HISTORICAL SOURCES

Provide information about past events.

Two types: Literary and Archaeological.
Archaeological sources are more reliable and important for Ancient India's study.

1. Literary Sources: Divided into Indigenous and Foreign.

A. Indigenous Sources: Religious and Secular

Religious Texts:
(a) Brahmanic (Hindu) Texts:
Shruti Texts: Vedas (Samhitas), Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads.
 Vedas focus more on religious, social, economic life, less on political life.
 Rig Veda & Atharva Veda more historically important than Yajur Veda & Sama Veda.
 Brahmanas (1000-600 BC): Shatapatha Brahmana highlights regions and states in NW and East India.
 Aranyakas (1000-600 BC): Minimal historical importance.
 Upanishads (1000-500 BC): Focus on 'Para-vidya' (Spiritual learning).
 Combined study of Brahmanas & Upanishadas provides historical information from King Parikshit to King Bimbisar.

Rig Veda (1500 BC – 1000 BC): Sapta Saindhav Region

Yajur, Sam & Atharva Veda (1100 BC – 600 BC): Kuru-Panchala Region

Smriti Texts: Vedangas, Sutras, Smritis, Epics (Ramayana & Mahabharata), Purans.
Vedangas (600 BC - 200 AD): Highlight ancient Indian history, civilization, culture.
Smritis (600 BC - 600 AD): Discuss social organization, customs, kings' duties.

Epics (400 BC - 400 AD):

 Ramayana (Valmiki): Highlights political, social, religious conditions, origin & development of Janapadas, mentions Yavanas
(Greeks) & Sakas (Scythians).
 Mahabharata (Ved Vyas): Extensive form of the Mahabharata war (around 950 BC), claims "Yann Bharate Tann Bharate,"
mentions Girivraja (capital of Magadha), Panchala state, Huns, Yavanas, Sakas.

Purans (400 BC - 400 AD):

 Discuss history from the beginning to Gupta period.
 Generally, have 5 segments: Sarga (Creation of the Universe), Pratisarga (Re-creation), Vamsa (Genealogy of the gods and
the sages), Manvantar (Epochs of Manu) & Vansanucharitam (narratives of ancient dynasties)
 Only Vansanucharitam is important from point of view of history.
 Only Matsya, Bhagawat, Vishnu, Vayu, Brahma, Bhavishya, Garud Puran have Vansanucharitams (genealogies).

(b) Buddhist Texts: Pali and Anupali

Pali Texts: Tripitaka, Deep Vansha, Mahavansha, Milindpannaho

 Tripitaka: Earliest and most important, includes Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka.
i. Vinaya Pitaka: Disciplinary rules for monastic life.
ii. Sutta Pitaka: Largest, most important, includes:
 Ambattha Sutta (Digh Nikaya): Describes Kshatriya pride for blood purity.
 Anguttara Nikaya: Lists 16 Mahajanapadas.
 Jataka (Khuddaka Nikaya): 549 folk tales of previous births of Gautama Buddha, compilation began in 1st century
BC, completed by 2nd century AD, sheds light on social & economic conditions.
iii. Abhidhamma Pitaka: Scholastic discussion of Buddha's doctrines.

 Deep Vansha (4th century AD) & Maha Vansha (5th century AD): Compiled in Sri Lanka, contain history of Sri Lanka and help
construct Mauryan history.

 Milindpannaho: Dialogue between Greek king Milind (Menander) and Buddhist monk Nagasena (Nagarjuna), discusses
religious, social, economic life in NW India (1-2nd century AD), mentions political conditions and foreign trade.

Anupali Texts: Sanskrit and other texts (Divyavadan, Aryamanjushrimulkalpa, Lalit Vistar)
Divyavadan: Stories of later Mauryan kings, Shunga king Pushyamitra Shunga, and life of Gautama Buddha.
 Aryamanjushrimulkalpa: Describes political events from Pre-Mauryan period to Vardhana period (Harshavardhana).
Lalit Vistar: Acts of Gautama Buddha, religious and social conditions of the time.

(c) Jain Texts

 Highlight religious and social conditions of the time.
 Compiled in 6th century AD during 2nd Jain Mahasabha at Vallabhi, Gujarat.
 12 Angas: Important Jain texts. Important ones are as follows:
i. Acharanga Sutra: Disciplinary rules for Jain monks.
ii. Bhagawati Sutra: Life of Mahavira, lists 16 Mahajanapadas.
iii. Namadhamma Katha Sutra: Preachings of Mahavira.
iv. Antagada-dasao & Anutarovavaiydasao: Life stories of famous Jain monks.
v. Vivagasuyam Sutra: Discussion on Karma Phala (fruits of actions).
vi. Bhadrabahu Charita: Life of Jain Acharya Bhadrabahu, glimpses of Mauryan king Chandragupta Maurya's later life.
vii. Parishishtaparva (by Jain Acharya Hemchandra): Most important from a historical perspective.

Secular Texts:
(a) Historical Texts
 No proper historical texts; most have literary or religious elements.
 Some texts contain dispersed historical material.

 Kautilya's 'Arthashastra' (4th century BC):

i. Detailed information on administration.
ii. Insights into social and religious life.
iii. Comparable to Aristotle's 'Politics' and Machiavelli's 'Prince'.

 Kamandaka's 'Neetisar' (4th-6th century AD): Light on Gupta Period monarchy.

 Shukra's 'Shukraneetisar': Light on monarchy.
 Somdev Suri's 'Neetisar Neetivakyamrita': Information on state machinery.
 Brihaspati's 'Brahasapatya Arthashastra': In Kautilya's 'Arthashastra' tradition.
 Rajatarangini by Kalhana (12th century AD)
i. Earliest example of historical writing.
ii. Biographies of Kashmir kings.
iii. Covers history from earliest times to 1148-50 AD.
iv. Assumes regular historical form from 7th century AD.
v. Mix of traditions and imaginations in earlier chapters.
vi. Eminent historian R.C. Majumdar praises it.

 Chronicles of Gujarat:
i. 'Prabandh Kosh' (Rajashekhara).
ii. 'Hammir Mad Mardan' (Jai Singh).
iii. 'Tejpal Prashasti' (Vastupal).
iv. 'Prabandha Chintamani' (Meruttung).
v. Illuminate Gujarat history.

 Chachanama:
i. Originally written by Qazi Ismail (qazi of Alor appointed by Muhammad Bin Qasim) in Arabic in the 8th century AD
and named 'Tarikh-i-Sind-wa-Hind' (ie, History of Sind or Hind).
ii. Translated into Persian by Ali Bin Hamid Kufi in 1216 AD.
iii. Provides detailed description of Muhammad Bin Qasim's Sindh conquest (711-12 AD).

