Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

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Journal of Vocational Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvb

Making a successful transition to work: A fresh look at

organizational support for young newcomers from an
individual-driven career adjustment perspective
Norihiko Takeuchi a, b, *, Tomokazu Takeuchi c, Yuhee Jung d
a
Graduate School of Business and Finance, Waseda University, 1-6-1 Nishi-waseda, Shinjuku, Tokyo 169-8050, Japan
b
Institute of International Management, National Cheng Kung University, No.1, University Road, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
c
Department of Management, Gakushuin University, 1-5-1 Mejiro, Toshima, Tokyo 171-8588, Japan
d
School of Social Sciences, Waseda University, 1-6-1 Nishi-waseda, Shinjuku, Tokyo 169-8050, Japan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Although career transitions occur several times during people’s life course, a significant turning
Match of individual and organizational career point may be the school-to-work transition (STWT) of young adults migrating from structured
plans academic environments to chaotic organizational setups. In the field of newcomer socialization,
Protean career orientations
successful STWTs, particularly in the post-employment phase, have been widely researched,
Newcomer adjustments
although the studies have been dominated by an “organization-driven” perspective on what
Perceived organizational support
School-to-work transition motivates young newcomers to adjust themselves to organizational career norms. By examining
Self-enhancement theory “individual-driven” career adjustment pathways that focus on the self-enhancement effect
involved in organizational support, this research addresses the challenge of how young new­
comers with self-directed career orientations experience STWT success without compromising
their career-growth concerns. Drawing on theories of self-enhancement and self-verification, we
investigated a model wherein (1) a perceived match of individual and organizational career plans
mediates the relationship between newcomers’ perceived organizational support (POS) and their
STWT success, and (2) protean career orientations moderate the anticipated positive relationship
between POS and perceived career match, thus conditioning the mediation. Results from four-
wave time-lagged data supported the predicted effects, even after controlling for organization-
driven adjustment factors. The findings contribute to the ongoing debate on “individualization”
and the “Protean Paradox” in career management literature.

1. Introduction

Career development theorists have noted that people undergo career transitions several times during the life course (Savickas,
2002; Super et al., 1996). One of the most significant turning points, however, may be that experienced by young adults migrating from
structured academic environments to more flexible or even chaotic workplace settings (Kowtha, 2011; Stalder, 2012). Although this
phenomenon, known as the “school-to-work transition” (STWT) (e.g., Blustein et al., 2000), is common to all young people in this
position, the success of their transition varies (Nägele & Neuenschwander, 2014; Ng & Feldman, 2007). Successful young people
“perform at levels acceptable to their employers, and have positive attitudes towards their work environments and job requirements”

* Corresponding author at: Graduate School of Business and Finance, Waseda University, 1-6-1 Nishi-waseda, Shinjuku, Tokyo 169-8050, Japan.
E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Takeuchi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2021.103587
Received 20 June 2019; Received in revised form 26 April 2021; Accepted 5 May 2021
Available online 12 May 2021
0001-8791/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
N. Takeuchi et al. Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

(Ng & Feldman, 2007, p. 116), whereas their unsuccessful compatriots fail to do so, at least in their first job. Research has documented
such differences in the attainment of STWT success, attributing them to the quality of career exploration (Cai et al., 2015; Creed et al.,
2009), pre-employment learning experiences and capabilities (Ogbuanya & Chukwuedo, 2017; Savickas, 1999), receipt of career
counseling and mentoring (Krumboltz & Worthington, 1999; Renn et al., 2014), post-employment socialization and work adjustments
(Ashforth, Sluss, & Saks, 2007; Jokisaari & Nurmi, 2005), and so on. Despite the ambition of prior research, however, areas that require
further investigation remain.
First, most debates in the STWT literature center on issues pertaining to “work-bound students” who are preparing for, or in the
middle of, their job search; accordingly, they focus on pre-employment and educational factors. There has been little discussion of the
role of post-employment and management factors in facilitating young people’s early career transitions (e.g., Creed et al., 2010; Saks,
2018). For instance, receiving career-related training and support during one’s college education has been found to positively predict
career-related attitudes, such as career planning and job search intentions (Renn et al., 2014), as well as employment status and quality
(Koen et al., 2012). The career aspirations and work values that young people form during their education are also the ones that
influence their employment status after graduation (Sortheix et al., 2015; Takeuchi et al., 2020; Tomasik et al., 2009). This line of
research has helpful implications, mainly for vocational education, but more work is needed to delineate the STWT process in the post-
employment phase.
Second, in terms of the post-employment phase, much insightful knowledge on STWT success has been accumulated in the
newcomer socialization and work adjustment field (e.g., Ashforth, Sluss, & Harrison, 2007; Dawis & Lofquist, 1984). As Saks and
Gruman (2011) point out, research on newcomer socialization has been dominated by the cognitive learning perspective, which
predominantly argues how individuals learn about and adjust to their organization’s work environment. Organizational support for
newcomers is generally viewed as an organization’s practices that promote personal as well as role changes for the individual (Ashforth
& Saks, 1996; Ashforth, Sluss, & Harrison, 2007). These changes include “alterations in [his or her] values, attitudes, personality, and
career plans” (Ashforth & Saks, 1996, p. 153) to fit with those of the organization. Such an “organization-driven” approach to
adjustment may limit our understanding of the role of organizational support in the STWT, given the basic assumption in this strand of
the literature that an adjustment should take place both in individuals and their environment (Ashforth, Sluss, & Harrison, 2007).
Indeed, a learning perspective can explain the adjustments seen in some specific areas of tasks, groups, and organizations (Haueter
et al., 2003). However, career path and development issues may not be exclusively explained by a cognitive learning, organization-
driven view of adjustment, given that an individual’s career plan mirrors his or her self-concept (Hall, 2002; Super, 1957). The
career adjustment process, therefore, requires further investigation, using an alternative framework that incorporates an “individual-
or newcomer-driven” perspective (Ashforth, Sluss, & Harrison, 2007; Kim et al., 2009; Ryazanova & McNamara, 2016; Saks & Gruman,
2011).
Third, further to the aforementioned gap, much of the research on post-employment STWT success fails to answer an important
question: how do young adults forming “new” career orientations get on board with their employers? The literature on contemporary
career theory emphasizes an individualized, agency-driven view in which individuals self-direct their careers by proactively
responding to a dynamic work and organizational environment (Hall et al., 2018; Jung & Takeuchi, 2018; Sullivan & Baruch, 2009). In
line with this emerging perspective, the literature has also identified individual career orientations conceptualized as “protean careers”
(Hall, 2004), “boundaryless careers” (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996), “kaleidoscope careers” (Mainiero & Sullivan, 2005), and so on. Of
these various new career concepts, the most representative and widely studied are protean career orientations (PCOs), which involve
self-directed and values-driven orientations (e.g., Briscoe et al., 2006; Briscoe & Hall, 2006). Given the autonomous and independent
nature of young protean careerists, a major challenge is to understand how they successfully develop a sense of organizational
identification without compromising their own career growth concerns (Baruch, 2006; Hall et al., 2018). Nevertheless, little is known
about the onboarding pathways that may be most effective for protean career youths.
To fill those knowledge gaps, this research examines the post-employment STWT experiences of graduate newcomers and docu­
ments the processes through which young people with varying degrees of individual career agency (as represented by their PCOs) are
able to experience a successful STWT through obtaining organizational support that will enhance their individual-driven (that is,
newcomer-driven) career match. Specifically, drawing on theories of self-enhancement (Sedikides & Alicke, 2019; Shrauger, 1975)
and self-verification (Swann Jr., 1983, 2012), we build a moderated mediation model and examine two sets of relationships. First, we
explore the extent to which newcomers’ perceptions of the match between their individual and organizational career plans (i.e.,
perceived career match) (Granrose & Portwood, 1987) mediates the relationship between perceived organizational support (POS)
(Eisenberger et al., 2001) and STWT success, as indicated by career growth, job satisfaction, affective organizational commitment, and
intention to stay. Second, we investigate whether newcomers’ PCOs moderate the anticipated positive relationship between POS and
perceived career match, thus influencing the indirect effect of POS on their STWT success by way of career match. Because our focus is
on delineating the process by which individual- rather than organization-driven adjustments manifest via organizational support, we
control in the model for possible adjustment forces made by organizations (i.e., socialization tactics and social exchanges between the
organization and the individual).
Following Ng and Feldman’s (2007) work that defines STWT success in terms of a work-role identity transition, we consider STWT
success in this research as involving time-lagged changes in newcomers’ career growth, job satisfaction, affective organizational
commitment, and intention to stay for a certain period after beginning employment. We test the proposed model using four-wave,
time-lagged data derived from graduate newcomers in Japan. Japan offers a favorable context for investigating post-employment
STWT in a graduate newcomer sample for the following reasons. First, Japan has institutionalized a well-defined STWT system for
college graduates, where 80–90% of new graduates start a full-time regular job immediately after graduation (Ono, 2010; Takeuchi
et al., 2020). Typical firms in Japan implement an annual mass recruitment of new graduates, a process which “starts more than a year

