help
Importance of first aid 13. Plaster or Covering small
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adhesive wounds
bandages
14. Sterile gauze Covering wounds
to protect them
from dirt and
germs
15. Antiseptic Cleaning wounds
to kill germs Procedures
16. Gentian violete Ant septic/ Ant (i) Move the victim away from the area where
solution (GV) biotic to clean the bite occurred.
wound and reduce (ii) Calm the victim
bleeding (iii) Remove jewelers and tight cloth from
17. Iodine tincture or -Clean wound injured part
sprit -Prevents (iv) Keep the wound at heart level or lower.
infections from This helps to reduce the flow of venom to
microbes other part of the body.
(v) Clean the wound
EXAMPLES OF FIRST AID WITH (vi) Take the victim to hospital or nearby
THEIR PROCEDURES health facilities.

1. BRUISES Don’t do the following

It is caused by a minor injury on the skin. It (i) Don’t tie the bitten area. This will cause
forms when small blood vessels near the skin swelling due to restricted blood flow
surface are broken causing small amounts of
blood to leak into the tissue. (ii) Do not cut the bitten area. This will cause
more opening of the wound.
Effects of bruises (iii) Do not suck the blood from the bitten
i. Discoloration areas. This can cause infections to both victim
ii. Pains and First aid provider.
iii. Swelling of the skin (iv) Don’t apply herbs to the wound
(v) Do not provide the patient with hot drinks,
Procedures coffee or tea
(i) Elevate the injured area
(ii) Apply a cold compress such as clean cloth 3. INSECT BITES AND STINGS
dipped in cold water or ice wrapped in a cloth Some common stinging insects are Bees and
Whasps.

(iii) Take the victim to hospital

Symptoms
2. SNAKE BITES (i) Sharp pain
Symptoms (ii) Mild swelling
(i) Swelling (iii) Soreness
(ii) Severe pain
Procedures
(i) Remove the stings

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(ii) Wash the stung area with soap and water

(viii) Observe to see if the victims chest rises
(iii) Apply a cold compress. These relieve pain
and falls
and swelling.
(ix) Put the victim in recovery position
(iv) Take the victim to hospital or nearby
health facilities.

4. ELECTRIC SHOCK
When dealing with electric shock victim,
observe the following.
a) Do not touch a person who is still in
(x) Lay the victim on his or her back while
contact with electric current.
legs raised
b) Don’t go near high voltage wires until
(xi) Take the victim to hospital or nearby
the current is switched off.
health facilities.
Procedures
5. BLEEDING
(i) Turn off the source of electricity
If it is not possible to do that move the victim
Bleeding can occur from a visible wound or
from the electric current using a dry non-
from internal organs.
metallic object such as dry piece of wood.
Procedures for giving first aid for bleeding
victim
(i) Calm down the victim
(ii) Put on gloves
(iii) Place the victim in resting position
(iv) Raise the injured part and support it in
position
(ii) Lay the victim on their back on a flat
(v) Wash the wound with clean water
surface
(vi) Cover the wound with clean dressing
(iii) Loose any clothing around the neck
cloth.
(iv) Check for the symptoms of blood
(vii) Dry the skin with sterile dressing
circulation such as breathing or coughing
(viii) Dress the wound and bandage it
(v) Place both hands on the lower part of the
victims chest and start Cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (PCR)

(ix) If bleeding does not stop, take the victim

to hospital or nearby health facilities.
(v) Press downwards sharply then release the
pressure.
(vi) Repeat this 14 times at 80 compressions (a) severely bleeding victim
per minute Stop bleeding
(vii) Tilt the head backward (i) Use your fingers to apply direct pressure to
the bleeding point or points for 5 to 15 minutes
(ii) Lay the victim down in a suitable position
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(iii) Remove any foreign bodies from the Muscle cramps are sudden involuntary and
wound painful contractions of a single muscle or
(iv) Apply dressing material group of muscle.
(v) If bleeding persist take the victim to
hospital or nearby health facilities. Causes of muscles cramps
(i) Poor coordination of muscles during
(b) Nose bleeding (ii) Exercise
(i) Have the person sit with the head tipped (iii) Cold
slightly forward (iv) Excessive loss of salts and body fluids.
(ii) Ask the person to pinch the nose and This is due to too much sweating, severe
breathe through the mouth diarrhea or persistent vomiting.
(iii) If bleeding persists take the victim to
hospital or nearby health facilities. (a) Foot muscle cramps

Procedures
(c) Internal bleeding (i) Help the victim to stand with his or her
Sometimes bleeding occurs inside the body. weight on the front of the foot.
Blood may also leak from the body through -When the contraction is over let the victim sit
natural openings such as nose, mouth, ears, down.
vagina and anus. (ii) Straighten the victim’s knee and draw his
or her foot firmly and steadily upward toward
Symptoms the shin. Massage the muscle.
(i) Blood running out the mouth (iii) Get medical help if the cramps persist.
(ii) Blood flowing out of the ears
(iii) Blood in stool
(iv) Blood in urine (b) Thigh muscles cramps
(v) Blood in vomits (i) If the cramp is at the back of the thigh,
(vi) Blood flowing from the vagina straighten the victim knee by raising the leg.
-This can occur after injury or during (ii) If the cramp is at the front, bend the knee
pregnancy forward.
(iii) Massage the affected muscles firmly with
Note your fingers until the pain ceases.
If you notice any of the above mentioned signs (iv) Get medical help if the cramps persist.
take the victim to nearby health facilities as
quick as possible. 7. HICCUPS
Hiccups are short, repeated, noisy and deep
6. VOMITING intake of air. They are caused by involuntary
Vomiting may be caused by consuming contractions of the diaphragm against a
contaminated food and drinks. Vomiting leads partially closed windpipe.
to loss of large amounts of water and minerals
from the body within a short time. Causes of hiccups
(a) Swallowing large quantity of air
(i) Place the patient in a safe and clean place (b) Eating too much or certain food.
(ii) Lay the patient on a side. This prevent
choking Procedures for giving first aid on hiccups
(iii) Give the patient a plenty of fluids victim
(iv) Give the patient a lot of fruit juice to (i) Hiccups can be stopped by increasing the
restore water, mineral salts and energy. contractions of carbon dioxide in the blood for
(v) If vomiting persists take the patient to a short time.
nearby health facilities.
-It is advised the victim to hold breath as long
7. MUSCLE CRAMPS as possible, blowing up a balloon and
breathing into a paper bag.