(b) Semi-Historical Texts

 Panini's 'Ashtadhyayi': Grammar book; Provides insights into the political conditions of Pre-Maurya and Maurya periods.
 Sage Gragi's 'Gargi Samhita' (part of 'Yug Puran'): Jyotish (astrology) text, Mentions Greek and Scythian invasions.
 Patanjali's 'Mahabhashya': Commentary on Panini's 'Ashtadhyayi'; Contains ample historical material of that time.
 Kalidasa's 'Malvikagnimitra'
i. First play (drama) by Kalidasa.
ii. Information on the political conditions of the Shunga dynasty and earlier royal dynasties.
iii. Reflects the interior life of royal dynasties.
 Vishakhadatta's 'Mudrarakshasa'
i. Drama depicting Chandragupta Maurya, his prime minister Chanakya, and contemporary kings.
ii. Describes how Chandragupta overthrew the Nandas with Chanakya's assistance.
 iii. Provides an excellent account of socio-economic conditions of that time.

(c) Biographical Texts:

 Often written to glorify royal patrons, contain valuable historical information despite their exaggerated nature. These are
known as 'Prashasti Kavya' (eulogy verse).
 These biographical texts, while primarily serving as eulogies, offer a glimpse into the political, social, and religious
conditions of their times.

1. Banabhatta's 'Harsha Charita'

Based on King Harshavardhana's life (620 AD).
Earliest available biographical text in India.
Written in Sanskrit; contains 8 chapters.
Provides insight into court life, and social and religious life under Harshavardhana.

2. Vakpatiraj's 'Gaudvaho' (Gaud Vadhah)

Details victories of Yashovarmana, Chandra ruler of Kannauj.
Describes the killing (Vadha) of the Gaud king by Yashovarmana.

3. Padmagupta Parimal's 'Navasahasanka Charita': Life story of Vakpati Munj, Paramara ruler of Malwa.

4. Ballal's 'Bhoja Prabandha'fe story of Bhoja, Paramara ruler of Malwa.

5. Bilhana's 'Vikramanka Charita'

Achievements of Vikramaditya-VI (Vikramanka), Chalukya King of Kalyani.
Describes his ascent to the throne of Kalyani.

6. Sandhyakar Nandin's 'Ramcharita'

History of the Pala dynasty.
Dual narrative style ('Dvyasraya Kavya'): story of Rama and Pala king Rampala.

7. Hemachandra's 'Kumarpala Charita'

Life of Kumarapala, Chaulukya Solanki ruler of Anihalwara.
Another 'Dvyasraya Kavya': story of the king and rules of Sanskrit & Prakrit grammar.

8. Jay Singh Suri's 'Kumarpala Bhupala Charita': Describes Kumarpala, Chaulukya ruler of Anihalwara.

9. Anand Bhatt's 'Ballalcharita': History of Ballal Sena, Sena ruler of Bengal.

10. Chandbardai's 'Prithwiraja Raso'

First epic of the Hindi language.
Life of Prithwiraja-III, Chauhan ruler of Shakambhari.
Describes conflict between Prithwiraja-III & Muhammad Ghori.

11. Jayanak's 'Prithwiraja Vijaya': Poetic description of struggles of Prithwiraja-III, Chauhan ruler.

12. Jayachandra's 'Hammir Kavya': Life account of Hammir Dev, Chauhan ruler of Ranthambhore.

13. Rajanath-II's 'Achyutarajabhyudaya': Life of Achyutadeva Ray, Tuluva ruler of Vijayanagar.

B . Foreign Sources: Divided into four categories Greek-Roman, Chinese, Tibetan & Arabian (Arab).

A. Greek Writers: Alexander's invasions reconstructed solely from Greek sources; absent in Indian records.

(a) Pre-Alexandrian Time:

 Scylax (6th Century BC): Persian soldier sent by Darius I to explore the Indus River.
 Hecataeus Milletus (549-496 BC): Greek historian, limited knowledge of Indus Valley.
 Herodotus (484-425 BC): "Father of history," detailed Persian-Greek interactions, North-West India's political state.
 Ktesias (416-398 BC): Persian court physician, wrote 'Persica' full of exaggerations.

(b) Alexandrian Time:

 Nearchus: Admiral under Alexander, explored Persian Gulf to Indus coast.
 Onesicritus: Pilot under Alexander, wrote about India and Alexander.
 Aristobulus: Geographer under Alexander, described Indian experiences.

(c) Post-Alexandarian Time:

 Megasthenese (350-290 BC): Ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya, wrote 'Indica'.
 Deimachus & Dionysios: Ambassadors during Bindusara's reign, wrote about India.
 Patrocles (250 BC): Governor, described India and neighboring regions.
 Timosthene: Naval admiral, contributed to historical accounts.
 Aelian (100 BC): Historian, wrote about North-West Province.
 Diodorus (died 36 BC): Historian, referenced Megasthenese for India.
 Strabo (64 BC-19 BC): Geographer, described India's geography and society.
 Plutarch (45-125 AD): Biographer, mentioned Alexander and Chandragupta Maurya.
 Anonymous Periplus Writer (80-115 AD): Recorded Indian ports and trade activities.
 Arrian (130-172 AD): Historian, who wrote 'Indica' and 'Anabasis of Alexander', reliable sources.
 Kosmos/Cosmos Indicopleustes (537-547 AD): Merchant-turned-monk, described trade routes & Indian maritime activities.

B. Roman/Latin Writers

(a) Pliny (23-99 AD)

 Roman historian contemporary with Kushana ruler Kanishka.
 Wrote 'Natural History', based on Greek and Western merchant accounts.
 Detailed descriptions of Indian animals, plants, minerals, and trade with Rome.

(b) Curtius (1st Century AD)

 Roman historian contemporary with Emperor Claudius (41-54 AD).
 Provides sufficient information about Alexander the Great in his book.

(c) Ptolemy (2nd Century AD)

 Roman geographer and historian.
 'Geography' contains ancient geographical information and details on India-Rome trade relations.

(d) Justin (2nd Century AD)

 Roman historian.
 Wrote 'Epitome', summarizing Greek accounts.
 Describes Alexander the Great's Indian campaign and Chandragupta Maurya's role in ousting Greek influence from North-
West India.
 Chandragupta Maurya identified as Sandrocottus in his writings.