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prior to graduation [and] often exclusively targets senior students in colleges” (Kondo, 2007, p. 382). Most senior students engage in
job search activities while still in college, receive a full-time job offer in March (before graduation) and start work at the beginning of
April.1 Such a well-structured mode of entry for new graduates enables researchers to effectively control for tenure effects (caused by
differences in length of service after graduation) and period effects (caused by different first-job entry time points) when examining the
post-employment STWT process.
Second, the career attitudes of young people in Japan have begun to vary more and more, ranging from traditional career attitudes
to more contemporary, self-directed approaches. Such diversity is necessary in order to investigate how individuals with different
PCOs can achieve a good STWT. Traditionally, Japanese people’s career attitudes have been intertwined with the lifetime employment
system and an internal labor market structured around permanent, secure jobs (Imdorf et al., 2017). However, the lifetime employ­
ment system has been severely damaged by Japan’s prolonged economic stagnation since the early 1990s. Recent estimates show that
no more than 20% of Japanese employees are now covered by lifetime employment contracts (Ono, 2010). This suggests that most
employees need to be open to alternative career paths rather than focusing on the traditional organizationally bounded career. In
particular, employment stability among young employees in Japan “has deteriorated…[with] the annual job separation rates among
workers aged 20–24 [rising] from 22% to 33% between 1995 and 2005” (Fujii et al., 2018, p. 68). Such a shift is taking Japan closer to
the Western labor market model, enhancing the generalizability of our findings.
Third, there is less industry-level variation in terms of wages and fringe benefits for new graduates in Japan, allowing researchers to
use newcomer samples from multiple industries when examining post-entry STWT. In Japan, labor market demarcation is “more
pronounced along lines of firm size rather than along different product markets and industries” (Ono, 2010, p. 5). Therefore, Japanese
applicants are thought to base their career decisions on the characteristics of an organization (e.g., firm size, reputation, etc.) rather
than the industry (Kawabata, 2019; Sekiguchi, 2004).
The contribution of this research is threefold. First, it adds value to the literature on the STWT, given that most extant literature
overemphasizes the role of pre-employment and educational factors leading to the first-phase transition from school (e.g., appren­
ticeship attainment, employment status acquisition, etc.). By addressing the latter phase of the STWT, this research will offer a better
understanding of how employers help young people in transition achieve a match between their individual and organizational career
plans that can lead to enhanced career growth and improved work-related attitudes in the post-employment phase.
Second, by revealing individual-driven adjustments, with a focus on newcomers’ self-enhancement processes, this research con­
tributes to the literature on newcomer socialization in two ways. First, it provides new insights into the role of organizational support,
which has previously been understood using a traditional, organization-driven socialization framework. Most studies to date have
tended to view organizational support as facilitating newcomers’ adjustments largely through the acculturation (Ashforth, Sluss, &
Harrison, 2007) or social exchange (e.g., Allen & Shanock, 2013) effects. Second, our research fuels the ongoing debate on the saliency
of an individual-driven perspective on newcomer adjustment. The individual-driven debate in newcomer socialization has so far been
dominated by the role of “newcomer proactivity”, which emphasizes newcomers’ proactive adjustment to the work environment (Ellis
et al., 2017; Fan et al., 2012; Tan et al., 2016). By looking into the “self-enhancing role” highlighted in the more recent organizational
support literature (Kurtessis et al., 2017; Vardaman et al., 2016), we will uncover an alternative, individual-driven pathway to argue
for the possibility of organizations’ adjustment to differentiated individuals, which can be characterized as “individualization” in
newcomer adjustments (Ashforth, Sluss, & Harrison, 2007; Saks & Gruman, 2011).
Third, this research contributes to the literature on the “new career” paradigm by offering insights into the idea of the so-called
“Protean Paradox” (Hall et al., 2018). It looks at whether, and if so how, young protean careerists, who tend to be self-focused and
self-confident, may be better able to become good organizational citizens without compromising their own career growth. We tackle
this issue using self-verification theory so as to provide evidence that will help us understand whether, and if so how, young protean
newcomers come on board with employers. Fig. 1 summarizes the proposed model with all of the hypothesized paths to be examined in
this research.

2. Conceptual background and hypothesis development

2.1. Organizational support during post-employment STWT

When young graduates take up employment with an organization, it normally offers them support, albeit to varying degrees (Allen
& Shanock, 2013; Lapointe et al., 2014). Two different meta-concepts exist; actual and perceived organizational support (Levinson,
1965). In the newcomer context, actual organizational support may include orientation and guidance, off-site training, mentoring
programs, and provision of career paths. These are regarded as organizational socialization tactics (OSTs) (Jones, 1986), and from the
employer’s viewpoint, they are considered to be forms of support. On the other hand, POS denotes support as seen from the employee’s
standpoint. In this research we define POS as graduate newcomers’ “global beliefs concerning the extent to which the organization
values their contributions and cares about their well-being” (Eisenberger et al., 1986, p. 501).
OSTs and POS are also distinct in terms of the agency of the adjustments they offer. OSTs emphasize an organizational agentic
adjustment process that drives an individual to change his or her role and personal attributes, including “alterations in [his or her]
values, attitudes, personality, and career plans” (Ashforth & Saks, 1996, p. 153). The POS involves, at least to some extent, the

1
In Japan, both the academic and fiscal years end at the end of March and start at the beginning of April.

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Fig. 1. Analytical Framework of the Present Research.

individual’s own agentic adjustment process that drives the organization to fit in with the individual’s own will and perspective. This is
because POS captures not only the social exchange effect that operates between the organization and the individual, but also the self-
enhancement effect created within the individual (Kurtessis et al., 2017; Vardaman et al., 2016). Recent literature has asserted that
organizational support is “often mischaracterized as predominantly a social exchange theory” (Kurtessis et al., 2017, p. 1856) and that
“its emphasis on need fulfillment is often omitted” (Vardaman et al., 2016, p. 1484). For instance, the link between POS and work
attitudes is explained by both the social exchange and self-enhancement processes. People develop positive attitudes toward an or­
ganization in exchange for the organization valuing and supporting them; this is the social exchange process. However, individuals also
shape their own positive attitudes toward an organization by fulfilling their socioemotional needs, such as approval, worthiness, and
esteem, through the self-enhancement process (Kurtessis et al., 2017).
In this research, we focus on POS as a key concept that explores individual-driven career adjustments from the self-enhancement
perspective. Most studies on post-employment STWT success have underscored organization-driven adjustments from a cognitive
learning (or personal change) perspective, demonstrating the effectiveness of OSTs in facilitating newcomer learning (e.g., Ashforth,
Sluss, & Saks, 2007), role clarity or role making (e.g., Bauer et al., 2007), and goal interdependence in the workplace (e.g., Lu &
Tjosvold, 2013). Those few studies that have used the POS concept to examine newcomer adjustment have analyzed it exclusively from
a social exchange viewpoint (Allen & Shanock, 2013) and have neglected the self-enhancing role that POS in facilitating individual-
driven adjustments. Thus, to better capture the individual-driven pathway explained by the self-enhancement view, we need to rule
out the impact of OSTs and of the social exchange relationship between the organization and the individual. This will enable us to
clarify the self-enhancement effect that POS can have directly on an individual’s perceived career match and indirectly on that person’s
STWT success through career match.

2.2. Perceived career match as a mediator of the relationship between POS and STWT success

Perceived career match refers to the employee’s perception of the extent to which “career plans made by employers for individual
employees … match their own individual career plans” (Granrose & Portwood, 1987, p. 701). Granrose and Portwood first introduced
this concept in the context of discussing employee participation in an organization’s career management programs. Since then, the
concept has been widely applied in various contexts, including career development opportunities (Kraimer et al., 2011), career pla­
teaus (Tremblay & Roger, 2004), job search and recruitment (Moss & Frieze, 1993), and international assignments in multinational
corporations (Reiche et al., 2011).
We propose, on the basis of self-enhancement theory, that graduate newcomers’ perceived career match will mediate the rela­
tionship between POS and post-employment STWT success. We expect this to be the case even after controlling for OSTs and the social
exchange relationship between organizations and newcomers, which means it can be regarded as a manifestation of individual-driven
career adjustment.
Self-enhancement theory suggests that “people have a basic drive to perceive the self positively and receive positive evaluations
from others” (Jackson & Hogg, 2010, p. 691). Thus, self-enhancement can be defined as one’s drive to “pursue, preserve, or amplify the

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positivity of one’s self-views” (Sedikides & Alicke, 2019, p. 307). It is regarded as a general tendency (Taylor & Brown, 1988) or a
“universal motivator” (Jackson & Hogg, 2010) that explains human behavior in many situations. A basic tenet of this theory is that
regardless of someone’s self-evaluation, his or her self-enhancement needs, such as approval, worthiness, esteem, and the like, can only
be met through positive feedback and support from others. Extending this view to the organizational support literature, Kurtessis et al.
(2017) suggest that POS, which is predominantly based on the social exchange perspective, has a hidden role in fulfilling the self-
enhancement needs of organizational members, which leads to stronger identification with the organization. In other words, peo­
ple whose self-enhancement needs (i.e., being valued, approved, recognized, etc.) are fulfilled via the organization’s support for their
own self-image, including their personal values and competencies, will identify more strongly with that organization.
Applying this notion to the career adjustment context and the STWT process, we view POS as a mechanism that fulfills newcomers’
self-enhancement needs through the organization valuing and supporting their career plans, which reflect their self-concept (Hall,
2002; Super, 1957). Having their needs met in this way enhances newcomers’ self-worth, so they feel that their career plans are being
accepted by the employer, and they experience a stronger sense of career plan similarity or match. Thus, we would expect POS to have
a positive relationship with newcomers’ perceived match of their individual and organizational career plans, even after controlling for
OSTs and social exchange effects.
In addition, we would expect a person’s enhanced career match to positively predict his or her post-employment STWT success. As
noted earlier above, STWT success includes time-lagged changes of a newcomer’s career growth, job satisfaction, affective organi­
zational commitment, and intention to stay for approximately one year of employment. First, a person’s perceived career growth is
likely to increase in response to an increase in his or her perceived career match through the aforementioned self-enhancement process.
The newcomer’s perceived career match, if achieved via the organization’s valuing and supporting his or her plans, may signal
organizational approval or a “green light” on the newcomer’s intended career path. This in turn will engender in the newcomer a sense
of career growth following his or her employment, thus leading to a positive relationship between perceived career match and career
growth. Second, it has long been argued that individuals who identify more strongly with membership of an organization tend to
exhibit higher job satisfaction (Lee et al., 2015;Ng, 2015; Riketta, 2005), affective organizational commitment (DeConinck, 2011; Lee
et al., 2015; Riketta, 2005), and intention to stay (Ng, 2015; Riketta, 2005). Because the logic of organizational identification underlies
how perceived career match functions (Granrose & Portwood, 1987), we would expect an individual’s perceived match to be positively
related to STWT success.
Putting these arguments together, we posit, from an individual-driven, self-enhancement perspective, that POS will positively
predict perceived career match, which then leads to enhanced STWT success. Again, in line with self-enhancement theory, the
sequence of these relationships will remain salient even after ruling out the effects from OSTs and social exchange that reflect the
organization-driven adjustments. Hence, we hypothesize as follows:
Hypothesis 1. Beyond the effects of organization-driven adjustment factors (i.e., OSTs and social exchange), a match of individual
and organizational career plans, as perceived by graduate newcomers, mediates the positive relationship between their POS and STWT
success after organizational entry, which includes time-lagged changes in career growth (H1a), job satisfaction (H1b), affective
organizational commitment (H1c), and intention to stay (H1d), over approximately one year of employment.