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(ii) Stop the vagus nerve (ii) Kerosene

-This nerve runs from the brain to the stomach. (iii) Detergents
It can be stopped by, (iv) Pesticides
(a) Drinking water (v) Poisoning plants
(b) Pulling gently on the tongue (vi) Medicine
(c) Placing half a teaspoon of dry sugar on the
tongue. Symptoms of poisoning
(d) Startling
(e) Sucking if the victim is a baby (a) Burns or redness around the mouth
(b) Breath with chemical odor
8. POISONING (c) Burns
A poison is any substance that causes harm if (d) Odor on the victims clothing
it is swallowed, inhaled or absorbed into the (e) Vomiting
body. (f) Diarrhea
(g) Difficulty in breathing
Examples of poisons (h) Abdominal cramps
(i) Laboratory chemical
(vii) Induce vomiting if poison is non
Procedures of giving first aid on poisoned corrosive. Example, Soap, alcohol, sleeping
vicitim pills.
(i) Identify which poison is involved (viii) Take the patient to nearby health
(ii) If the poison is in the eye, wash the eye facilities or hospital.
using clean water and encourage a victim to
blink as much as possible.
(iii) If the poison is on the skin, remove any
contaminated clothing and pour clean water on
the affected areas for 10 minutes.
(iv) If the poison has been inhaled, move the
poison outside where there is plenty fresh air.
(v) If the poison has been swallowed, give a
glass of milk, water or both to the victim.
(vi) Do not induce vomiting if the poison is
corrosive. Example detergents, laboratory
acid.

WASTE DISPOSAL
Waste: Are unwanted or unusable materials or 1. Basing on physical state.
substance in our environment. (i) Solid waste
OR Waste refers to materials that are no longer (ii) Liquid waste
needed. (iii) Sludge
(iv) Gaseous waste
Examples of wastes
(i) Food left over 1. SOLID WASTE
(ii) Packaging materials Are hard waste material.
(iii) Broken items
(iv) Human excreta
(v) Scrap metal
(vi) Industrial waste

Types of wastes
There different criteria used to classify waste.

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1. Recyclable waste
Are wastes that can be processed to make
useful products.

Classes of solid waste

(a) Household waste
(b) Industrial waste
(c) Medical or hospital waste.

2. LIQUID WASTE Examples

Are wastes which are in liquid form (i) Metallic objects
(ii) Plastic bottles
Examples of liquid waste (iii) Glass
They include water waste from (iv) Paper wastes
(a) Household
(b) Industries 2. Non recyclable waste
Are wastes that cannot be processed to make
new objects.

(c) Agriculture
(d) Mining areas
(e) Chemical from the laboratories

Examples
3. SLUDGES (i) Hazardous chemical containers
These are waste that is intermediate between (ii) Empty spray bottles
liquid and solid state. (iii) Medical wastes
4. GASEOUS WASTE 3. Biodegradable waste
Is waste in gaseous form. These are wastes from living things that can be
Examples Carbon dioxide, Ammonia and decomposed easily by bacteria and fungi.
Sulphur dioxide gas from industries and motor
vehicles. Examples
(i) Food remains
(ii) Wood
(iii) Grass
(iv) Paper
(v) Cotton clothes

4. Non biodegradable waste

OTHER CATEGORIES OF WASTE These are wastes that cannot be easily
(i) Recyclable waste decomposed by bacteria and fungi. Some can
(ii) Non recyclable waste remain in the soil for long period where others
(iii) Biodegradable waste cannot decompose at all.
(iv) Non biodegradable waste
(v) Hazardous waste Examples
(vi) Non hazardous waste
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(i) Plastic material 3. Reducing

(ii) Grass material This is the act of minimizing the amount of
(iii) Some pesticides waste produced. Example you can carry a
woven basket instead of buying plastic bags
5. Hazardous wastes each time you go shopping.
These are waste with potential to cause
harmful effects to human or the environments. METHODS OF WASTE DISPOSAL
OR are waste that can transmits infections or The following are major ways of disposing
cause disease. waste
(i) Burying
Examples (ii) Incineration
(i) Industrial waste (iii) Recycling
(ii) Hospital waste (iv) Composting.

6. Non hazardous waste (I). Burying

These are waste with no harmful effects to Is the process of burying waste
human or the environments. in the ground.

Examples Forms of burying

(i) Leaf litters  Pit latrine
(ii) Grasses  Tipping
(iii) Wood  Landfills

SOURCE OF WASTE (a) Pit latrine

Source of waste are Is made by digging a hole in the ground in
(i) Households order to store waste.
(ii) Industrial
(iii) Markets
(iv) School
(v) Hospitals

WASTE DISPOSAL

Refer to collection, transportation, processing,

re-use and other activities that help to get rid (b) Tipping
of wastes. Is the process in which trucks collects the
waste and take them to dumping sites.
Basic principle of waste disposal
(i) Re-using
(ii) Recycling
(iii) Reducing

1. Re-using
We can re-use waste instead of throwing them
away. Example, we can use an empty (c) Landfill
margarine containers to store sugar. Is the site for disposal of wastes by burying
them under the ground.
2. Recycling
Is process of changing waste to other usable Types of landfills
products. Example broken glass can be melted
and used to make new glass bottles. (i) An open hole landfill

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Is the ground where waste is dumped and later

buried. Effects of poor waste disposal
(i) Environmental pollution
(b) Sanitary landfill (ii) It store vectors of infectious organisms.
A structure is built into the ground where Example Cockroach, housefly.
waste is isolated from the environments using (iii) Harzoudous to people. Example broken
clay or plastic liner. glasses
(iv) Waste can be harm to animals. Example
plastic bags can choke or suffocate animals
when ingested
(v) Flooding
(vi) Water pollution. Example discarded
vegetables and dead animals.
(vii) Air pollution. When plastic and rubber
material are burnt, the smoke produced pollute
(ii) Incineration air.
Is the process of burning waste materials until (viii) Emissions of bad smell.
they are completely destroyed into ashes.
Waste can be burnt inside the facility called
incinerators. ways of reducing waste
1) Use cloth instead of paper to wipe
surface
2) Use a cloth or woven shopping bags
3) Collect and use plastic containers to
store food
4) Buy rechargeable batteries and their
charger.
5) Education to the people
6) Use plastics that can be recycled or re
used
(iii) Recycling 7) Supports urban cleaners . Urban
Is a process of turning waste materials into cleaners should collect and get lid of
useful products. waste. They must be provided with
good quality tools.
Examples
-Used plastic material are taken back to the PERSONAL HYGIENE AND GOOD
factory for making new plastic items. MANNERS.
-Waste paper can be used to make tissue paper
or newsprint paper. Personal hygiene
Is the practice of keeping your body and
environment clean in order to maintain good
health.