C. Chinese Writers
 Suma Chien (145 BC-85 BC): First Chinese writer to mention India in 'Historical Memoirs'.
 Pan Kou & Fanye (378-445 AD): Pan Kou's 'Annals of the Earlier Hans' and Fanye's 'Annals of the Later Hans' provide
insights into Kushan rulers Kujul Kadphises and Vem Kadphises.
 Fa-hien (399-414 AD):
i. Traveled to India during Gupta ruler Chandragupta-II 'Vikramaditya's reign (399-414 AD).
ii. Wrote 'Fo-Kyuo-Ki' (Records of Buddhist Countries) detailing Gupta period history, civilization, and culture from a
Buddhist perspective.
 Sung Yun (518-22 AD): Journeyed to India to collect Mahayana Buddhist texts.
 Hiuen Tsang (629-645 AD)
i. Visited India during Harshavardhana's rule.
ii. Studied at Nalanda Mahavihara and wrote 'Si-Yu-Ki' (Buddhist Records of the Western World).
iii. Detailed account of Harshavardhana's reign, administration, educational system, and cultural life.
iv. Mentions Huna ruler Mihirkula and other contemporary Indian rulers.
 Hwui Li: Wrote a biography of Hiuen Tsang, providing insights into Indian history.
 Itsing (673-695 AD)
i. Traveled to India via Sumatra, studied Sanskrit and Buddhist texts at Nalanda Mahavihara.
ii. Wrote 'A Record of the Buddhistic Religion as Practised in India and Malay Archipelago' detailing Sanskrit
literature and Buddhist history.
 Hui-Cho (727 AD) refers to the doings of Muktapida of Kashmir and Yashovarmana of Kannauj.
 Matwa Lin (13th Century AD): Provides information about Harshavardhana's eastern campaign.
 Mohaan (15th Century AD): Visited Bengal in 1406 AD, impressed by the region's wealth and craftsmanship.

D. Tibetan Writers
1. Taranath (12th Century AD)
i. Tibetan historian known for 'Kangyur' & 'Tangyur'.
ii. Provides information about ancient India.

2. Dharmaswamy (13th Century AD)

i. Studied at Nalanda Mahavihara for 3 years (1234-1236 AD).
ii. Contributed to Tibetan understanding of Indian history and culture.

E. Arabian/Arabic Writers

1. Sulaiman (851 AD)

 Arab merchant and traveler to India during the reign of Mihir Bhoja-I and Amoghavarsha.
 Wrote 'Silsila-ut-Tawarikh', detailing political conditions and rulers of 9th-century India.

2. Ibn Khurdadhbih (864 AD): Arab geographer who wrote 'Kitab-al-Masalik-wa-Mamalik', focusing on trade routes and Hindu
society's castes.

3. Al Biladuri (died 892 AD): Author of 'Futuh-ul-Buldan', describing the Arab conquest of Sindh by Muhammad bin Qasim.

4. Al Masudi (died 956 AD)

 Arab traveler who visited India during Malipala-I's reign.
 Wrote 'Muruz-ul-Jahab', detailing Indian horses, camels, and the region's Arab principalities.

5. Ibn Hawkal (943-79 AD)

 Baghdad merchant who traveled extensively, including to the Rashtrakuta state.
 Produced a map of Sindh and attempted to define India's boundaries.

6. Alberuni (973-1048 AD)

 Scholar under Mahmud Ghaznavi, wrote 'Tehqiq-i-Hind' (Kitab-ul-Hind) after extensive study of Indian society and culture.
 Known as the "First Real Indologist" for his comprehensive account, translated as 'Alberuni's India'.

7. Ibn Batuta (1304-69 AD)

 Moroccan traveler under Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, appointed as a Qazi in Delhi.
 His 'Rihla' provides insights into the Delhi Sultanate, including the capital's transfer and Madurai Sultanate.

8. Sihab al Dinumari (1348 AD) Damascus resident who compiled 'Masalika Absari Mamalika Asar' based on Indian information,
focusing on socio-economic conditions.

9. Abdurrazzaq (1413-82 AD)

 Ambassador to Calicut under Shaharukh, visited Vijayanagara during Devaraya-II's reign.
 His observations of Vijayanagara and maritime trade are detailed in 'Malta-us-Sadan-wa-Mazama-ul-Bahrain'.

2. Archaeological Sources

Early Initiatives:
 Archaeology in India began under European scholars.
 Sir William Jones founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784, initially focused on language and literature.

Deciphering Scripts:
 James Prinsep, an Asiatic Society minister, deciphered the Brahmi script in 1837, enabling the reading of Ashokan
inscriptions.
 George Turnour identified 'Piyadassi' with Mauryan king 'Ashoka' based on Buddhist texts.

Foundation of Archaeological Survey:

 Sir Alexander Cunningham, appointed in 1861, laid the foundation of Indian archaeology through extensive explorations
and excavations.
 Cunningham is revered as the Father of Indian Archaeology for his pioneering contributions.

Institutional Growth:
 In 1902, Lord Curzon established a separate Department of Archaeology and appointed Sir John Marshall as its Director-
General.
 Marshall's tenure (1902-1928) was marked by key discoveries: Harappa (1921), Mohenjo-daro (1922), Chanhudaro (1925),
Sutkagendor (1927), leading to the formal announcement of the Indus Civilization in 1924.
 This discovery pushed back the origins of Indian civilization by 2,500 years, challenging earlier beliefs that it began with the
Vedic Aryans.

Successors and Continued Work: Successors of Marshall included H. Hargreaves (1928-31), Dayaram Sahani (1931-35), J.P.
Blackiston (1935-37), K.N. Dixit (1937-44), Mortimer Wheeler (1944-48), and N.P Chakrabarti (1948-50).

Kinds of Archaeological Sources: Three categories- Inscriptions, Coins & Monuments.

 Epigraphy: Study of inscriptions; Epigraphist: One who studies inscriptions.
 Numismatics: Study of coins; Numismatist: One who studies coins.
 The Numismatics Society of India was established in Allahabad in 1910 AD.

A. Inscriptions:
Inscriptions are the most crucial archaeological sources.
Divided into two groups: Foreign and Indigenous.

Foreign Inscriptions:
 Boghazkoi Inscription (150 BC): Found in Asia Minor (Turkey), it mentions Vedic deities and supports the Central Asian
theory of Aryan migration to India.
 Behistun Inscription (520-518 BC) & Naqsh-i-Rustam Inscription (515 BC): These Persian inscriptions by Darius I mention
conquests including Gandhar (Gadar) and the Sindhu Valley (Hindu).

Indigenous Inscriptions:
Some argue inscription writing in India predates Ashoka, citing:
  Piprahwa Buddhist Urn Inscription (5th-4th Century BC): Found in Uttar Pradesh.
 Barli Inscription: Found in Rajasthan.
 Ashokan Inscriptions: Deciphered in 1837 by James Prinsep, marking the beginning of deciphered indigenous inscriptions
in India.