2.3. PCOs as potential moderator of the relationship between POS and perceived career match

Although self-enhancement is known to be a general tendency (Taylor & Brown, 1988) as well as a “universal motivator” (Jackson
& Hogg, 2010), theorists have argued for a boundary condition that may make the self-enhancement process more functional or
dysfunctional (Anseel & Lievens, 2006; Sedikides & Strube, 1997). A highly relevant theory to justify this is self-verification theory,
which suggests that an individual’s self-enhancement process is conditional on the degree to which his or her own pre-existing self-
views conform to others think of him or her (Swann Jr., 1983, 2012). Extending this theory to the career adjustment context, we
propose that PCOs, particularly the self-directed orientation, will act as a moderator in the anticipated positive relationship between
POS and perceived career match, and thus condition the overall mediation pathways leading to STWT success.
PCOs are “the attitude or mindset of a person with agentic, protean inclinations” (Hall et al., 2018, p. 132). A self-directed PCO
reflects the “ability to be adaptive in terms of performance and learning demands” (Briscoe & Hall, 2006, p. 8), whereas a values-driven
PCO refers to a “person’s internal values provid[ing] the guidance and measure of success for the individual’s career” (Briscoe & Hall,
2006, p. 8). The two orientations are distinctive in that the person with a self-directed PCO is characterized as having a sense of
“curiosity … confidence and control” (Gubler et al., 2014, pp. 34–35), whereas holding a values-driven PCO is more relevant to career
anchors or calling orientations (Gubler et al., 2014). Below, we explain whether (and if so, how) each dimension of PCOs can serve as a
boundary condition for the individual-driven adjustment pathways, using self-verification theory.
First, on the basis of self-verification theory, we assume that the anticipated self-enhancement effect of POS on career match (as
postulated in Hypothesis 1) will be stronger for newcomers high in self-directed PCO and weaker for those low in self-directed PCO.
Specifically, self-verification theory posits that “people prefer others to see them as they see themselves” (Swann Jr., 2012, p. 23).
Thus, in the process of self-verification, individuals will “seek to confirm their [pre-existing] self-views, often looking at the responses
and views of others” (Burke & Stets, 1999, p. 349), and will “choose to interact with others who confirm their identities and to avoid
those who do not” (Burke & Stets, 1999, p. 350). This suggests that in theoretical terms, individuals’ preference for pursuing “con­
sistency” between their pre-existing self-views and others’ responses will be a means through which they can “maintain perceptions of
predictability and control” (Swann Jr. et al., 1992, p. 397). Moreover, theorists argue that individuals’ “self-verification motives exist
in tandem with self-enhancement motives” (Kermond & Ryan, 2014, p. 13102) or putting it another way, “self-verification and self-

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enhancement coexist” (Katz et al., 2000, p. 350). This suggests that people will strive to fulfill self-enhancement motives, which are
considered as stronger and more general tendencies (Katz et al., 2000), while simultaneously trying to achieve self-verification by
optimizing the balance between their own and others’ views of the self. For example, if individuals have a positive self-view (e.g., high
self-esteem, competence, etc.), they will prefer to receive positive responses and views from others, and vice versa (Jackson & Hogg,
2010).
By extension, a self-directed PCO can be viewed as part of a specific (not general) self-view or sense of competence (Anseel &
Lievens, 2006), and being highly self-directed is likely to be almost synonymous with holding specific career-related self-concepts such
as curiosity, confidence, and a desire for control over one’s own career (Briscoe & Hall, 2006; Gubler et al., 2014). To maintain
consistency between their own self-image and others’ responses, self-directed graduate newcomers will prefer to receive positive
feedback from the organization that is consistent with their own views about their career. However, they will tend to be less
comfortable with adverse feedback from the organization that is inconsistent with their own positive career self-views. Therefore, we
posit that the “optimal adjustment” (Somers & Lefkowitz, 1983) of the relationship between POS and career match will be present for
individuals who are both high and low in self-direction, although in opposite directions.
For newcomers high in self-directed PCO, the anticipated positive relationship between POS and career match, which is explained
by the self-enhancement effect, will be stronger than for those low in self-directed PCO. This is because, from the self-verification
perspective, self-directed individuals will be more strongly driven by their self-enhancement needs (Lin et al., 2018; Sedikides &
Strube, 1997; Somers & Lefkowitz, 1983). Specifically, highly self-directed individuals will be more fulfilled than those with an
average or low level of self-direction when their career-related self-views are valued and supported by their employer (i.e., they will
experience “high-high” consistency and thus achieve positive self-verification). On the other hand, highly self-directed individuals will
be less fulfilled than those with low self-direction when their career self-views are undervalued or less supported (i.e., they will
experience “high-low” inconsistency between their high self-image and low POS, so they will be less likely to self-verify). Given that an
individual’s satisfaction with the interaction partner (in this case, their employer) represents the level of his or her identification with it
(Kurtessis et al., 2017), we would expect an individual’s levels of perceived career match to be above average when they are high in
both PCO and POS but below average when they are high in PCO but low in POS. For self-directed newcomers, therefore, the positive
relationship between POS and career match (as predicted by self-enhancement theory) will be strengthened, subject to individual self-
verification tendencies.
Conversely, the expected positive relationship between POS and career match will be weaker for newcomers low in self-directed
PCO. The self-verification view suggests that people with low self-direction will be less sensitive to the fulfillment of self-
enhancement needs than those with moderate or high self-direction (e.g., Lin et al., 2018; Sedikides & Strube, 1997). This is
because, according to the prediction of self-verification theory, individuals adjust their motivation to self-enhance in ways that more or
less maintain a balance between how they see themselves and how others see them, albeit to varying degrees (Somers & Lefkowitz,
1983). Thus, for newcomers low in self-directed PCO, we would expect an increase in career match to be observed when they
experience low POS, which signals negative self-verification (i.e., low-low consistency). The reverse may also be true, in that a
reduction in career match may be observed when newcomers with low self-direction encounter high POS, leading to an inconsistency
between their own career self-views (i.e., low self-directed PCO) and their perceptions of their employer’s views and responses (i.e.,
high POS). Considering that “self-enhancement is the most powerful motivation in the self-evaluation process” (Jackson & Hogg, 2010,
p. 694), we assume that the self-enhancement effect will be weakened or neutralized (rather than change direction) (Somers & Lef­
kowitz, 1983). Given the interplay of self-enhancement and self-verification tendencies in individuals, therefore, the positive rela­
tionship between POS and career match will be weaker for less self-directed newcomers.
Second, on the basis of self-verification theory, we would not expect a values-driven PCO to act as a moderator in the POS-career
match relationship. This is because the degree to which individuals focus on their own values does not necessarily signal the extent of
their positive (or indeed negative) career self-image. For instance, Arnold and Cohen (2008, p. 18) note:
Schein’s (1996) analysis of career anchors (see also Feldman & Bolino, 2000) shows that it is perfectly possible for a person to be
“values driven,” but to value service, security, or lifestyle in preference to more agentic values. A person might also value loyalty
or conformity, so that being “values driven” would mean behaving in line with the employer’s wishes.
Besides, having a strong value orientation may sometimes be counter-agentic or less self-reliant, depending on the work values or
anchors toward which an individual leans. Thus, due to the differences in the nature of the PCO subdimensions (i.e., self-directed and
values-driven), we would expect only self-direction to serve as a moderator in the relationship between POS and perceived career
match. Again, to capture the moderating effect within the individual-driven adjustment pathways, organization-driven adjustment
factors, including OSTs and social exchange, need to be partialled out. Hence, we hypothesize as follows:
Hypothesis 2. Of the two dimensions of PCOs (i.e., self-directed and values-driven), only the self-directed PCO moderates the
anticipated positive relationship between the POS and perceived match of individual and organizational career plans, after controlling
for the effects of organization-driven adjustment factors (i.e., OSTs and social exchange). Specifically, the positive relationship is
stronger for graduate newcomers with a high self-directed PCO, whereas the relationship is weaker for those with a low self-directed
PCO.