Good manners
Are behavior that are socially acceptable.

(iv) Composting Principle of personal hygiene

Is the process of making manure from 1) Brush teeth at least twice a day. In the
biodegradable organic wastes. morning and before going to bed.

Problems associated with waste disposal

(i) Lack of education
(ii) Inadequate disposal facilities
(iii) Laws instability
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feeding women when on a crowded

bus or train.
5) Great people politely. If sitting then
stand upright, If walking or running
then stand still.
6) Be punctual when meeting or visiting
2) Take a bath twice a day someone.
7) Dress properly according to the
occasion and the social norms of the
community.
8) Cover the mouth when coughing or
yawning.
9) Say “please” when requesting for
something.
3) Always wear clean clothes 10) Say “thank you” when given
4) Wash hands with soap and clean something or allowed to do something.
running water after visiting the toilet 11) Show respect to others.
and before eating.
5) Keep the environment clean. In conversation
6) Cover the mouth and nose with clean (i) Speak in clear voice. Do not shout.
handkerchief or tissue when sneezing (ii) Do not interrupt when other person is
or coughing. talking.
(iii) Do not use foul language.
(iv) Listen attentively to what the other person
is saying.
(v) Avoid dwelling on topics that are boring or
embarrassing to other people
(vi) Do not dominate the conversation. Give
7) Keep nails short and clean. other people a chance to talk.
8) Don’t share handkerchiefs, towers and (vii) Be respectful when you disagree with
clothes especially underwear. someone’s opinion.
9) Comb hair everyday
10) Wear comfortable and well-fitting While eating
clothes. i. Chew when the mouth is closed
ii. Chew at a reasonable pace.
Principles of good manners iii. Use proper serving spoons to serve
1) Maintain a good posture when sitting food.
or standing iv. Do not talk.
v. Avoid issues that are likely to make
other people lose appetite.
vi. Serving yourself reasonable portions
of food
vii. Do not waste food. Finish what you
have on your plate.
viii. Avoid criticizing the food prepared by
2) Welcome visitors warmly. Introduce other people.
them to people they don’t know.
3) Be helpful to other people. Give Importance of personal hygiene and good
assistance to elders. manners.
4) Give up your seat to special group 1) It improves good health.
person. Examples an elderly person, 2) They make a person more acceptable
handicapped, pregnant and breast and respectable in the community.

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3) They are important for personal 2) Change of body odor. This is because
appearance. sweat and oil glands become more
4) It makes people to be role models to active.
other people in the community. 3) Sperm production begins
5) It promotes peace of mind. 4) Development of hair under armpits,
6) It improves person confidence. pubic regions, chest, abdomen and
beard for some boys.
Maintaining proper personal hygiene 5) Increase of weight and height.
during puberty. 6) Development of deep and coarse
voice.
PUBERTY: Is the period when young girls 7) Development of facial pimples in
and boys begin to mature biologically, some boys.
psychologically and socially and become 8) Wet dreams begin.
capable of reproduction.
Measures for maintaining personal hygiene
Usually puberty occurs between ages of 10-14 during puberty.
years for girls and 12-16 for boys. i. Take a bath at least twice a daily. This
is because, the body produce more
During this time, they develop secondary sweat at this stage. Use deodorants.
sexual characteristics which create distinct ii. Wear clean cloth all time.
difference between males and females. iii. Girls should wear good quality, clean
and safe sanitary pads during
Puberty leads to adolescence which is menstruations periods.
transitional period between childhood and iv. Shave hairs in pubic regions.
adulthood.
GOOD MANNERS DURING PUBERTY.
Secondary sexual characteristics and
changes in girls at puberty. During puberty, young people undergo
1) Development and increase of breast emotional change. They may experience
size. strong emotions such as anger or anxiety and
2) Change of body odor. This is because sudden mood changes. Teenagers also start to
sweat and oil glands become more get attracted to members of the opposite sex.
active.
3) Increase in secretion of mucus from The following are measures that can help
vagina. adolescents to behave well.
4) Beginning of ovulation and 1) Resist bad peer pressure. Example
menstruation. consumption of narcotic drugs.
5) Development of hair under the armpits 2) Counseling.
and in the pubic areas. 3) Apologize if you hurt other people’s
feelings.
4) Do not engage in sexual acts before
marriage.
5) Be respectful to your elders. Even
when you have different opinions to
6) Increase in height and weight. them.
7) Development of soft and high pitched 6) Get involved in positive activities such
voice. as sports and games, school clubs,
8) Development of pimples in some girls. debate and drama.
9) Broadening of hips and pelvic girdles.
TOPIC 03: HEALTH IMMUNITY
Secondary sexual characteristics and AND DISEASES
changes in boys at puberty.
1) Enlargement of tastes and penis HEALTH:

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Antibodies (Ab)
Is the state of physical, mental and social well Are protein molecule produced by body
being. immune system to fight against antigens.

Factors affecting health Vector

1) Diet Are organisms which transmits (acts as carrier)
2) Physical fitness the pathogen. Example Housefly is the vector
3) Hygiene of salmonella typhi, Mosquito is the vector of
4) Social circumstances Plasmodium falciparum.
5) Heredity
6) Environment TYPES OF IMMUNITY
7) Medical care
8) Immunity 1. Natural active immunity
Is the immunity which is inborn and exist even
How to maintain good health before the body is exposed to an infections or
1) Reduce intake of unhealthily food as a results of previous infections.
2) Physical exercise
3) Get sufficient sleep
4) Seek help for problems 2. Natural passive immunity
5) Allow time for leisure Is the immunity which occurs when mother
6) Take medical drugs passes antibodies to her baby during
7) Avoid smoking pregnancy and breast feeding.
8) Eat balanced diet
9) Keep body clean.