North Indian Inscriptions

1. Mauryan Inscriptions: Ashokan Inscriptions

 Total Inscriptions: 40 Ashokan inscriptions have been found to date.
 Mention of Family: Only Queen Karuwaki and son Teevar are mentioned in Ashokan inscriptions.
 Use of Terms: Inscriptions use 'Pasand' for community, 'Bambhan' for Brahmana, and 'Nigrath' for Jain.
 Bhabru Inscription: Uses Boustrophedon script (alternating left to right and right to left).
 Yerragudi Inscription: Written in Brahmi script but right to left, unique for Brahmi.
 Ashoka's Name: Inscriptions from Maski, Gurjara, Nittur, and Udegolam use 'Ashoka'.
 Bhabru Inscription: Ashoka refers to himself as 'Magadhiraj' (King of Magadh).
 Junagadh (Girnar) Inscription: Later inscribed by Saka ruler Rudradaman and Gupta ruler Skandagupta.
 Allahabad Pillar Edict: Includes inscriptions of Ashoka, Karuwaki, Samudragupta, and Jehangir.
 First Discovery: Meerut-Delhi Pillar Edict, discovered in 1750 by Joseph Tiefenthaler.
 Language and Script: Generally in Prakrit language and Brahmi script.
 Regional Variations: Brahmi in Eastern India, Kharosthi in North-Western India, Greek & Aramaic in Western India.
 Kharosthi Script: Used in Manshera and Shahbazgarhi (Pakistan) inscriptions.
 Greek & Aramaic: Found in Shara-i-Kuna (Kandahar, Afghanistan) inscription.
 Historical Study: D.R. Bhandarkar's book 'Ashoka' (1925) focuses exclusively on Ashokan inscriptions.

Dasharatha's Nagarjuni Cave Inscription (220 BC): found in Nagarjuni hills situated in Jehanabad district of Bihar state
written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script
According to the inscription, king Dasharatha (grandson of Ashoka) donated three caves namely Vapika, Gopika & Vadithika cave
to Ajivika monks so that they could reside in the rainy season.

2. Post-Mauryan Inscriptions

Heliodorus's Besnagar Garud Pillar Inscription (2nd century BC)

 Located in Besnagar village, Madhya Pradesh.
 Erected by Heliodorus, Indo-Greek ambassador to Bhagabhadra, Shung king.
 Calls himself 'Bhagwat', follower of Bhagwat religion.
 Dedicated to Vishnu, confirms Greek interest in Indian religion.

Dhanadeo's Ayodhya Stone Inscription (1st century BC)

 Found near Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh.
 Written in Sanskrit and Brahmi script.
 Inscribed by Dhanadeo of Shung dynasty.
 Mentions Pushyamitra Shung, Ashwamedha Yajnas, and Greek encounters.

Kharavela's Hathigumpha Inscription (1st century BC)

 Located in Hathigumpha cave, Kalinga (Odisha).
 Written in Prakrit and Brahmi script.
 Describes Kharavela's reign, Jain patronage, and conquests.
 Mentions his return of relics from Nanda era.

Nagagnika's Nanaghat Cave Inscription (2nd half of 1st century BC)

 Found in Nanaghat caves, Pune district, Maharashtra.
 Written in Prakrit and Brahmi script.
 Inscribed by Nagagnika, wife of Satavahana ruler Shatakarni.
 Details Shatakarni's achievements and royal lineage.

Gautami Balashri's Nasik Cave Prashasti Inscription (2nd century AD)

 Found in Nasik caves, Maharashtra.
 Inscribed by Gautami Balashri in honor of Gautamiputra Shatakarni.
 Mentions victories and religious devotion of Shatakarni.

Mathura Stone Pillar Inscription of Huwishka's Time (106 AD)

 Found near Mathura Jain temple, Uttar Pradesh.
 Written in Prakrit and Brahmi script.
  Donated by Sarakman during Kushan ruler Huwishka's reign.
 Mentions charitable contributions and respect for Huwishka.

Ushabhadata's Nasik Cave Inscription (1st century AD)

 Found in Pandu Lena caves, Nasik, Maharashtra.
 Written in Prakrit and Brahmi script.
 Inscribed by Ushabhadata, son-in-law of Nasik ruler Nahpan.
 Describes regional boundaries and guild contributions.

Rudradaman's Junagadh Inscription (150 AD)

 Located in Junagadh, Gujarat.
 Written in Sanskrit and Brahmi script.
 Inscribed by Saka ruler Rudradaman.
 Details conquests and repairs of Sudarsana Lake, mentions Vishnu and Laxmi.

3. Gupta Period Inscriptions

Samudragupta's Prayag (Allahabad) Prashasti Inscription (360 AD)

 Composed by Harishena, minister of Samudragupta.
 Written in Sanskrit and Brahmi script.
 Describes Samudragupta's conquests, coronation, and personal qualities.
 Mentions alliances, victories over rivals, and his cultural patronage.

Samudragupta's Eran Inscription

 Calls Samudragupta 'Sarvarajochchheta' (uprooter of all kings).
 Mentions his marriage to Datta Devi and Eran as his personal estate.

Samudragupta's Nalanda Copper Plate Inscription

 Found in Nalanda, Bihar.
 Donative nature, detailing land grants to Brahmanas.
 Provides Gupta genealogy from Srigupta to Samudragupta.

Samudragupta's Gaya Copper Plate Inscription: Similar content to Nalanda copper plate, found in Gaya, Bihar.

Chandragupta-II's Udaygiri Inscription

 Found in Udaygiri hills, Madhya Pradesh.
 Describes victories over western regions by Chandragupta-II.

Chandra's Mehrauli (Delhi) Iron Pillar Inscription

 Associated with Gupta ruler Chandragupta-II.
 Found in Mehrauli, Delhi.

Kumargupta-I's Damodarpur Copper Plate Inscription

 Found in Damodarpur, Dinajpur district, Bengal.
 Details administration and territorial extent of Northern Bengal.

Kumargupta-I's Mandsore Stone Inscription:

 Found at Sivana River, Mandsore, Madhya Pradesh.
 Mentions decline in commerce, migration of silk weavers, and temple construction.

Skandagupta's Girnar/Junagadh Inscription:

 Describes provincial administration under Skandagupta.
 Mentions repair of Sudarsana Lake and benevolent rule of Kumargupta.

Skandagupta's Bhitari Pillar Inscription:

 Found near Bhitari village, Ghazipur district, Uttar Pradesh.
 Mentions temple construction, revenue donation, and Huns invasion.

Skandagupta's Indore Copper Plate Inscription: Mentions Saur community, guilds like Tailika Shreni, and administrative units.