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N. Takeuchi et al. Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

On the basis of the aforementioned mediating and moderating hypotheses, we would expect graduate newcomers’ self-directed
PCO to serve as a first-stage moderator in the overall mediation model. This model, focusing on individual-driven adjustment path­
ways, flows from POS to STWT success through perceived career match. We speculate that self-enhancement underlies the overall
mediation model, whereas self-verification explains its boundary condition, as moderated by one type of PCO. Specifically, newcomers
with high self-directed PCO tend to be driven strongly by self-enhancement motives (e.g., Lin et al., 2018), and thus the career-match-
as-a-mediator model, as explained by self-enhancement theory, functions well. In contrast, those with low self-directed PCO tend to be
less sensitive to the fulfillment of self-enhancement motives, because their motives to achieve self-enhancement are, more or less, offset
by their self-verification strivings for balance between their negative career self-views and equitable responses from others. As a result,
the individual-driven self-enhancement pathways, as we propose in Hypothesis 1, may likely be ineffective for those with low self-
directed PCO. In essence, the co-functioning of self-enhancement and self-verification tendencies in individuals may make the over­
all mediational chain that flows from POS to STWT success through perceived career match conditional, depending on levels of self-
directed PCO at the first stage. This gives rise to the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 3. Beyond the effects of organization-driven adjustment factors (i.e., OSTs and social exchange), the interaction between
graduate newcomers' POS and their self-directed PCO influences their STWT success, including time-lagged changes in career growth
(H3a), job satisfaction (H3b), affective organizational commitment (H3c), and intention to stay (H3d) for approximately one year of
employment, through the perceived match of individual and organizational career plans.

3. Methods

3.1. Sample and procedures

To test the hypotheses, we administered a time-lagged questionnaire survey to graduate newcomers who had just started work at
various organizations in Japan. The survey was jointly conducted with a large-scale retail company in Japan that sells various goods
and services online. To identify the potential sampling pool from the company’s broad customer base, we asked the company to
conduct a short presurvey of more than 240,000 members aged 21–30 who lived in Japan. This aimed to identify soon-to-be graduate
newcomers who were college students at the time of the presurvey in March, but who would be full-time employees by the first wave of
our main survey in April. In this presurvey, 40,000 responses were collected, of which 721 matched our sampling criteria. Specifically,
the presurvey responses were required to satisfy all of the criteria given: the respondent had to (a) be in the final year of either an
undergraduate or postgraduate program; (b) have no prior full-time work experience; (c) have received at least one offer of a full-time
job from a privately-owned company listed on the Japanese stock exchange; (d) be scheduled to begin employment in April; and (e)
agree to participate in the main survey.
The main survey consisted of four waves (Times 1 through 4) conducted with the same participants at three-month intervals,
beginning with the date of their organizational entry. The Time 1 (T1) survey was sent to 721 eligible individuals upon entry in April,
and 517 usable questionnaires were returned. At T1, we confirmed that all respondents had graduated in March and started a full-time
job in April. Three months later, the Time 2 (T2) survey was sent to the 517 respondents who had completed the first survey. Of these,
324 questionnaires were returned. However, 17 questionnaires were discarded because the respondents had changed organizations
since T1. The Time 3 (T3) survey was sent to the 307 respondents who had completed both the T1 and the T2 surveys; 191 ques­
tionnaires were returned, of which nine were excluded, again because the participants had left their employers since T2. Finally, the
Time 4 (T4) survey was sent to the remaining 182 respondents who had completed the T1 through T3 surveys, and 120 were returned.
Nine were discarded as the respondent had left their organization since the previous survey. As a result, our final sample consisted of
111 graduate newcomers who had completed all four waves. The participants’ demographic information is shown in Table 1.
To ensure the representativeness of our final sample, we first checked for attrition bias. Specifically, we compared key information
between the final set of respondents and the withdrawers who had not responded to the second, third, and/or fourth wave(s). The
results of a chi-squared analysis showed no significant differences between the two groups in terms of gender (χ2 (1, N=517) = 0.53, p >
0.05), industry type (χ2 (4, N=517) = 4.81, p > 0.05), firm size (χ2 (2, N=517) = 1.03, p > 0.05), and job type (χ2 (2, N=517) = 0.59, p > 0.05).
Non-significant differences were also observed in terms of age between the bachelor’s degree groups (t (395, N=497) = 0.90, p > 0.05)
and the master’s degree groups (t (118, N=120) = 0.40, p > 0.05). These findings suggest that the attrition of our samples did not cause
significant bias.
We further attempted an additional selection bias test to see if our final sample was representative of the population as a whole.
Specifically, we compared our final sample against the overall graduate newcomers’ population in Japan as reported by the Japanese
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (2018). This department conducts a census which includes data on the
gender and job type of new hires directly from college. The chi-squared results showed statistically non-significant differences between
our final sample and this overall population in terms of gender (χ2 (1, N=478269) = 0.41, p > 0.05) and job type (χ2 (2, N=478269) = 4.07, p
> 0.05). In addition, using archival data from the Nikkei Financial Quest, we found that the distribution of our respondents by industry
type did not differ significantly from the overall composition of the Japanese listed companies from which our samples were collected
(χ2 (4, N=3826) = 1.30, p > 0.05). These findings suggest that our final sample should, at least to some extent, be representative of our
target population in Japan.

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N. Takeuchi et al. Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

Table 1
Demographic information of our final sample.
Variables Categories and percentages (%)

Gender Male 55.9

Female 44.1
Age 22 years old or younger 44.1
23 years old 11.7
24 years old 18.9
25 years old or older 25.3
Education Bachelor degree 69.4
Master degree 30.6
Industry Manufacturing 38.7
Finance, insurance, and real estate 18.9
Transportation and communications 15.3
Services 15.3
Others 11.7
Firm size 999 employees or less 41.4
1000 to 4999 employees 32.4
5000 employees or more 26.1
Job type Administrative & sales jobs 58.6
Technical job 36.0
Others 5.4

Note: N = 111.

3.2. Measures

We designed the T1 questionnaire to include items measuring all demographic variables, four indicators of STWT success, and
PCOs. The data related to demographics and STWT success at T1 were used as control variables when estimating the effects on
mediator and dependent variables.2 The T2 questionnaire included measures of the predictor variable (POS) and two control variables
related to organization-driven adjustment factors, namely OSTs and social exchange. In the T3 survey, we also included measures of
the mediator variable (career match). Finally, at T4 we repeated the collection of data on the dependent variables (four STWT success
indicators) administered at T1. Because the existing survey instruments we drew from were available only in English, we translated
them into Japanese by adopting a conventional translation and back-translation method (Schaffer & Riordan, 2003). Unless otherwise
stated, a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree was used to collect responses to each
measurement item.3

3.2.1. POS
We used a six-item version of the Survey of Perceived Organizational Support (SPOS) scale which has been widely used in previous
studies (e.g., Eisenberger et al., 2001; Lee et al., 2019). This measure was introduced at T2. Sample items include: “The organization
really cares about my wellbeing,” and “The organization shows little concern for me (reverse-coded item).” The Cronbach’s alpha was
0.80, which is comparable to surveys reported in the US (0.77, in Eisenberger et al., 2001) and in the UK and India (0.76, in Lee et al.,
2019).

3.2.2. A perceived match of individual and organizational career plans

We used three items from Granrose and Portwood’s (1987) measure of a perceived career match. These items directly gauge the
extent to which individuals perceive their career plans to be congruent with those of their organization, in light of the following three
meta-domains: career goal, career timetable, and career strategy. Sample items include: “My individual career goal matches the
company’s goal for my future,” and “My career timetable matches the company’s timetable for me.” This construct was measured at
T3. The Cronbach’s alpha was 0.78. A survey with a larger sample of general employees in the US reported an alpha value of 0.95
(Granrose & Portwood, 1987).

2
The reason we controlled for the STWT success data at T1 (i.e., at a very early point in the newcomer’s organizational entry), rather than at T2 or
T3, was our desire to estimate newcomers’ post-entry career adjustment over the full-length employment period. In particular, all of our STWT
success indicators are attitudinal variables, which can be fully evaluated even at the time of entry. Their encounter experience, together with the
information about the job and the organization that the newcomers obtained through interactions with organizational insiders during their job
search period and even after their job offer, are sufficient to give adequate responses to the four STWT success indicators used in this research.
3
Although a 5-point Likert-type scale was used for some measures in the original literature (i.e., those relating to perceived career match, career
growth, and PCOs), we opted to apply a 7-point scale for all psychometric measures in the survey. We chose this in order to avoid using a mix of
response options within a single questionnaire, which may cause confusion among respondents. Additionally, extending response options from five
to seven increases both item- and construct-level variance. Furthermore, a simulation study (Preston & Colman, 2000) has shown that 7-point scale
is superior to 5-point scale in terms of test-retest reliabilities, suggesting that the former may be better suited to our research given that we use
several repeated measures over four time-lagged survey waves.

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N. Takeuchi et al. Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

3.2.3. STWT success

We assessed graduate newcomers’ STWT success both at T1 and T4. We used a two-item measure of career growth developed by
Bedeian et al. (1991) and used by Zikic and Klehe (2006); a six-item measure of affective organizational commitment developed by
Meyer et al. (1993); a three-item measure of intention to stay (a reverse-coded scale for turnover intention); and a three-item measure
of job satisfaction, both developed by Cammann et al. (1983). Sample items for career growth, affective organizational commitment,
intention to stay, and job satisfaction, respectively, include: “I feel that my present job will lead to future attainment of my career
goals,” “I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organization,” “I often think about quitting (reverse-coded
item),” and “Overall, I am satisfied with my job.” A set of confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) showed that a priori, a four-factor model
showed a reasonably better fit to the data (χ2 (71, N=111) = 153.76, CFI = 0.93 at T1; χ2 (71, N=111) = 157.81, CFI = 0.94 at T4) than a
one-factor model (χ2 (77, N=111) = 618.32, CFI = 0.53 at T1; χ2 (77, N=111) = 635.58, CFI = 0.60 at T4), with a statistically significant
drop in model chi-square values from four-factor to one-factor models both at T1 (Δχ2 (6, N=111) = 464.56, p < 0.001) and T4 (Δχ2 (6,
N=111) = 477.77, p < 0.001).
The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for these constructs in this research were as follows: 0.91 (T1) and 0.94 (T4) for career growth;
0.91 (T1) and 0.93 (T4) for affective organizational commitment; 0.93 (T1) and 0.92 (T4) for intention to stay; 0.71 (T1) and 0.86 (T4)
for job satisfaction. These reliability values are comparable to those reported in previous studies, such as 0.75 for career growth using
Canadian samples (Zikic & Klehe, 2006); 0.85 (Meyer et al., 1993) and 0.91 (Çakmak-Otluoğlu, 2012) for affective organizational
commitment in Canada and Turkey, respectively; 0.85 (Harris et al., 2005) and 0.93 (Baranik et al., 2010) for intention to stay in two
US studies; and 0.82 to 0.88 for job satisfaction in different survey waves using a large newcomer dataset in the US (Wang et al., 2017).