The body defense mechanism

1) Skin. Skin produce sweat which acts
as antibacterial
2) Eyes. Tears in eyes produce ant
bacterial
3. Artificial active immunity
3) Ears. It produce waxy which traps
This is the immunity which occur through
bacterial, virus and small particals
immunization or vaccination using vaccine.
4) Digestive system. Saliva produced in
mouth acts as ant bacterial agents
5) Blood: Blood contain white blood
cells which produce Antibodies that
destroy pathogens

Immunity
Is the ability of the body to resist against
infections. 4. Artificial passive immunity
Is the immunity which is acquired when
Antigens (Ag) antibodies produced by one individual are
Are proteins that are found on the surface of injected into another individual.
pathogens.
VACCINE
Pathogens Is the preparation containing inactivated or
Are disease causing micro organisms. Eg. weakened disease-causing organisms.
Virus, Bacteria, Fungi and Protozoa. Some vaccine are orally taken while other are
injected into the body.
In response of antigens, the immune system
produce chemical substance called Antibodies. The vaccine causes the body to produce antibodies
as if it is being attacked by a real antigens.

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Some of the body cells that take part in the immune i. Weakness and inability to work or
system remain as memory cells which can rapidly study
reproduce themselves if real infections occur. ii. Increased cost of health care
iii. Stress to the sick person and the
This type of immunity is the one which is passed
family
on during routine immunization of infants and
children.
iv. Reduced productivity
v. Permanent damage of the body
Example of immunization in infants and vi. Death
children
1) Measles CLASSES OF DISEASE
2) Tuberculosis (BCG) i. Communicable disease
3) Diphtheria ii. Non communicable disease
4) Whooping cough
5) Polio 1. Communicable disease
6) Vitamin A Are disease which can spread from an infected
7) Schistosomiasis
person to another.
Example of immunization in adults
1) Hepatitis B for Liver cancer It can spread through
2) Human papiloma virus for Cervix cancer i. Droplets eg COVID 19
3) Corona virus for COVID-19 ii. Contacts e.g Measles
4) Plasmodium for Malaria iii. Sexual intercourse e.g HIV
5) HIV for AIDS iv. Contaminated food and water e.g
Cholera and Typhoid
Note: Malaria and HIV vaccine is still on research. v. Vectors e.g Malaria and plague
Factors affecting immunity
CLASSES OF COMMUNICABLE
1) Poor nutrition DISEASE
2) Lack of vaccination
3) Genetic disorders 1. Epidemic disease
4) Incomplete treatment Is the communicable disease outbreak that
5) Attack by pathogens affects a large number of people in short
6) Extreme stress period of time. Example Cholera,
7) Damage to the skin Tuberculosis.
8) Age

2. Pandemic disease
Is the disease outbreak that becomes
widespread in large geographical area such as
continent or the whole world. Example
COVID-19 and AIDS

INFECTIONS AND DISEASE

3. Endemic disease
An infection: It occur when pathogens invade Is the disease outbreak that occurs in a given
the body. are constantly. Example Malaria and
Bilharzias’.
Disease: Is the condition that interfere with the
health of the body.
4. Sporadic disease
Effects of disease Is the disease that occurs occasionally and at
random intervals example Ebola and Rift
valley fever

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COMMNICABLE DISEASE AND INFECTIONS

Disease Causes and Risk factors Symptoms Effects Prevention and
transmission control
COVID-19 Caused by Anyone is at -Fever -Lung damage -Avoid
Corona Virus- risk of being -Headache -Blood clotting unnecessary
19 infected with -Dry cough -Death gatherings
It can be Covid-19 -Tiredness -Frequently
transmitted -However with -Difficulty in wash your
through underlying breathing or hands
-Coming contact medical shortness of thoroughly with
with infected conditions such breath. soap and clean
person as diabetes, -Joint aches and running water
-Inhaling air hypertension, pains -Use hand
droplets from an sickle cell -Loss of smell sanitizers as
infected person. anaemia, HIV or taste often as
-Touching and AIDS, -Abdominal possible
surface that asthma, and pain, diarrhea, -Wear masks
have been cancer are at and vomiting when going to
contaminated by higher risk public places
virus when -Keep social
touching eyes, distance
nose and mouth. -Seek medical
treatment.
Upper Most of these -Crowded areas -Fever Affects upper -Frequent wash
Respiratory diseases are -Having allergy -Headache respiratory tract hands
Tract Infection caused by virus. to pollen, dust -Dry cough thoroughly with
(URTI) However, some and some kind -Tiredness soap and clean
Example flu or infections such of smells like -Difficulty in running water
influenza and as flu are caused perfumes breathing or -Use clean and
cough by allergy. -Low body shortness of ironed
Transmitted by immunity breath handkerchiefs
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-Contacting -Running nose -Wear masks in

body fluid of public or dusty
sick person places
-Air (air borne) -Seek
immediate
medical
treatment.
Ebola Caused by -Living in -Fever -Affects spleen -Restrict travel
Ebola virus. places where -Body and kidney to places or
Transmitted by: they consume weakness -Damage of the countries with
-Contacting chimpanzee or -Bleeding immune system Ebola outbreak
body fluids from monkey meat. through body -Death -Quarantine the
sick person or a -History of orifices affected areas
person that died travelling to (nose, eyes, and individuals
recently from places with mouth, anus, -Avoid body
the disease. Ebola outbreak urethra, and contact with an
-Consuming or ears) infected person
contacting an -Seek
infected immediate
chimpanzee or medical
monkey treatment.
Cholera -Caused by -Poor -Watery -Dehydration -Wash hands
bacteria called environmental diarrhea like -Body with soap and
Vibrio cholera sanitation and rice water weakness clean running
-Spread through hygiene -Vomiting -Muscle cramps water after
ingesting -Water scarcity -Sunken eyes -Death using toilets
contaminated -Poor personal -Boil or treat
food or drinks hygiene drinking water
-Seek
immediate
medical
treatment
Meningitis -Caused by -Living in -Fever -Brain damage -Isolation of
bacteria called crowded areas -Headache -Poor patients
Meningococcus -Poor housing -Vomiting coordination of -Vaccination
species structure -Seizures or fits movements -Seek
-Spread through -Low immunity -Stiff neck -Deafness immediate
droplets when -Delirium -Paralysis medical
coughing, treatment
sneezing, or
kissing
Tuberculosis -Caused by -Low immunity -Prolonged -Lung damage -Vaccination
(TB) bacteria called -Visiting places cough -Bone damage -Avoid crowded
Mycobacterium with endemic -Blood stained -Kidney areas
tuberculosis TB cases sputum damage -Avoid living in
-Spread by -Poor living and -Fever -Bone poorly
droplets when working -Poor appetite infections ventilated
coughing or conditions -Weight loss -Hunchback houses
sneezing -Smoking -Lack of energy -Damage to the -Patient should
-Malnutrition -Night sweats immune system cover mouth
-Indoor air -Coughing and nose when
pollution coughing or
-Consumption sneezing
of untreated -Seek
milk from immediate
infected dairy medical
animal treatment
Plague -Caused by -Poor -Inflammation -Anaemia -Vaccination