Bhanugupta's Eran Stone Inscription (510 AD):

 Found in Eran, Sagar district, Madhya Pradesh.
 Describes battle with Hun invader Tormana and mentions Sati practice.
Tormana's Eran Varah Statue Inscription:
 Found on Varah statue in Eran, Sagar district, Madhya Pradesh.
 Details political achievements and religious interests of Hun ruler Tormana.

4. Later Inscriptions

Harshavardhana's Banskhera Copper-Plate Inscription

 Found in Banskhera, Shahjehanpur district, Uttar Pradesh.
 Details administration and economy under Harshavardhana.
 Mentions donation of tax-free village Markat to Brahmanas.
 Signature replica indicates Harshavardhana's skill in calligraphy.

Yashodharman's Mandsore Stone Pillar Inscription

 Inscribed by Malwa ruler Yashodharman.
 Records victory over Hun ruler Mihirkula and annexation of Malwa.

Mihirbhoja's Gwalior Prashasti Inscription

 Inscribed by Pratihara King Mihirbhoja.
 Describes Mihirbhoja as a great conqueror, competent administrator, and benevolent ruler.

Parmara Bhoja's Dhara Prashasti Inscription: Highlights political and cultural achievements of Bhoja from the Parmara Dynasty.

Vijayasen's Devpara Prashasti Inscription: Describes events during the reign of Vijayasen, founder of the Sen dynasty.

South Indian Inscriptions

Pulkeshin-II's Aihole Prashasti Inscription
 Inscribed in the Vishnu temple at Aihole, Karnataka.
 Written by court poet Ravikriti, a Jain follower.
 Highlights successes of Pulkeshin-II, the Chalukya ruler of Vatapi/Badami.
 Mentions defeat of Harshavardhana and the title "Parameshwar".
 Claims Mahabharat war occurred in 3101 BC.

Narsinghvarmana's Mallikarjuna Temple Stone Inscription:

 Records Pallava ruler Narsinghvarmana's conquest over Chalukya ruler Pulkeshin-II.
 Narsinghvarmana took the title "Mahamalla".

Dantidurg's Allora Cave Inscription:

 Inscribed in Dashavtar Temple of Allora.
 Describes Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurg's conquests over Kalinga, Koshal, Kanchi, Malwa, Lat, and Tank.

Rajaraja's Tanjore Inscription:

 Highlights successes of Chola king Rajaraja.
 Rajaraja was the first to begin inscriptions with a historical preface.
 Mentions defeat of Chera in the battle of Kandaloor and annexation of Northern Sri Lanka.

Rajendra-I's Tiruvalangar Copper Inscription:

 Describes victories of Chola ruler Rajendra-I.
 Mentions defeat of Sumatra ruler Vijayottung Varmana.
 Provides insights into the revenue system of the Cholas.

Uttarmerur Inscription of Parantaka time: Details local government during the Chola period under Parantaka.

B. Coins
 Help us a great deal to know the history of ancient India.
 Coins confirm, revise, change or extend the facts received from literary sources.
 Coins are of various metals-copper, silver, gold and others.
 For convenience of study, coins are divided into two categories-Indigenous & Foreign.

I. Indigenous Coins
(a) Early Punch-Marked Coins
 Characteristics: Early coins, called punch-marked coins, were marked with symbols such as hills, trees, fish, bulls, elephants,
crescents, etc.
 Material: Mostly made of silver, with some copper coins.
 Shape: Typically quadrilateral.
 Timeline: First appeared in the 6th century BC, circulating until the 2nd century BC (from Mahajanapadas period to Shunga
period).
 Issuers: Initially issued by guilds of merchants, later by states.

(b) Indo-Bactrian Coins

 Innovations: Introduced writing the names of kings and figures of rulers and deities on coins.
 Material: Known for being the first to issue gold coins.
 Significance: Key in constructing the history of Indo-Bactrian rulers, who are known largely through their coins.

(c) Scythian (Saka), Parthian (Pahlava) & Kushana Coins

 Characteristics: Followed the style of Indo-Bactrian coins.
 Historical Insight: Important for understanding the history of these rulers and other entities like the Malavas, Yaudheyas,
and Mitra rulers of Panchala.
 Innovations: Saka ruler Rudradaman issued the first dated coins in Sanskrit.
 Material: Satavahana rulers used lead, copper, bronze, and potin; Kushana rulers were known for issuing gold coins with
high purity.

(d) Gupta Coins

 Gold Coins: Gupta rulers, particularly Chandragupta I, issued various types of gold coins such as:
 Samudragupta: Garud type, Dhanurdhari (Archer) type, Axe type, Ashvamedha type, Vyaghrahanan (Tiger-killing) type,
Veenavadan (Flute playing) type.
 Chandragupta II 'Vikramaditya': Ashvarohi type, Chhatradhari type, Chakra-Vikram type.
 Kumargupta I: Khadagadhari type, Gajarohi type, Gajarohi Sinhnihanta type, Khang-nihanta (Rhinoceros-slayer) type,
Kartikeya type, Apratigh-mudra type.
 Silver Coins: Chandragupta II was the first to issue silver coins.
 Copper Coins: Ramgupta was the only Gupta ruler to issue copper coins.
 Terminology: Gold coins known as 'Dinars', silver coins as 'Rupak'.

II. Foreign Coins: Roman Coins in South India

 Discovery Locations: Found in Arikamedu (near Pondicherry), Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
 Emperors: Coins date back to the periods of Roman Emperors Augustus (27 BC-14 AD) and Tiberius (14-37 AD).
 Significance: These coins highlight the trade relations between India and the Roman Empire during ancient times.

C. Monuments
 Monuments encompass architecture, sculpture, painting, artifacts, and other artistic works.
 Artifacts include pottery, tools of stone, and metal objects (copper, iron, etc.).
 Studying monuments reveals the development of art and provides insights into the religious, socio-economic conditions of
the time.

I. Indigenous Monuments

Indus Civilization Monuments:

 Sites: Harappa, Mohenjodaro.
 Significance: Reveal a civilization predating the Vedic Aryans, around 5 millennia old.

Gangetic Valley Excavations:

 Sites: Ataranjikhera.
 Significance: Indicate the use of iron beginning in 1000 BC.

South India Excavations:

 Significance: Show close trade relations between South India and Rome.

Earliest Temple in India:

 Site: Dashavtar Temple, Deogarh (Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh), Gupta Period.
 Style: Nagara (Shikhar).

Best Example of Nagara Style Temple:

 Site: Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneshwar, Odisha.
 Period: 11th Century AD, built by Kesari king.
Best Example of Dravidian Style Temple:
 Site: Brihadishwar/Rajarajeshwar Temple, Tanjore.
 Period: 1000 AD, built by Chola ruler Rajaraja-I.