3.2.4. PCOs
Both self-directed and values-driven PCOs were measured at T1 using a 14-item instrument developed by Briscoe et al. (2006). The
CFA results indicated that a priori, the two-factor model fit the data significantly better (χ2 (70, N=111) = 173.22, CFI = 0.86) than the
one-factor model (Δχ2 (1, N=111) = 28.21, p < 0.001). Sample items for self-directed PCO include: “I am responsible for my success or
failure in my career,” and “Ultimately, I depend upon myself to move my career forward,” whereas those of a values-driven PCO
include: “What’s most important to me is how I feel about my career success, not how other people feel about it,” and “It doesn’t matter
much to me how other people evaluate the choices I make in my career.” The Cronbach’s alphas for the self-directed and values-driven
PCO measures were 0.85 and 0.78, respectively, which are similar to those reported in studies in the US (0.75 and 0.70, respectively, in
Briscoe et al., 2006) and Turkey (0.84 and 0.78, respectively, in Çakmak-Otluoğlu, 2012).

3.2.5. Control variables

Because our focus was on delineating the individual-driven adjustment process by highlighting the self-enhancement effect that
POS should have directly on perceived career match and indirectly on STWT success, we needed to rule out other possible influences,
particularly those prompting organization-driven adjustments. To do this, we controlled for (1) OSTs and (2) the social exchange
relationship between the individual and the organization. These variables were measured at T2, the same point at which we measured
POS.
The OSTs were measured using 19 items from Jones’s (1986) socialization tactics scale. Conventionally, this measurement has been
operationalized along six (e.g., Ashforth & Saks, 1996), three (e.g., Allen & Shanock, 2013; Cable & Parsons, 2001), or one (e.g., Kim
et al., 2005; Lapointe et al., 2014) dimension, depending on the aim or context of each study. Because we sought to use this construct to
control for a global effect, we chose a higher-order, unidimensional operationalization to gauge how OSTs as a set had been insti­
tutionalized in the organization. Sample items include: “I have been through a set of training experiences that are specifically designed
to give newcomers a thorough knowledge of job related skills,” and “I have been generally left alone to discover what my role should be
in this organization (reverse-coded item).” The Cronbach’s alpha was 0.90, which is similar to that reported in Kim et al.’s (2005) study
(0.86) using newcomer samples in South Korea.
Social exchange was measured using eight items developed by Shore et al. (2006). Sample items include: “There is a lot of give and
take in my relationship with the organization,” and “The organization has made a significant investment in me.” The Cronbach’s alpha
was 0.86, which is the same value as reported by Shore et al. (2006) who tested with US samples.
In addition, following the recommendations of prior studies (e.g., Kim et al., 2005), we controlled for age (self-reported in years)
and gender (1 = male, 0 = female). Firm size, as measured by the number of employees (1 = less than 1000 employees, 2 = 1000 to
4999 employees, 3 = 5000 employees or more), was also controlled for, given the context of working conditions in Japan (Ono, 2010)
as well as young applicants’ tendency to find particular organizations more attractive (Kawabata, 2019; Sekiguchi, 2004). Both these
trends are hierarchized according to firm size in Japan. Furthermore, we controlled for the four STWT success variables measured at T1
to estimate the lagged effects for each outcome variable from T1 through T4.
Table 2 shows the correlation matrix for all the variables used in this research.

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 N. Takeuchi et al.
Table 2
Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients among all variables used in this research.
Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

1 Age 23.32 1.82

2 Sex (male) 0.56 0.50 0.14
3 Firm size 1.85 0.81 0.05 0.08
4 OST (T2) 4.39 0.84 − 0.06 0.08 0.03 (0.90)
5 Social exchange (T2) 4.34 0.88 − 0.08 0.10 − 0.12 0.70 (0.86)
6 Self-directed PCO (T1) 4.68 0.84 0.06 0.10 − 0.03 0.24 0.26 (0.85)
7 Values-driven PCO 4.39 0.79 − 0.07 − 0.04 − 0.01 − 0.01 0.01 0.62 (0.78)
(T1)
8 POS (T2) 4.04 0.85 − 0.05 − 0.03 − 0.07 0.50 0.47 0.04 − 0.03 (0.80)
9 Match of ind. and 3.74 1.11 0.09 0.10 − 0.08 0.26 0.35 0.03 0.01 0.46 (0.91)
org. career plans (T3)
10

10 Career growth (T1) 4.66 1.12 0.20 0.08 0.03 0.29 0.36 0.56 0.41 0.20 0.18 (0.91)
11 Career growth (T4) 4.36 1.30 0.09 0.03 0.01 0.26 0.37 0.11 − 0.05 0.34 0.45 0.33 (0.94)
12 Job satisfaction (T1) 4.61 0.98 0.05 0.04 0.09 0.28 0.31 0.36 0.29 0.28 0.34 0.68 0.43 (0.71)
13 Job satisfaction (T4) 4.15 1.31 0.07 0.17 − 0.08 0.28 0.37 0.22 − 0.10 0.26 0.45 0.26 0.54 0.32 (0.86)
14 Affective 4.23 1.02 0.02 0.11 0.01 0.42 0.48 0.40 0.24 0.41 0.40 0.45 0.36 0.60 0.32 (0.91)
org. commitment (T1)
15 Affective 4.01 1.20 0.05 0.17 0.00 0.27 0.44 0.13 0.00 0.32 0.51 0.18 0.55 0.31 0.66 0.43 (0.93)
org. commitment (T4)
16 Intention to stay (T1) 5.20 1.49 − 0.15 0.03 − 0.09 0.28 0.34 0.07 − 0.02 0.35 0.29 0.22 0.32 0.49 0.20 0.29 0.25 (0.93)
17 Intention to stay (T4) 4.53 1.74 − 0.06 0.22 0.02 0.27 0.28 0.06 − 0.10 0.19 0.33 0.21 0.25 0.31 0.63 0.21 0.47 0.45 (0.92)

Note: N = 111; OST = organizational socialization tactics; PCO = protean career orientation; POS = perceived organizational support; T1 = Time 1; T2 = Time 2; T3 = Time 3; T4 = Time 4. Numbers in

Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

parentheses denote Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. Critical r, p = ≤ 0.05, two-tailed, |r| = 0.186; Critical r, p =≤ 0.01, two-tailed, |r| = 0.243; Critical r, p =≤ 0.001, two-tailed, |r| = 0.308.
N. Takeuchi et al. Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

3.3. Analytic procedure

Hypothesis 1 (H1a through H1d) involved testing a mediation model in which POS has indirect effects on the four STWT success
indicators via perceived career match. Following recommendations for testing mediation models with multiple dependent variables (e.
g., MacKinnon, 2008), we used a path analysis method with a bootstrapping test of indirect effects. The path analysis allowed us to
simultaneously estimate the statistical significance of paths from POS (X) to career match (M) and from career match (M) to each of
career growth (Y1), job satisfaction (Y2), affective organizational commitment (Y3), and intention to stay (Y4), with all control vari­
ables specified to mediator and dependent variables. Because our sample size was not large enough to estimate both the structural
model and the measurement model simultaneously, we analyzed the data based on the single-indicator or path model instead of the
latent factor model. Specifically, the number of free parameters required for the latent factor model estimation would have exceeded
the total sample size of the research (i.e., 111 observations to 254 parameters), which does not satisfy the “five-observations-per-
parameter” criterion recommended by methodologists (Bentler & Chou, 1987; Bollen, 1989; Kenny, 2020).
To directly test the intervening variable effects with the non-normality assumption, we applied the bootstrap resampling approach
(Hayes, 2009). The salience of the indirect effect of POS on STWT success through career match was judged on the basis of the lower
and upper limits of a 95% bias-corrected (BC) confidence interval. If the estimated value of the confidence band does not span zero,
“the analyst can claim that the indirect effect is not zero with [95]% confidence” (Hayes, 2009, p. 412).
Hypotheses 2 and 3 (H2 and H3a through H3d) involved testing the moderation effects of both self-directed and values-driven PCOs
in the POS-career match link. The model can be characterized as a first-stage moderated mediation model, wherein the path from
predictor to mediator of an otherwise simple mediation is moderated by a first-stage moderator (Preacher et al., 2007). Following the
path analysis procedure for testing the first-stage model (Hayes, 2015; Preacher et al., 2007), we tested the hypotheses on the basis of
the following statistical analyses. First, we examined the statistical significance of the focal interaction effect (i.e., POS × self-directed
PCO and POS × values-driven PCO) on perceived career match by simultaneously estimating the other paths in the overall moderated
mediation model. All relevant control variables were also specified.
Second, we tested the conditional indirect effect by estimating the index of moderated mediation (Hayes, 2015) for each conditional
effect (i.e., the effect of POS on each STWT success outcome through perceived career match, as moderated by the significant
moderator(s) identified at the first stage). Maximum likelihood estimation for the index values and the 95% BC confidence intervals for
each value were used to examine the salience of the conditional indirect effect.
Finally, to examine whether (and if so, up to what point) the indirect effects of POS on STWT success outcome through career match
were conditioned by the significant moderator(s), we computed the index value (conditional indirect effect) as well as its BC confi­
dence bounds at various numerical points of the moderator(s). Plotting those values enabled us to see at which mean score of the focal
moderator(s) the indirect effect through career match became effective. We conducted this series of statistical analyses using Mplus
version 8.0.