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bacteria called environmental of lymph nodes -Pneumonia -Eliminating

Yersinia pestis sanitation -Fever rats and fleas
-Spread by fleas -Poor -Internal -Keeping house
found on rats procedures for bleeding clean
handling and -Body aches -Leftovers
care of pet -Coughing and should be kept
-Exposure to shortness of in tight vessels
animals and breath to discourage
insects rat in houses
-Poor public -Seek
health immediate
inspection medical
treatment

Bilharzia/ -Caused by -Occupational -Blood stained -Liver damage -Avoiding

Schistosomiasis Schistosoma factors like faeces or urine -Intestinal swimming in
species fishermen and -Abdominal damage untreated
-Spread by paddy farmers pain -Bladder stagnant water
aquatic snails -Poor -Fever damage -Draining
environmental -Tiredness -Kidney stagnant water
sanitation and -Enlarged liver damage -Seek
hygiene and spleen -Spleen damage immediate
-Access to -Anaemia medical
water source treatment
Malaria -Caused by a -Poor -Chills -Anaemia -Sleeping under
protozoa called environmental -Fever -Kidney failure treated
Plasmodium sanitation and -Sweating -Liver damage mosquito nets
species hygiene -Nausea and -Brain damage -Drain stagnant
-Transmitted by -Poor housing vomiting -Spleen damage water
female structure -Pain in joints -Death -Cutting long
Anopheles -Housing near -Headache grass in
mosquito breeding sites -Abdominal residential areas
pain -Fumigation
-Seek
immediate
medical
treatment
Scabies -Caused by -Poor -Intense itching -Persistent skin -Good personal
microscopic environmental -Rashes and rashes hygiene
mites sanitation and burrows on the -Damaged skin -Wash
-Spread by skin- hygiene skin -Can lead to contaminated
to-skin contact -Poor personal -Sores on the secondary clothes in hot
-Sharing of hygiene skin infections water and dry
clothing, towers, -Living in them in the sun
and bedding overcrowded -Avoiding
premise for sharing personal
example in items,
prison, school, especially
and dormitories clothes and
-Age: young towers
ones are likely -Seek
to be infected immediate
-Water scarcity medical
treatment
Rabies -Caused by -Poor -Fever -Damage to the -Pets should be
Rabies virus. environmental -Pain at the site nervous system taken care of
Transmitted sanitation of bites -Brain damage -Stay away
through: -Poor procedure -Difficulty -Paralysis from infected

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-Scratches or for handling and swallowing -Death pets

bites from care of pet -Restlessness -When bitten by
infected cats, -Exposure to -Muscle spasms a dog or other
dogs, jackals, animals and -Convolutions animals report
humans or other insects -Loss of feeling immediately to
animal -Poor public -Drooling a nearby health
-Organ health law -Foaming at the care facility
transplants from enforcement mouth -Vaccination
infected people -Seek
-Direct contact immediate
of eyes, nose, medical
and mouth with treatment
saliva of
infected animal

NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASE
Disease Causes Risk factor Symptoms Effects Prevention/
Control
Diabetes Caused by -Family history -Prolonged -Blurred vision -Control body
insulin disorder of diabetes fatigue -Blindness weight
-Obesity -Weight loss -Kidney failure -Regular
-Elderly -Excessive -Nerve damage exercise
-Unhealthy thirst -Damage to -Eat balanced
eating -Poor healing of arteries diet
wounds -Seek
-Frequent immediate
urination treatment
-Extreme
hunger
Rickets Caused by -Inappropriate -Bone pain or -Bone -Adequate
deficiency of complementary tiredness deformities intake of food
calcium or feeding during -Muscle rich in vitamin
vitamin D young ages weakness D and calcium
-Prolonged -Bowed legs or -Seek
breast feeding knock knees immediate
without -Muscle spasms medical
supplementary treatment
feeding
Acute Caused by low -Infection -Swollen -Retardation of -Adequate
malnutrition protein diet, low -Poverty abdomen body and brain intake of
carbohydrate -Lack of -Reddish hair protein
intake, nutrition -Change of skin -Balanced diet

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unbalanced diet, knowledge color -Seek

overeating -Family norms -Loss of immediate
appetite medical
treatment
Cancer -Caused by -Family history -Unusual -Damage to -Avoiding
abnormalities in of cancer swellings lung, prostate getting contact
the genetic -Chronic (tumors), gland, brest with
material as a infections of bleeding severe cervix, blood carcinogens,
result of disease such as pain and ulcers. (leukemia) fore example
mutations or Hepatitis B -Enlarged liver -Severe pain, tobacco smoke
due to -Exposure to and lymph loss of organ, and radiations
carcinogens harmful nodes and death -Vaccination
such as tobacco radiations such -Coughing fore example
smoke, as X-rays -Weight loss HPV and
radiations, -Having many -Poor appetite Hepatitis B
chemicals, sexual partners -Excessive -Healthy life
Some cancer are -Exposure of sweating style
caused by chemicals -Seek
-Viruses containing immediate
example Human ingredients of medical
Papilloma Virus mercury, lead, treatment
(HPV) which and cadmium
cause cervical
cancer
Glaucoma Caused by high
-Older age -Eye pain, -Blindness -Regular eye
pressure in the
-Family history blurred vision, -Rapture of check-up
eyes of glaucoma and seeing eyes-blood -Control blood
-Internal cycles of light vessels glucose
structure of the around bright -Seek
eye light immediate
-History of medical
diabetes treatment
SEXUAL TRANSMITTED DISEASE (STDs) AND SEXUAL TRANSIMITTED INFECTIONS (STIs)
Infection/Disease Cause and Symptoms Effects Prevention/Control
Transmission
Gonorrhoea Caused by a -Foul yellow -Infertility -Abstain from sexual
bacteria called discharge from the -Swollen and intercourse
Naisseria penis or vagina painful joints -Do not share
gonorrhea -Burning pain -Complication in personal items such
Spread by. when urinating the reproductive as towels, under
-Unprotected -Retention of urine system for both wears, and
sexual intercourse in males males and females swimsuits
and other types of -Itching in genital -Seek immediate
contact parts medical treatment
-Infection from
mother o her child
at birth
Syphilis Caused by a Syphilis occurs in -Damage to bones, -Abstain from sexual
bacteria called three stage teeth, skin, intercourse
Treponema First stage digestive system, -Use screened blood
pallidum. (Occurs between 3- eyes and nervous for transfusion
It is spread by: 4 weeks after system -Testing and treating
-Unprotected infection) -Mental instability pregnant women
sexual intercourse -Painless sore on -Blindness -Seek immediate
-Infection from sex organs -Stillbirth babies medical treatment
pregnant mother to -A sore that Hearing problems
foetus in her womb disappears after a -Can lead to death
-Blood transfusion week
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with infected blood Second stage