Earliest Statues in India:

 Sites: Indus civilization.
 Examples: Stone statue of a dancer (Harappa), bronze statue of a nude woman dancer (Mohenjodaro).

Earliest Paintings in India:

 Sites: Lithic (Stone) Period.
 Example: Bhimbetaka cave paintings (Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh).

II. Foreign Monuments

Buddhist Temple of Borobodur (Java, Indonesia):
 Period: 8th century AD.
 Built by: Shailendra dynasty of Shrivijaya empire.
 Significance: Largest Buddhist temple in the world.

Vaishnava Temple of Angkor-Vat (Cambodia):

 Period: 12th Century AD.
 Built by: Suryavarman II (1113-1145 AD), Kaundinya dynasty.

Ananda Pagoda (Buddhist Temple) of Pagan (Myanmar):

 Period: 11th-12th century AD.
 Built by: Kyanzittha (Tribhuvanaditya), successor of Aniruddha.
 These foreign monuments highlight the spread and influence of ancient Indian culture in Southeast Asia.

PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD (30,00,000 BC – 600 BC)

Origin: Africa is the original homeland of humans, called 'the Cradle of Humankind'.
Theories of Evolution:
Unitary Origin Theory:
Modern humans evolved from homo erectus in Africa.
Migrated along different routes to settle in various regions of the earth.

Parallel Origin Theory:

Modern humans evolved in parallel from several dispersed homo erectus populations worldwide simultaneously.

A. Lithic Age or Stone Age (30,00,000 BC-1,000 BC): Named due to the abundance of stone implements found.
Divided into three periods: Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age) Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age); Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)

I. Paleolithic Age or the Old Stone Age (30,00,000 BC-10,000 BC)

Definition: 'Paleolithic' combines Greek words 'Paleo' (old) and 'lithic' (stone).

Discoveries:
Systematic Discovery: Credit goes to Robert Bruce (R.B.) Foote, a geologist from the Geological Survey of India. In 1863, he
discovered a hand axe in Pallavaram, Tamil Nadu. Known as 'the father of Pre-historic Archaeology (India)'.
Significant Find: In 1982, Arun Sonakia discovered a woman's skull in Hathnora, Madhya Pradesh, placing India on the global map
for hominid fossils. The skull belonged to Homo Erectus.

Paleolithic Human Life:

 Food: Depended on hunting and nature-given food like meat, fruit, and roots. They discovered fire between 200,000 BC and
100,000 BC, leading to cooking and protection from predators.
 Clothing: Initially used animal skins, tree barks, and leaves. Minimal clothing needed in warm weather.
 Dwelling: Lived as wanderers, took shelter in caves, forests, and trees. Rock paintings from Upper/Later Paleolithic Age
found in caves like Bhimbetaka.
 Lifestyle: Were food-gatherers, not food-producers. No knowledge of animal husbandry, agriculture, or pottery. Similar
lifestyle to wild animals. Primarily of Negreto race.
 Disposal of Dead: Left bodies in open spaces to be consumed by birds and animals, no funeral rites or rituals.

Paleolithic Implements: The Paleolithic period is divided into three ages based on differences in stone implements:

A. Lower/Earlier/Early Paleolithic Implements

 Materials Used: Quartzite and other stones.
 Cultures:
 Chopper-Chopping Pebble Culture (Sohan Culture)
 Region: Sohan river valley, West Punjab (Pakistan).
 Implements:
 Pebble: Rock piece smoothed by water friction.
 Chopper: Unifacial pebble (single-edged).
 Chopping: Bifacial pebble (double-edged).
 Hand Axe Culture (Madrasian Culture)
 Region: Badmadurai & Attirampakkam, Madras.
 Implements:
 Hand Axe: Made by core and flake method. Thick back part, thin front part. Used for cutting and tearing.
 Cleaver: Used to split tree barks and animal skins.
 Scraper: Used to flay tree barks and animal skins.
B. Middle Paleolithic Implements
 Materials Used: Flakes, good quality quartzite, precious stones like Chert, Jasper, Flint.
 Implements: Scraper, Burin, Borer.
 Culture: Known as 'Flake Culture' due to the dominance of flake-made tools.

Prehistoric Rock Paintings:

 Prehistoric Times: Period without paper, language, written word, books, or documents.
 Discovery: Excavations revealed tools, pottery, habitats, bones, cave drawings.
 Purpose of Art: Express themselves, decorate shelters, record daily life, similar to diaries.
Terminology:
 Old Stone Age/Palaeolithic Age: Early development of humans.
 Upper Palaeolithic: Period with artistic proliferation.
 Global Findings: Paintings found worldwide from Upper Palaeolithic times.
 Subjects: Human figures, activities, geometric designs, animal symbols.
 India: Earliest paintings from Upper Palaeolithic times.

First Discovery:
 Made in 1867–68 by Archibold Carlleyle in India.
 Predates the discovery of Altamira in Spain by twelve years.
 Early Archaeologists: Cockburn, Anderson, Mitra, Ghosh.

Locations:
 Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, Uttarakhand.
 Specific sites: Lakhudiyar in Kumaon hills, banks of River Suyal.
 Famous sites: Kupgallu, Piklihal, Tekkalkota in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
 Richest sites: Vindhya ranges, Kaimurean extensions, Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh).

Lakhudiyar Paintings:
 Categories: Man, animal, geometric patterns.
 Colors: White, black, red ochre.
 Figures: Stick-like humans, long-snouted animal, fox, multiple-legged lizard.
 Patterns: Wavy lines, rectangles, dots.
 Superimposition: Black (earliest), red ochre, white (latest).

Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh Paintings:

 Types: White, red ochre over white, red ochre.
 Subjects: Bulls, elephants, sambhars, gazelles, sheep, goats, horses, humans, tridents, vegetal motifs.

Vindhya Ranges and Bhimbetka:

 Features: Palaeolithic and Mesolithic remains, rich natural resources.
 Bhimbetka: Largest rock-shelter, 800 rock shelters, 500 with paintings.
 Discovered by V.S. Wakankar (1957–58).
 Themes: Hunting, dancing, music, riders, animal fighting, honey collection, body decoration, household scenes.

Classification:
 Based on style, technique, superimposition.
 Seven historical periods: Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Chalcolithic (first three phases).