3.4. Common method variance

We adopted a four-wave, time-lagged research design to mitigate common method variance (CMV), since this “create[s] a temporal
separation by introducing a time lag between the measurement of the predictor and criterion variables” (Podsakoff et al., 2003, p.
887). In addition to this procedural remedy, we performed a subsequent validation test to check that our data were unaffected by
CMV.4
An extensive literature review by Fuller et al. (2016) suggests that “researchers typically apply one of four post-hoc statistical
techniques to check for CMV” (p. 3193). These techniques include the unmeasured latent method construct (ULMC) test (Williams
et al., 1989), the CFA marker technique (Williams et al., 2010), Harman’s one-factor test (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986), and the
correlational marker technique (Lindell & Whitney, 2001). Given that the numbers of free parameters to be estimated using the ULMC
and CFA marker techniques exceeded our sample size, which leads to the problem of model misspecification (e.g., Bentler & Chou,
1987), we opted to apply Harman’s one-factor test and the correlational marker variable test for detecting CMV. A recent simulation
study suggests that Harman’s one-factor test can detect a biasing level of CMV when scale reliability is high (Fuller et al., 2016).
First, we performed the one-factor test by running a principal component factor analysis over the 37 focal items, presumptively
grouped into eight constructs. The analysis using an unrotated factor solution yielded a priori eight factors with eigenvalues higher
than one (the cutoff criterion). Moreover, the variance explained by the first factor reached only 26.1%, which is reasonably far below
the conventional cutoff level for the majority of total variance explained (i.e., 50%; see Fuller et al., 2016).
Second, given that Harman’s one-factor test is known to be less conservative, particularly when it involves a large number of
variables (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986), we conducted a further check of CMV using the correlational marker technique. Following

4
Before testing for CMV, we performed convergent and discriminant validity assessments of our focal measurement scales. Specifically, we
confirmed that each of the factor loadings (in standardized form) in the constructs obtained via CFA exceeded the 0.50 cutoff criteria (Hair et al.,
2013) with each estimated loading being statistically significant at the p < .001 level. In addition, a series of pairwise CFA tests (Bagozzi & Phillips,
1982; Lattin et al., 2003) showed that an increment in chi-squares from the unconstrained model (where the correlation of two latent factors is
allowed to be freely estimated) to the constrained model (where such correlation is set to one) for all possible pairs of our focal measurement
constructs was statistically significant. These findings support the existence of within-construct convergence as well as between-construct
distinctiveness for our measurement scales.

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N. Takeuchi et al. Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

previous recommendations, we selected “multiple” and “directly-measured” method factors as markers: i.e., social desirability and
negative affectivity, which are known as powerful causes of common method biases (Podsakoff et al., 2012; Simmering et al., 2015;
Williams et al., 2010). In addition, both constructs are theoretically unrelated to the interrelationships among our substantive variables
and thus can be considered adequate as markers. Operationally, we used as markers the 10-item short form of the Marlowe-Crowne
social desirability scale (M-C 2(10): Strahan & Gerbasi, 1972) and the 10-item scale of negative affectivity (trait NA: Watson et al.,
1988), and calculated the CMV corrected correlations (ra) with the markers’ effects partialled out from the uncorrected correlations
(ru). Our results showed no substantial difference between the CMV-corrected and uncorrected correlations, with the averaged dif­
ference of ra minus ru being − 0.002 and ranging from − 0.037 to 0.036. All the correlations that were previously significant remained
so. These results suggest that common method bias is not a serious concern in our research.

Table 3
Path-analysis results for testing the hypothesized mediation modela.
Path coefficients Indirect effects
Parameters Estimate S.E. t p Estimate S.E. 95% 95%
(B)b (M)b BCLL BCUL

Effects on “match of ind. and org. career plans” at Time 3 R2 = 0.264

Age (T1) → Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) 0.07 0.04 1.65
Sex (T1) → Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) 0.20 0.20 0.97
Firm size (T1) → Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) − 0.04 0.12 − 0.33
OSTs (T2) → Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) − 0.15 0.18 − 0.80
Social exchange (T2) → Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) 0.29 0.17 1.71
POS (T2) → Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) 0.55 0.14 3.94 ***

Effects on “career growth” at Time 4 R2 = 0.308 0.21 0.11 0.035 0.448

Age (T1) → Career growth (T4) 0.03 0.06 0.43
Sex (T1) → Career growth (T4) − 0.12 0.21 − 0.57
Firm size (T1) → Career growth (T4) 0.10 0.14 0.74
OSTs (T2) → Career growth (T4) − 0.11 0.22 − 0.47
Social exchange (T2) → Career growth (T4) 0.29 0.23 1.25
Career growth (T1) → Career growth (T4) 0.25 0.12 2.10 *
POS (T2) → Career growth (T4) 0.14 0.18 0.82
Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) → Career growth (T4) 0.39 0.15 2.56 *
2
Effects on “job satisfaction” at Time 4 R = 0.273 0.22 0.10 0.056 0.450
Age (T1) → Job satisfaction (T4) 0.03 0.06 0.45
Sex (T1) → Job satisfaction (T4) 0.28 0.24 1.18
Firm size (T1) → Job satisfaction (T4) − 0.08 0.14 − 1.11
OSTs (T2) → Job satisfaction (T4) 0.07 0.20 0.33
Social exchange (T2) → Job satisfaction (T4) 0.29 0.25 1.18
Job satisfaction (T1) → Job satisfaction (T4) 0.14 0.11 1.29
POS (T2) → Job satisfaction (T4) − 0.06 0.21 − 0.29
Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) → Job satisfaction (T4) 0.40 0.16 2.56 **

Effects on “affective org. commitment” at Time 4 R2 = 0.364 0.21 0.09 0.072 0.426
Age (T1) → Affective org. commitment (T4) 0.01 0.05 0.27
Sex (T1) → Affective org. commitment (T4) 0.20 0.20 1.02
Firm size (T1) → Affective org. commitment (T4) 0.09 0.11 0.80
OSTs (T2) → Affective org. commitment (T4) − 0.17 0.19 − 0.88
Social exchange (T2) → Affective org. commitment (T4) 0.42 0.21 1.98 *
Affective org. commitment (T1) → Affective org. commitment 0.20 0.11 1.73
(T4)
POS (T2) → Affective org. commitment (T4) 0.02 0.16 0.14
Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) → Affective org. 0.38 0.12 3.16 **
commitment (T4)

Effects on “intention to stay” at Time 4 R2 = 0.300 0.18 0.10 0.000 0.407

Age (T1) → Intention to stay (T4) − 0.04 0.07 − 0.55
Sex (T1) → Intention to stay (T4) 0.62 0.30 2.07 *
Firm size (T1) → Intention to stay (T4) 0.10 0.19 0.53
OSTs (T2) → Intention to stay (T4) 0.25 0.29 0.84
Social exchange (T2) → Intention to stay (T4) 0.05 0.30 0.18
Intention to stay (T1) → Intention to stay (T4) 0.47 0.09 5.06 ***
POS (T2) → Intention to stay (T4) − 0.22 0.25 − 0.89
Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) → Intention to stay (T4) 0.33 0.17 1.91

Note: N = 111; Bootstrap resample size = 2000; M = estimated mediation effect; BCLL = lower limit of bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval;
BCUL = upper limit of bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval; OSTs = organization socialization tactics; POS = perceived organizational sup­
port; PCO = protean career orientation; T1 = Time 1; T2 = Time 2; T3 = Time 3; T4 = Time 4. *p < 0.05, two-tailed; **p < 0.01, two-tailed;
***p < 0.001, two-tailed.
a
Model fit index values for this overall mediation model are: χ2 (16,N=111) = 19.24, p > 0.05; CFI = 0.99; RMSEA = 0.04, p (RMSEA=0.05) > 0.05;
SRMR = 0.05.
b
Unstandardized coefficients (B, M) are reported.

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N. Takeuchi et al. Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

4. Results

4.1. Test of the mediation model

Hypothesis 1 (H1a through H1d) states that, separately from the effects of organization-driven adjustment factors (i.e., OSTs and
social exchange), newcomers’ perceptions of career match would mediate the positive relationship between POS and STWT success,
including changes in career growth (H1a), job satisfaction (H1b), affective organizational commitment (H1c), and intention to stay
(H1d) for approximately one year. Table 3 shows the results of a path analysis with a bootstrapping test. It can be seen that the results
of a maximum likelihood estimation for the hypothesized mediation model yielded values that suggest a good model fit (χ2 (16, N=111)
= 19.24, p > .05; CFI = 0.99; RMSEA = 0.04, p (RMSEA=0.05) > 0.05; SRMR = 0.05).
Looking at the estimates of individual paths, Table 3 shows that POS at T2 was significantly and positively related to perceived
career match at T3 (B = 0.55, p < 0.001), with OSTs and social exchange at T2 both being controlled. In addition, perceived career
match at T3 was significantly and positively related to three of the four STWT success indicators from T1 to T4: specifically, changes in
career growth (B = 0.39, p < 0.05), job satisfaction (B = 0.40, p < 0.01), and affective organizational commitment (B = 0.38, p < 0.01).
This was the case even after controlling for the two organization-driven adjustment factors. The positive relationship between career
match at T3 and the change in intention to stay from T1 through T4 was not significant, although it achieved a 10% level of significance
(B = 0.33, p = .06). Thus, the above joint significance test suggests that a mediation effect may exist for career growth, job satisfaction,
and affective organizational commitment.
Moreover, as Table 3 shows, the direct test for indirect effects indicated that all the hypothesized mediating effects were positive,
except for intention to stay (M = 0.18 [0.000, 0.407]). The 95% BC confidence intervals for these effects did not include zero: i.e., M =
0.21 [0.035, 0.448] for career growth, M = 0.22 [0.056, 0.450] for job satisfaction, and M = 0.21 [0.072, 0.426] for affective
organizational commitment.5 These findings, together with those obtained from the joint significance test, lend support to Hypotheses
1a, 1b, and 1c, but not 1d (i.e., the effect on intention to stay was not significant). This demonstrates that newcomers’ perceived career
match mediated the relationships between POS and career growth, job satisfaction, and affective organizational commitment.