(Occurs between 8-
14 week after
infection)
-Fever
-Joint pain
-Rashes
-Raised bumps on
the skin
Third stage
(Occurs 2 years
after infection)
-In this stage the
effects of syphilis
are noticed
Trichomoniasis Caused by a -Frothy smelly -A baby with low -Abstain from sexual
protozoan called yellow discharge birth weight intercourse
Treponema from the vagina -Premature birth -Do not share
vaginalis -Vaginal itching -Complication in personal items such
It is spread by -Pain when the reproductive as towers,
-Sexual intercourse urinating system for both underwear, or
-Sharing personal -(Men usually males and females swimsuits
items such as tower show no -Medical treatment
Ls, underwear, and symptoms) for both partners.
swimsuits
Candidiasis Caused by fungi -Thick white -Infection of the -Abstain from sexual
called Candida sp. discharge from the blood stream intercourse
It spread by: vagina -Do not share
-Unprotected -Vaginal itching personal items such
sexual contact -Thick white as towers,
-Sharing personal patches in mouth underwear, or
items such as -Inflammation of swimsuits
towels, underwear the glans penis -Improve personal
and swimsuits. -Skin rashes hygiene
-Poor personal -Seek immediate
hygiene medical treatment
Genital herpes Caused by a virus -Recurrent fever -Recurrent painful -Abstain from sexual
called Herpes -Ulcers or blisters ulcers intercourse
simplex around the penis or -For pregnant -Medical treatment
-It is spread by vagina women can lead to for both partners
sexual intercourse -Pain in or around stillbirth even if one has no
the genital organs symptoms
-Headache
Hepatitis B Caused by hepatitis -Jaundice (skin and -Liver damage -Abstain from sexual
B virus. eyes look -Liver cancer intercourse
It is spread by yellowish) -Death -Vaccination
-Sexual intercourse -Dark tea colored -Do not share
-Blood transfusion urine clinical needles and
from an infected -Abdominal pain blades
person -Pale-colored stool -Use screened blood
-Contaminated -Fever for transfusion
blades and needles -Feeling tired -Seek immediate
(fatigue) medical treatment
-Joint pain
Chlamydia Caused by bacteria -Bleeding from -Infertility -Abstain from sexual
called Chlamydia vagina after sexual -Complication in intercourse
trachomatis intercourse reproductive -Medical treatment
-It is spread by: -Irregular system for both for both partners

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-Un protected menstruation male and females even if one does not
sexual intercourse -Lower abdominal show symptoms
-Infection from pain -Regular attendance
mother to child at -Pain during of clinic for early
birth urination diagnosis and
-Pus discharge treatment
from the penis or
vagina

TOPIC 04: CELL STRUCTURE

AND ORGANIZATION Functions

The Cell is a basic unit of life. All life (a) Site for many chemical reactions in the
processes take place in the cells. cell.

TYPES OF CELLS (b) Suspend cell organelles in the cell.

a) Prokaryotic cells
Example vacuoles, nucleus and mitochondria
b) Eukaryotic cells
are suspended in the cytoplasm.

Prokaryotic cells 3. Nucleus

Are cell in which their cellular organelles are This is a round or oval organelle suspended in
made up of single or one membrane. Example the cytoplasm. The nucleus is made up of
Bacteria and blue green bacteria nucleolus and fluid called nucleoplasm.

Eukaryotic cells Functions

Are cells in which their cellular organelles are (a) To determine the chemical processes that
made up of double or two membrane. takes place in the cell.
Example Amoeba, Animals and Plants. (b) To control the functions of all parts of the
cell
1. ANIMAL CELL (c) To determine the hereditary characteristic
of a cell

4. Mitochondrion
Is the site for respiration, reactions which yield
energy for the cell.

PARTS OF ANIMAL CELLS

1. Cell membrane
Is thin layer that encloses the whole cell
Function
Functions Energy production in the cell.
(a) Communicate with other cells.
(b) It allows selective movement of substances
into and out of the cell 2. PLANT CELL
(c) It encloses the contents of the cell.

2. Cytoplasm
This is jelly- like substance made up of water
and dissolved chemical substances.
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vacuole
It is regular in shape It is irregular in
shape
Nucleus is placed at Nucleus is centrally
the periphery positioned
Store food in form of Store food in form of
THE PARTS OF PLANT CELL starch glycogen
1. Cell wall CELL DIFFERENTIATION
This is a strong covering made of cellulose. Refers to the way cells are adapted so that they
can carry out function efficiently.
Functions These cells perform specific function and this
a) It allows the passage of water, is referred to as cell specialization.
minerals and gases in and out of the
cell. 1. TISSUE
b) Protects and gives the cell a definite A tissue is a group of similar cells performing
shape the same function. Basically there are two
types of tissue.
2. Chloroplast
It contains green pigment called chlorophyll. (a) Animal tissue
Examples Epithelial tissue, muscular tissue,
Functions of chlorophyll blood tissue, nerve tissue, skin tissue.
a) Absorbs the light energy needed for
photosynthesis

3. Vacuole

Function
a) Maintain a balance between water
molecules and solute molecules in the
cell;
b) Contain color pigments, which give (b) Plant tissue
color to flower. The fluid inside Examples Meristematic tissue, parenchyma
vacuole is known as cell sap tissue, collenchyma tissue, vascular
tissue(xylem tissue, phloem tissue).
4. Ribosomes
This is the site of protein synthesis. 2. ORGAN
An organ is a group of tissue performing the
Similarities between plant and animal cell same function.

a) Both have cell membrane. (a) Animal organ: - heart, kidney, liver, brain,
b) Both have cytoplasm. tang, stomach
c) Both have nucleus. (b) Plant organ: - roots, leavers, flower, stem
d) Both have vacuoles, ribosome and
mitochondria.