C. Upper/Later Paleolithic Implements

 Materials Used: Flake, Blade, precious stones like Chert, Jasper, Flint, long bones, and horns of animals.
 Implements:
 Flake-Blade Tools: Various implements, Burin being the most important.
 Bone-Horn Tools: Found in large numbers at Muchchhatala Chintamanugavi cave shelter, Andhra Pradesh.
 Culture: Known as 'Flake-Blade Culture' due to the dominance of flake-blade tools.
Upper Palaeolithic Period Paintings:
 Characteristics: Linear representations in green and dark red.
 Subjects: Huge animal figures (bisons, elephants, tigers, rhinos, boars), stick-like human figures.
 Techniques: Few wash paintings, mostly filled with geometric patterns.
 Green Paintings: Depict dancers.
 Red Paintings: Depict hunters.

II. Mesolithic Age or the Middle Stone Age (9,000 BC - 4,000 BC)
Term Meaning: 'Mesolithic' combines Greek words Meso (Middle) and Lithic (Stone), meaning Middle Stone Age.
Intermediate Stage: Transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages.
Discoverer: John Evans discovered Mesolithic materials at Sakkar & Rohri (Sindh) in 1866.

Mesolithic Human Life

 Taming Animals: Began domesticating dogs, sheep, goats, cows, oxen, buffaloes, wild horses. Earliest evidence from
Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh) and Bagore (Rajasthan).
 Burial of the Dead: Practiced burial with grave goods (food, tools, weapons), indicating belief in life after death. Graves
found at Sarainahar Rai & Mahdaha (Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh). Dog skeletons found with human remains at some sites,
suggesting early domestication of dogs.
 Human Skeletons: First complete human skeletons found in Mesolithic sites, unlike Paleolithic sites like Hathnora which only
had a human skull.

Mesolithic Implements
 Microlith or Pigmy Implements: Tiny tools and weapons ranging from 1 to 8 cm. Includes refined forms of Upper Paleolithic
tools (Scraper, Burin, Borer, Point) and new types (Lunates, Trapezes, Triangles, Arrowheads).
 Materials Used: Agate, Jasper, Chert, Chalcedony replaced Quartzite as raw materials.
 Bone and Horn Implements: Found at some archaeological sites.
Mesolithic Period Paintings:
 Period II: Most paintings belong to Mesolithic period.
 Themes: Multiple, but generally smaller in size.
 Predominant Scenes:
a. Hunting: Groups hunting with barbed spears, pointed sticks, arrows, bows, traps, snares.
b. Hunters: Simple clothes, ornaments, sometimes elaborate head-dresses, masks.
c. Animals: Elephant, bison, tiger, boar, deer, antelope, leopard, panther, rhinoceros, fish, frog, lizard, squirrel, birds.
Depicted naturally.
d. Interaction: Animals chasing men, men chasing/hunting animals. Fear and tenderness towards animals.
e. Community: Dancing, fruit/honey gathering, food preparation, family life depictions.
f. Human Figures: Stylistic, nude and clothed women, children running, jumping, playing.
g. Hand Prints: Hand, fist prints, dots made by fingertips.
 Colours: White, red (favourites), yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green, black.
a. Sources: Red from haematite (geru), green from chalcedony, white from limestone.
b. Preparation: Ground rocks/minerals mixed with water and sticky substances like animal fat, gum, resin. Brushes from
plant fibre.
 Locations: Walls, ceilings of rock shelters. Some in living spaces, some in places of probable religious importance.
 Style and Quality:
a. Simple yet charming depictions of environment.
b. Men: Adventurous, joyful.
c. Animals: Youthful, majestic.
d. Storytelling: Dramatic survival scenes, e.g., hunting a bison, injured men, dancing men, dying animal.
 Purpose:
a. Possibly to gain power over animals.
b. Ritualistic: Birth, death, coming of age, marriage, hunting rites.
 Superimposition: New paintings over older ones, up to 20 layers at Bhimbetka. Possible reasons: dissatisfaction, sacredness,
different generations.
 Significance: Insights into early humans' lifestyle, food habits, activities, thoughts. Evidence of human civilization evolution
through rock paintings, weapons, tools, ceramics, bones.

III. Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age (7,000 BC - 1,000 BC)
 Term Meaning: 'Neolithic' combines Greek words Neo (New) and Lithic (Stone), meaning New Stone Age.
 Discoverers: Dr. Primrose discovered Neolithic implements in Lingasur, Karnataka in 1842. H.P. Le Mesurier discovered
Neolithic artifacts in Tons river valley, Allahabad district, Uttar Pradesh in 1860.
 Neolithic Revolution: Coined by V. Gordon Childe, marking a significant change in human material culture.

Neolithic Human Life

 Three Chief Characteristics:
i. Crop Cultivation (Agriculture): Began at Mehrgarh (Bolan district, Baluchistan), considered the earliest village site in the
Indian subcontinent. Cultivated crops included wheat, barley, paddy, millets, and various vegetables.
ii. Animal Husbandry: Domesticated animals included dogs, sheep, goats, horses, etc. Transitioned from hunting to herding.
iii. Fixed Abode: Shifted from nomadic life to settled farming communities.

 Clothing: Started cultivating cotton and weaving wool, hemp, and cotton into clothes. Earliest cotton evidence found at
Mehrgarh.
 Housing: Lived in huts made of bamboo and clay. In Kashmir Valley and Punjab (Pakistan), dwellings were pit-dwellings with
clay stairs and post-holes for thatched roofs.
 Pottery: Invented the potter's wheel around 4000 BC, advancing pottery production and decorative techniques.

Burial Practices:
 North India: Had complete and partial burial practices. Some sites buried pets like dogs and goats with humans, possibly for
companionship in the afterlife.
 South India: Practiced complete burial for adults and pot-burials for infants, symbolizing a return to the womb.

Neolithic Implements
 Technological Advancements: Tools were pecked, ground, and polished. Implements included adzes, hatchets, chisels,
pestles, arrowheads, and saws.
 Material Use: Used stones other than quartzite. Limited metal use, termed Chalcolithic (Copper) Age where copper was
utilized.
 Bolan River Valley (Uttar Pradesh) and Narmada River Valley (Madhya Pradesh)
 Found Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic stages consecutively

IV. Chalco-Lithic Age (3,500 BC - 1,000 BC)

 Definition: Combination of 'Chalco' (Copper) and 'Lithic' (Stone), indicating the use of copper alongside stone implements.
 Introduction of Copper: Copper was first used around 5,000 BC, initially as a metal for tools and implements.
 Development of Alloys: Copper later combined with metals like tin, zinc, and lead to form bronze. This marked the
transition to more advanced metallurgy.
 Regional Differences:
 North India: Followed the Lithic Age with the Chalco-Lithic Age before the Iron Age.
 South India: Skipped the Copper Age directly to the Iron Age due to the absence of native copper resources.