4.2. Test of the moderated mediation model

In Hypothesis 2, we assume self-directed PCO has a moderating effect on the first chain of mediation. Specifically, we propose that
the positive relationship between POS and career match will be stronger (weaker) for newcomers high (low) in self-directed PCO.
Table 4 summarizes the path analysis results of the moderated mediation model. It can be seen that the estimated model fit indices
showed a good fit to the data (χ2 (20, N=111) = 22.66, p > 0.05; CFI = 0.99; RMSEA = 0.03, p (RMSEA=0.05) > 0.05; SRMR = 0.03).
As hypothesized, and as shown in Table 4, the product of self-directed PCO at T1 and POS at T2 was significantly and positively
related to perceived career match at T3 (B = 0.22, p < 0.05), whereas the product of values-driven PCO and POS was not (B = 0.03, p >
0.05). These interaction effects were estimated, with the influences of OSTs and social exchange at T2 both being statistically partialled
out. As Fig. 2 illustrates, the positive relationship between POS and perceived career match became stronger when self-directed PCO
was high, whereas the relationship became weaker when self-directed PCO was low. These findings support Hypothesis 2.
Hypothesis 3 (H3a through H3d) predicts that, separately from the effects of OST and social exchange, the interaction between POS
and self-directed PCO influences the four indicators of STWT success by way of perceived career match. As shown in Table 4, the
estimates of the index values of the moderated mediation model were all positive, and the confidence intervals between the lower and
upper bounds did not include zero for career growth (MM = 0.08 [0.001, 0.218]), job satisfaction (MM = 0.09 [0.003, 0.220]), and
affective organizational commitment (MM = 0.08 [0.002, 0.205]). They did include zero for intention to stay (MM = 0.07 [− 0.008,
0.198]). These findings give support to Hypotheses 3a, 3b, and 3c, but not 3d.
Furthermore, in Fig. 3, we plot the estimated values of the indirect effects and their corresponding confidence bands at various
mean score points (expressed as SD units) of self-directed PCO. According to this graph, the lower bounds of the BC confidence in­
tervals for each indirect effect (i.e. the 95% BC lower limits for career growth, job satisfaction, and affective organizational
commitment) reach zero at the SD value of self-directed PCO of approximately − 0.65 (precisely, − 0.61, − 0.61, and − 0.66 for career
growth, job satisfaction, and affective organizational commitment, respectively). This indicates that the indirect effects of POS on the
three STWT success outcomes through career match were significantly different from zero for any value of self-directed PCO greater
than the boundary ranging from − 0.61 to − 0.66.

5
The results showed that the total effects (i.e., the sum of direct and indirect effects) of POS on each STWT success outcome were statistically non-
significant (B = 0.36 [− 0.037, 0.722] for career growth; B = 0.16 [− 0.195, 0.508] for job satisfaction; B = 0.23 [− 0.141, 0.553] for affective
organizational commitment). This suggests that the significant indirect effects reported in this research do not necessarily mean the presence of full
mediation effects, although we observed non-significant, direct effects of POS on these STWT outcomes when co-estimated with the mediator (i.e.,
perceived career match). Following the recommendations of methodologists who warn against the relatively low statistical power of direct effects in
mediation tests in general (Hayes & Scharkow, 2013; Kenny & Judd, 2014), we refrain from judging whether our results indicate full mediation or
not.

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N. Takeuchi et al. Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

Table 4
Path-analysis results for testing the hypothesized moderated mediation modela.
Path coefficients Conditional indirect effects
Parameters Estimate S.E. t p Estimate S.E. 95% 95%
(B)b (MM)b BCLL BCUL

Effects on “match of ind. and org. career plans” at Time 3 R2 = 0.293

Age (T1) → Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) 0.07 0.04 1.66
Sex (T1) → Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) 0.19 0.20 0.96
Firm size (T1) → Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) − 0.02 0.11 − 0.21
OSTs (T2) → Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) − 0.10 0.19 − 0.52
Social exchange (T2) → Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) 0.27 0.17 1.57
Self-directed PCO (T1) → Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) 0.00 0.12 − 0.04
Values-driven PCO (T1) → Match of ind. and org. career plans 0.04 0.13 0.32
(T3)
POS (T2) → Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) 0.44 0.14 3.19 ***
Self-directed PCO (T1) × POS (T2) → Match of ind. and org. 0.22 0.11 1.98 *
career plans (T3)
Values-driven PCO (T1) × POS (T2) → Match of ind. and org. 0.03 0.12 0.22
career plans (T3)

Effects on “career growth” at Time 4 R2 = 0.313 0.08 0.05 0.001 0.218

Age (T1) → Career growth (T4) 0.02 0.06 0.33
Sex (T1) → Career growth (T4) − 0.11 0.21 − 0.51
Firm size (T1) → Career growth (T4) 0.09 0.15 0.63
OSTs (T2) → Career growth (T4) − 0.09 0.23 − 0.39
Social exchange (T2) → Career growth (T4) 0.29 0.24 1.21
Career growth (T1) → Career growth (T4) 0.33 0.15 2.27 *
Self-directed PCO (T1) → Career growth (T4) − 0.15 0.20 − 0.73
Values-driven PCO (T1) → Career growth (T4) − 0.05 0.13 − 0.39
POS (T2) → Career growth (T4) 0.13 0.18 0.70
Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) → Career growth (T4) 0.38 0.15 2.49 *
2
Effects on “job satisfaction” at Time 4 R = 0.288 0.09 0.06 0.003 0.220
Age (T1) → Job satisfaction (T4) 0.02 0.06 0.35
Sex (T1) → Job satisfaction (T4) 0.26 0.24 1.08
Firm size (T1) → Job satisfaction (T4) − 0.06 0.14 − 0.43
OSTs (T2) → Job satisfaction (T4) 0.04 0.20 0.20
Social exchange (T2) → Job satisfaction (T4) 0.27 0.24 1.09
Job satisfaction (T1) → Job satisfaction (T4) 0.07 0.10 0.73
Self-directed PCO (T1) → Job satisfaction (T4) 0.19 0.13 1.46
Values-driven PCO (T1) → Job satisfaction (T4) − 0.23 0.14 − 1.68
POS (T2) → Job satisfaction (T4) − 0.03 0.20 − 0.16
Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) → Job satisfaction (T4) 0.42 0.15 2.75 **
2
Effects on “affective org. commitment” at Time 4 R = 0.365 0.08 0.05 0.002 0.205
Age (T1) → Affective org. commitment (T4) 0.01 0.05 0.28
Sex (T1) → Affective org. commitment (T4) 0.12 0.20 1.02
Firm size (T1) → Affective org. commitment (T4) 0.09 0.11 0.78
OSTs (T2) → Affective org. commitment (T4) − 0.17 0.20 − 0.87
Social exchange (T2) → Affective org. commitment (T4) 0.43 0.22 1.94
Affective org. commitment (T1) → Affective org. commitment 0.21 0.11 1.82
(T4)
Self-directed PCO (T1) → Affective org. commitment (T4) − 0.02 0.15 − 0.10
Values-driven PCO (T1) → Affective org. commitment (T4) − 0.05 0.13 − 0.39
POS (T2) → Affective org. commitment (T4) 0.02 0.16 0.12
Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) → Affective org. 0.38 0.12 3.15 **
commitment (T4)

Effects on “intention to stay” at Time 4 R2 = 0.300 0.07 0.05 − 0.008 0.198

Age (T1) → Intention to stay (T4) − 0.04 0.07 − 0.53
Sex (T1) → Intention to stay (T4) 0.63 0.30 2.09 *
Firm size (T1) → Intention to stay (T4) 0.10 0.19 0.51
OSTs (T2) → Intention to stay (T4) 0.26 0.29 0.87
Social exchange (T2) → Intention to stay (T4) − 0.06 0.19 − 0.31
Intention to stay (T1) → Intention to stay (T4) 0.46 0.09 5.15 ***
Self-directed PCO (T1) → Intention to stay (T4) − 0.06 0.19 − 0.31
Values-driven PCO (T1) → Intention to stay (T4) − 0.21 0.19 − 1.13
POS (T2) → Intention to stay (T4) − 0.22 0.25 − 0.90
Match of ind. and org. career plans (T3) → Intention to stay (T4) 0.33 0.17 1.90

Note: N = 111; Bootstrap resample size = 2000; MM = estimated moderated mediation effect; BCLL = lower limit of bias-corrected bootstrap confi­
dence interval; BCUL = upper limit of bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval; OSTs = organization socialization tactics; POS = perceived
organizational support; PCO = protean career orientation; T1 = Time 1; T2 = Time 2; T3 = Time 3; T4 = Time 4. *p < 0.05, two-tailed; **p < 0.01,
two-tailed; ***p < 0.001, two-tailed.

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N. Takeuchi et al. Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

a
Model fit index values for this overall mediation model are: χ2 (20,N=111) = 22.66, p > 0.05; CFI = 0.99; RMSEA = 0.03, p (RMSEA=0.05) > 0.05;
SRMR = 0.03.
b
Unstandardized coefficients (B, MM) are reported.

Fig. 2. A Moderating Effect of Self-Directed Protean Career Orientation (PCO) on the Relationship between Perceived Organizational Support (POS)
and Match of Individual and Organizational Career Plans.