Differences between plant cell and animal

cell
Plant cell Animal cell
Has a cell wall No cell wall 3. SYSTEM
Has chloroplast Lack chloroplast Is the group of organs that work together to
Has a large and Has small and perform a certain function.
permanent centralized temporary vacuole

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Examples of system are Respiratory system,

digestive system, reproductive system,
hormonal system, skeletal system and blood
circulatory system, nervous system.

4. ORGANISM
An organism is made up of different systems
working together
An organism is the individual living organism (d) Root hair cells.
e.g. Animal and Plant. They absorb water and mineral salts (have
Summary extended portion helps to increase surface area
for absorption)
Cell Tissue Organ System
Organisms

Importance of cell differentiation

Cell differentiations leads to division of labor.

Division of labor means each cell does a

specific function. This helps the body to carry
out all life processes at the same time and (e) Guard cell.
more efficiently. To control open and close of stomach (the
inner wall is thinker than outer)
To achieve this, cells must become specialized
to carry out special functions.

SPECIALIZED CELL FOR DIFFERENT

FUNCTION

(a) White blood cell (WBC).

They can change their shape to engulf and (f) Palisade cell.
destroy harmful pathogen. These cells are found in plant leaves contain
large amounts of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are
site for photosynthesis.

(b) Red blood cell (RBC).

Transporting oxygen

They contain chlorophyll which traps sunlight

energy during photosynthesis.
(c) Sperm cell. (g) Xylem vessels
Fertilizes the female egg (have tails for swim Xylem vessels are made up of hollow dead
pointed head for easy penetration)
cells with wall made of lignin. Lignin is a
tough rigid material that makes up the
walls of xylem vessels.

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legs or wings based on bees, birds and bats

would be grouped together because they have
wings.

Snakes, earth worm and snails would also be

grouped together because they do not have
legs.

Function Artificial classification also involves

They transport water and minerals from classifying organisms according to their size
the roots to the leaves. how they move, where they live or what they
eat.
TOPIC 05; CLASSIFICATION I
Advantage of artificial classification
a) It straight forward and easy to use
Classification is a grouping of organisms
b) It can be done very fast
based on their similarities and differences,
c) Less costly than natural classification.
organisms that are similar are placed in one
group.
Disadvantage of artificial classification
a) Some organism which are not similar
These similarities could be in terms of
are grouped together
ancestry structure or the way they carry out
b) Some similar organisms are put in
life processes such as feeding and
different groups
reproduction.
c) It is less accurate because it uses only
few observable characteristics.
Taxonomy
d) It varies from person to person.
It is a branch of biology that deals with
NATURAL CLASSIFICATION
classifying organisms.
In this system classification is based on
Taxonomist evolutionary relationship and presence of
A person (biologist) who studies about large number of common and similar
classification. characteristics feature that show homology
and analogy structure.
Importance of classifying living things
1. It makes easy to study and identify
organism Advantage of natural classification
2. Scientific names enable scientist to a) It gives a lot of information of living
identify organisms easily things
3. It enables scientists to make b) It is most accurate
predictions. c) It is universal
4. It provides an organized system in d) It avoids confusion
which newly identified similar
organism can be fitted in future Disadvantage of natural classification
5. It helps man arrange the information a) It requires a lot of time
about living organisms in an orderly b) It needs high skills
manner to avoid confusion. c) It is difficult to classify
d) It is expensive
TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION e) It is not stable.
1. Artificial classification
2. Natural classification Difference between artificial and natural
classification
ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION Artificial Natural classification
Is the grouping of organism according to classification
observable features. For example presence of
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Not accurate Most accurate Zea mays and Homo sapiens when
hand written or typed the names
Cheap Expensive should be underlined.

Classify living Classify living VIRUSES

organism according organism according to A virus is an extremely small micro organism.
to the external the internal features. It is smaller than a living cell. A virus is not a
features cell
The study of viruses is called virology
Does not require 1. Requires scientific
skills and knowledge. Structure of viruses
scientific skills
A virus has a very simple structure consisting
of genetic material with a protein shell. The
protein shell is called a capsid. Viruses do not
MAJOR GROUP OF LIVING
have a nucleus or complex membrane cell
ORGANISM
organelles. Some viruses have viral envelopes.
a) Kingdom animalia. Example Cow,
Ascaris worms
b) Kingdom plantae. Example Maize
tree, peas
c) Kingdom monera. Example Bacteria
d) Kingdom protoctista. Example
Amoeba, Plasmodium, (a) Tobacco mosaic virus (b) Bacteriophage
e) Kingdom Fungi. Example Yeast
Viruses cannot reproduce its own. It must
Ranks of classification attack a host cell and uses the material in that
Kingdom, Phylum or Division, Class, Order, cell to reproduce. This is called oblige
Family, Genus ,Species parasitism.

Binomial nomenclature Characteristics of viruses

Nomenclature is a system of naming organism (a) Viruses do not grow, feed, excrete or
where by every name is made up of two Latin respire. Viruses exist in a dormant
words. state when outside a host cell. They
show no signs of life; they can stay
This system was divided into two parts. The that way for months or even years.
first part of the name represents the genus it is
also called the genetic name. (b) A virus particle outside a host cell is
called a virion. The virion attacks and
The second part of the name represents the cause diseases.
species it is also called the specific names
For example: The specific name of human (c) Viruses are host specific. This means
being is Homo sapiens. Homo is generic name that a certain type of virus only attacks
and sapiens is the specific name. a certain host for example. The viruses
affect only certain type of white blood
The following rules are observed when cell in human being.
writing scientific names.
1. The generic name is written before the Advantages of viruses
specific name a) Virus is important in the study of
2. The generic name must start with cellular and molecular biology. They
capital letter. are used by scientist to manipulate and
3. The specific name is written in small investigate the function of cell.
letter b) Some viruses are used to make
4. In publisher document such as books vaccine. For example developing
scientific name is written in italics eg, Ebola and HIV vaccine.
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c) Some are used to attack bacteria. PATHOGENIC BACTERIA

Example Bacteria phages These are bacteria that can cause disease, some
of the diseases caused by bacteria are fire
Disadvantage of virus blight, ring rot and tobacco mosaic in plant
and TB, typhoid, tetanus, cholera, syphilis and
a) Viruses are pathogens. They cause gonorrhea in animals.
disease and infections such as rabies,
muscles, chickenpox and polio also Adaptation of Pathogenic bacteria to cause
they destroy living cell. disease
b) They can reproduce very fast. This a) Fimbriae or pili for attachment
leads to large scale epidemics. Eg
Influenza and Corona virus.
c) Viruses do not have cure. Examples
Influenza, Yellow fever virus and
Hepatitis B virus.