Stages:
1. Pre-Harappan Age (3,500 BC - 2,500 BC)
 Transitional phase between Neolithic Age and Harappan Age.
 Important for understanding the background and evolution of the Harappan Civilization.
 Provides insights into the gradual development of Harappan Civilization from local and indigenous cultures.
2. Harappan Age/Indus Civilization (2,500 BC - 1,750 BC)
 Also known as Harappan Civilization, Indus Civilization, or Indus-Saraswati Civilization.
 Harappan Civilization is the most appropriate name archaeologically, as Harappa was the first discovered site.
 Flourished during the Copper Age.

3. Post Harappan Age (2,000 BC - 1,000 BC)

 After 2,000 BC, various regional cultures emerged in the Indian subcontinent.
 These were Chalcolithic cultures, characterized by the use of copper and stone implements.
 Unlike the urbanized Indus Civilization, these cultures were predominantly rural.
 The names of these cultures are derived from their type sites.
B. IRON AGE (1,000 BC – 500 BC)
 The period marked by the widespread use of iron implements is known as the Iron Age.
 Globally, the Iron Age began around 1,300 BC, with iron usage also commencing in India around this time.

Literary Evidences:
 Early Vedic Aryans did not have knowledge of iron; 'Ayas' in Rig Veda refers generally to metals, not specifically iron.
 Later Vedic texts mention 'Lohit Ayas' for copper and 'Krishna Ayas' for iron.
 Texts like 'Krishna Yajurveda' and 'Atharva Veda' mention iron, including iron ploughshares.
 'Shatapatha Brahmana' discusses iron in relation to agricultural practices.
 The Buddhist text 'Suttanipata' mentions iron ploughshare techniques.
 Greek historian Herodotus noted Indian soldiers using iron-tipped arrows around 480 BC.

Archaeological Evidences:
 Iron usage in the Gangetic Valley began around 1,000 BC, becoming more widespread by 600 BC.
 Iron tools enabled extensive agricultural advancements, clearing forests and cultivating crops like paddy, sugarcane, cotton,
wheat, and barley.
 Iron technology influenced domestic industries and architecture.
 Historians link the urban revolution in the Gangetic Valley during the Buddha's time to iron technology.

Importance:
 Iron technology not only brought technical advancements but also cultural changes.
 It marked a transition from the prehistoric to the historic period in India.
 Iron played a crucial role in urbanization and the development of Mahajanapadas in the Gangetic Valley by the 6th century
BC.
Iron-using Cultures
1. Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture: 1,000 BC - 600 BC
 Identified by painted pottery in grey color made on a potter's wheel.
 Found in Upper Gangetic Valley including Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Northern Rajasthan.
 Flourished from 1,000 BC to 600 BC.

2. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) Culture: 600 BC - 300 BC

 Known for polished pottery in black color.
 Initially found in Northern India, hence named NBPW Culture.
 Spread across Northern plains, Mid India (Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal), and Deccan (Andhra
Pradesh).
 Thrived from 600 BC to 300 BC.

3. Megalith Culture of South India: 1,000 BC - 100 AD

 Megaliths are large stone graves or memorials.
 Specifically refers to South India, though megaliths are found in North India and Vidarbha as well.
 The term 'Megalith' comes from Greek words meaning 'huge stone'.
 Significant excavations include Colonel Meadows Taylor's work in Shorapur doab (Gulbarga district, Karnataka),
Alexander Rea at Adichchannalur (Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu), and Perumbur.
 Also excavated by Mortimer Wheeler at Brahmagiri (Chitradurg district, Karnataka) in 1947.
Characteristics of Megalith Culture:
Burial Practices
(i) Fractional/Partial Burial Practice:
 Selected bones of the deceased were buried in graves.
 Likely practiced after exposure of the body to scavenging animals.
 Predominant burial method in Megalith Culture.

(ii) Complete/Extensive Burial Practice:

 Found in places like Nagarjunikonda, Maski, Adichchannallur.
 Corpses buried in East-West orientation (head to East, feet to West).
 Old males and females buried with pottery and other grave goods.
 Babies buried in urns/pots (Um Pot Burials), found in Chingelpattu region, Tamil Nadu.

Grave Goods:
 Earthenware vessels, iron implements, and other items were placed as grave goods.
 Goods placed either inside graves alongside corpses or outside graves near memorials

Types of Megalith
1. Menhir (Nadu-Kal):
 Large stone column erected on a grave or memorial.
 Found in Maski and Gulbarga regions.
 Height typically exceeds 1.5 meters.

2. Hood Stone (Kudai Kal):

 Round-shaped stone placed upside down on the grave.
 Resembles the hood of a snake.
 Found in Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.

3. Umbrella Stone (Topi-Kal):

 Large stone column with an umbrella-shaped stone placed on top.
 Looks like an umbrella from a distance.
 Found in Ariyannur and Chermangarh, Kerala.

4. Dolmen:
 Rectangular stone structure resembling a stone table.
 Found in Brahmagiri, Karnataka, and Chingelpattu, Tamil Nadu.
 Known as "Table of Stone" in Keltic language.

5. Cairn Circle (Nidai Kal Teddi):

 Stones arranged in a circular shape around the grave.
 Looks like a ring of stones.
 Found in Chingelpattu, Tamil Nadu.

6. Rock-cut Caves (Tadi Cave):

 Laterite rocks cut to form cave-like structures.
 Corpses placed inside and caves sealed.
  Found in Kattakampal (Cochin district) and Porkalam (Trichur district), Kerala.

Potteries (Black-Red Wares):

 Found in almost every grave and memorial site of the Megalith Culture in South India.
 Characteristics: Interior and neck parts painted in black; outer parts painted in red.
 Types of vessels: Shallow plates, deep bowls, covered pots with knobs, small pots, large pots, etc.

Iron Implements:
 Approximately 33 types of iron implements have been discovered from graves, memorials, and dwelling places of the
Megalith Culture in South India.
 Important iron implements include: Flat axes, spades, sickles, chisels, hatchets, knives, horse bridles, horseshoes, tridents,
swords, daggers, etc.

Makers of Megalith Culture:

 Controversial Origin: The origin of the Megalith Culture in South India is debated.
 Local/Indian Origin Theory: Supporters argue that local Dravidian people were the creators of this culture.
 Alien/Foreign Origin Theory: Opponents suggest that the culture was introduced by foreigners arriving from the
Mediterranean Sea region.

Pottery/Earthenware Vessel Culture:

 Definition: Pottery refers to vessels made from clay.
 Naming: Cultures are named based on specific pottery characteristics such as color, polish, or design.
 Early Evidence: The earliest evidence of pottery use worldwide is found at Chopanimando in Allahabad district, Uttar
Pradesh.