KINGDOM MONERA
This kingdom monera consists of bacteria and b) Flagella for movement
blue green bacteria. The scientific study of c) Toxins to harm host
bacteria is called bacteriology. d) Invasion and colonization to resist
against drug treatments
Characteristics of bacteria e) Resistances
1. They are prokaryotic.
2. They are unicellular Advantage of kingdom monera
3. Some are free – living while others are 1. Digestion. Bacteria found in the gut
parasites or saprophytes. help animals to digest food
4. Some have flagella for movement. 2. Vitamins production.
5. Bacteria have a slimy outer layer. This 3. Fermentation. Bacteria are used in the
layer helps to protect the bacteria production of yoghurt, vinegar and
6. Bacteria occur in various shapes. alcohol.
4. Antibiotics productions.
Structure of Bacteria 5. Oxygen release in atmosphere.
Example some bacteria undergo
photosynthesis

VARIOUS SHAPES OF BACTERIA

Shape Name Examples
Cocci (i) Diplococcus sp.
Spherical-shaped bacteria (Singular: Coccus) (found in pairs), for example
bacteria that cause pneumonia and
gonorrhea

(ii) Staphylococcus sp.

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(form clusters), for example

bacteria that cause boils.

(iii) Streptococcus sp
(form chains), for example bacteria
that cause sore throat.

Rod-shaped bacteria Bacilli (i) Mycobacterium tuberculosis

(Singular: Bacillus) which causes Tuberculosis,

(ii) Escherichia coli which is found

in the guts of human beings and
can cause cramping, diarrhoea, and
urinary tract infections.

(iii) Salmonella typhi which causes

typhoid.

(iv) Clostridium tetani which

causes tetanus

Spiral-shaped bacteria Spirilla Treponema pallidum which causes

(Singular: Spirillum) syphilis

Comma-shaped Vibrio (singular vibrion) Vibrio cholerae which causes

cholera

Corkscrew bacteria Spirochaetes Borrelia sp which cause lyme

(Singular: spirochaete) disease and relapsing fever

Disadvantage of kingdom monera Members of this kingdom include Amoeba sp,

1. Bacteria cause infection and disease Euglena sp. Plasmodium sp, Paramecium sp,
2. Decrease of crops productions. and Trypanosome sp.
Example bacteria causing disease in
crops Characteristics of protoctists
3. Bacteria cause food to decay and spoil 1) They are eukaryotic
4. Reduction of soil nutrients. Eg. 2) Most are unicellular organisms, only a
Denitrifying bacteria in the soil few are multicellular.
convert nitrates to nitrogen. 3) Most live in or near water, or in moist
places.
4) Some are autotrophic while others are
heterotrophic.
5) Some are mobile while others are
sessile
KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA

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This kingdom consists of the following This phylum consists of unicellular aquatic
phylum. organisms most which live in fresh water and
posses flagella.
1. PHYLUM RHIZOPODA
Amoeba is free living, unicellular organisms, Example of organisms found in this phylum
are found at the bottom of ponds and lichen. are Euglena sp.

Characteristics of Amoeba sp
1. Amoeba is aquatic. They can be found
in fresh water. Characteristics of Euglena sp
2. They use pseudopodia (cell 1. They are unicellular.
extensions) for locomotion and to 2. They are found on both fresh water
engulf food particles. and salt water
3. They have flagella for movement.
4. Some have chloroplasts for
photosynthesis
5. They reproduce asexually
6. They have eye spots for detection of
light intensity
3. They have contractile vacuoles to 7. They are eukaryotic cells
regulate the amount of water in the
fresh water Advantages of Euglena sp
4. They have a temporally food vacuole 1) They are used to treat sewage. This is
to hold and digest food particles. because they have unique capacity to
5. They excreta urea and ammonia as change from being autotrophic to
waste products heterotrophic.
6. They reproduce by binary fission 2) They are used as food. Aquatic
organisms such as fish use euglena as
food.
3) They produce oxygen gas. This is
done during photosynthesis.

Disadvantages of Euglena sp
1. They are harmful to aquatic organism.
Example euglena blooms.
Advantage of Amoeba sp
Amoeba is commonly used in laboratories to The toxins produced by these large numbers of
study cell structure and function. microorganisms can kill fish and other
organisms in the water.
Disadvantage of Amoeba sp
Amoeba can cause diseases for example 3. PHYLUM APICOMPLEXA
Entamoeba histolytica cause amoeba dysentery Organisms found in this phylum are
in human. unicellular and parasitic, for example
Plasmodium sp. Which cause malaria in
2. PHYLUM EUGLENOPHYTA humans.

Characteristics of Plasmodium sp

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1) They are unicellular Organisms found in this phylum are

2) They are parasites. They have unicellular flagellate protozoa. Generally they
complex life cycles involving the host are found in the intestine, but can also be
and the vector. found in blood stream or in the heart, for
3) They reproduce sexually in the host example Trypanosoma sp.
and asexually by multiple fission in
the vector and host.

Effects of Plasmodium sp
Plasmodium parasites causes malaria.
Malaria can lead to inflammation and rupture
of the spleen, and miscarriages.

It can also cause anaemia due to the

destruction of red blood cells. Severe malaria Characteristics of Trypanosoma sp.
can also cause death.
1) They are unicellular, slender,
4. PHYLUM CILIOPHORA elongated, and dorsal ventrally
Organisms found in this phylum are flattened in shape.
unicellular and are found in aquatic habitats, 2) They are heterotrophic
for example Paramecium sp. 3) They are parasites
4) The body is covered with a thin,
elastic, and firm pellicle.

Disadvantages of Trypanosoma sp

Some trypanosome causes disease. Example

Trypanosoma brucei causes trypanosomiasis
or sleeping sickness disease.

The disease is transmitted though bites of a

Characteristics of Paramecium sp. vector called tsetse fly or through blood
1) They are unicellular and slipper contact from an infected individual.
shaped
2) They are heterotrophic
3) They live in fresh water
4) The body is covered with short hairy
structures called cilia
5) They use cilia to move

Advantages of Paramecium sp.

They help in cleaning the environment. This is
done by feeding on particles and small
animals in the environment.

Disadvantages of Paramecium sp
1) Some of paramecium causes disease.
Example Balantidium coli causes
Balantidiasis.
2) They feed on bacteria which
decompose sewage. This delay the
decomposition of sewage.

5. PHYLUM ZOOMASTIGINA

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