Fig. 3. Conditional Indirect Effects of POS on STWT Success Indicatiors at Different Levels of Self-Direced Protean Career Orentation (PCO)
Note: N = 111. Bootstrap resample size = 2000.
BCLL = lower limit of bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval; BCUL = upper limit of bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval; POS =
perceived organizational support; STWT = school-to-work transition; CG = career growth; JS = job satisfaction; AOC = affective organiza­
tional commitment.

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N. Takeuchi et al. Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

4.3. Post hoc analysis

In an attempt to check the robustness of our findings, particularly the ones directly relevant to our key contributions (i.e., the
moderated and moderated mediation results), we performed an alternative proxy test (Neumayer & Plümper, 2017); this examines
“whether a theory finds empirical support regardless of the operationalization of variables” (p. 117). Operationally, we replaced our
focal moderator (i.e., self-directed PCO) with a proxy moderator that is theoretically relevant to both the focal moderator and the
theories underpinning our hypotheses (i.e., the self-enhancement and self-verification theories). From the range of measures surveyed,
occupational self-efficacy was deemed the most suitable proxy for self-directed PCO. Occupational self-efficacy is defined as “the
competence that a person feels concerning the ability to successfully fulfill the tasks involved in his or her job” (Rigotti et al., 2008, p.
239). Although occupational self-efficacy is distinct from self-directed PCO,6 there are some commonalities. For example, both self-
directed PCO and occupational self-efficacy should incorporate an element of the locus of control, or self-regulation, in plotting
one’s own career path. In addition, occupational self-efficacy is theoretically relevant to both the self-enhancement and self-
verification theories, in that it reflects one’s own self-image. Therefore, occupational self-efficacy, as a theoretically relevant alter­
native to self-directed PCO, should function as a moderator between POS and career match, albeit to a lesser extent. It will then in­
fluence the mediating process of POS to STWT success via career match, as in the case of self-directed PCO.
Our reanalysis of the revised moderated mediation model (the only change being to replace self-directed PCO with occupational
self-efficacy) yielded similar findings. Interestingly, the interaction effect of occupational self-efficacy (measured at T1) and POS (at
T2) on career match (at T3) was positive, although it was only significant at the 10% level (B = 0.19, p = 0.08); this replicates our main
result (B = 0.22, p < 0.05 for the interaction effect of self-directed PCO and POS on career match). The other focal effects hypothesized
remained statistically significant even when self-directed PCO was replaced with occupational self-efficacy. Furthermore, the con­
ditional indirect effects of POS on the three STWT outcomes (career growth, job satisfaction, and affective organizational commitment)
via career match, as moderated by occupational self-efficacy, were significantly different from zero (MM = 0.07 [0.002, 0.247] for
career growth; MM = 0.07 [0.001, 0.250] for job satisfaction; and MM = 0.07 [0.004, 0.216] for affective organizational commit­
ment). This indicates that the proxy measure of occupational self-efficacy influences the mediational chain of the POS, through career
match, to the three STWT outcomes at the first stage, as for the focal moderator. These findings complement our main result as well as
being consistent with our theoretical reasoning drawn from the self-enhancement and self-verification theories, providing partial
evidence for the validity of our proposed moderated mediation model.

5. Discussion

Our research, based on a four-wave, time-lagged survey of young graduate newcomers in Japan, has generated three major
findings. First, going beyond the effects of organization-driven adjustment factors such as OSTs and social exchange, we show that POS
explains a unique variance in the perceived match between individual and organizational career plans, which in turn predicts changes
in career growth, job satisfaction, and affective organizational commitment for approximately one year after starting employment.
Second, we show that self-directed PCO moderates the positive relationship between POS and perceived career match; that is, the effect
is stronger for high self-directed newcomers while weaker for their less self-directed counterparts. Third, we explore that self-directed
PCO conditions the overall mediation process leading to STWT success. These findings generally support our hypotheses developed
from the self-enhancement and self-verification theories, providing both theoretical and practical implications.

5.1. Theoretical and practical implications

First, this research offers a new understanding of the process by which young graduate newcomers experience a successful STWT
from the “individual-driven” adjustment perspective, instead of from the organization-driven perspective. It therefore contributes to
the recent debates on the role of “individualization” or “personalization” in newcomers’ adjustment and subsequent STWT success,
which focuses on the impact of the individual on the organization rather than that of the organization on the individual (Ashforth,
Sluss, & Harrison, 2007). Interestingly, the two organization-driven factors (OSTs and social exchange) studied here had no significant
impact on the mediator (career match), while social exchange exerted a direct and positive effect on one of the STWT success in­
dicators, affective organizational commitment (B = 0.42, p < 0.05), as shown in Table 3. In this sense, organization-driven factors,
particularly social exchange, could be effective in newcomers’ adjustment in the form of directly enhancing affective organizational
commitment, even co-estimated with POS and perceived career match. This finding is in line with the basic assumption in the work
adjustment literature positing that an adjustment should take place both in individuals and their organizational environment (Ash­
forth, Sluss, & Harrison, 2007). Our unique contribution, nevertheless, resides in empirical support of the proposed “individualization”
pathways that have been neglected in the newcomers’ career adjustment and STWT literature.
Although this has not yet been clearly articulated in the literature, individualization during the onboarding process may have at
least two possible perspectives: the “individualization-as-a-process” perspective and the “individualization-as-a-value” perspective.
Both perspectives see individuals as agents of enacting on-boarding or other efforts leading to a good STWT, but the “as-a-process”

6
The pairwise CFA results for our dataset showed that Rigotti et al.’s (2008) six-item measure of occupational self-efficacy (Cronbach’s α = 0.88)
was empirically distinct from the self-directed PCO scale, with Δχ2 (constrained-unconstrained) being statistically significant (Δχ2 (1) = 83.16, p < 0.001).
The correlation between the two scales was significant but remained at a moderate level (r = 0.37, p < 0.001).

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N. Takeuchi et al. Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

perspective indicates that an individual proactively makes personal adjustments to the organization’s norms and assumptions about
career paths, whereas the “as-a-value” perspective presumes that organizational accommodations are made to differentiated indi­
vidual values or career plans. Although the individualization-as-a-process perspective has been well studied recently through the
concepts of proactive socialization behavior (e.g., Bauer et al., 2007), learning goal orientation (Tan et al., 2016), and so on, the
individualization-as-a-value perspective regarding how organizations adjust to individual values and career plans has yet to be
explored. Our research, suggesting the saliency of a self-enhancement process, is one of the few studies that provides evidence for the
individualization-as-a-value perspective, and as such offers an alternative explanation for successful onboarding and STWT.
Second, our findings also suggest that these individual-driven self-enhancement processes are conditioned by the degree to which
young graduate newcomers exhibit a self-directed PCO. Specifically, newcomers high in self-directed PCO demonstrated a stronger
perceived career match than those low in self-directed PCO when they perceived themselves as receiving much support from the
organization. Conversely, these highly self-directed newcomers perceived career match as weaker than their less self-directed col­
leagues when less organizational support was available. This suggests that newcomers with a high self-directed PCO follow a self-
verification process in ways that strengthen the self-enhancement effect. Accordingly, they react sensitively to their own self-
evaluations in the light of how much they are supported by the organization. In this analysis, self-directed individuals with positive
self-views (i.e., high self-confidence and esteem in terms of their career) need more positive responses and support from their
employer. Interestingly, as Fig. 2 illustrates, if such strongly self-directed individuals received less support, there was a sharp decline in
their perception of career match. According to self-verification theory, such an incongruence between self-view (i.e., high self-
direction) and environmental response (i.e., low POS) may function as an “error signal, which translates into negative subjective
experiences such as depression and distress” (Burke & Stets, 1999, p. 349). To cope with the incongruency, these individuals may
change either their self-views or their interaction partner (i.e., the organization, in this case). A change in self-view would require the
individual to accept the organization-driven, personal-change type of newcomers’ adjustments within the current organization,
whereas changing their interaction partner would mean attempting to find another employer whose approach may be more congruent
with their career self-perception.
In addition, as Fig. 3 shows, our calculation of the estimated values of the indirect effects and their confidence bands demonstrated
that a level of approximately − 0.65 SD points in the self-directed PCO measure was the threshold for determining whether perceived
career match acted as a mediator in the link between POS and STWT outcomes. Statistically, this accounts for an approximately 25.8%
fall in the region below − 0.65 SD, provided that the population distribution for self-directed PCO is normal. We confirmed that our
sample for the eight-item measure of self-directed PCO was normally distributed, and 27.9% of respondents scored below − 0.65 SD.
This suggests that the proposed individual-driven career adjustment pathway may not be effective for those scoring in the bottom
25–28% for self-directed PCO. This may signify an important practical challenge in terms of how career development practitioners can
help such individuals develop greater self-directedness during their STWT.
Third, our findings on the moderated mediation relationship add value to the ongoing debate about the so-called “Protean Paradox”
(Hall et al., 2018) regarding how protean careerists pursue their own self-focused careers while acting as good organizational citizens,
and thus balancing or integrating both their career self-interests and the organizational goals. From their extensive review of the
research on protean careers, Hall et al. (2018) observe that although some studies support the paradoxical view (e.g., a positive
relationship between PCOs and affective organizational commitment: Çakmak-Otluoğlu, 2012), others do not (e.g., Supeli & Creed,
2016), and Hall and colleagues recommend further investigations to explore the boundary condition that may be a catalyst for the
paradox. Our findings contributed partly to this call by suggesting that the self-verification process could be a key mechanism for
predicting the paradoxical behaviors of protean careerists, thus leading them to experience enhanced pro-work attitudes (job satis­
faction and commitment) as well as career growth. As far as the present findings are concerned, this prediction may be limited only to
the self-directed and not the values-driven orientation. In addition, the research context here was limited to graduate newcomers
transitioning from college to work. It may therefore be worthwhile to extend the self-verification framework to different research
contexts.
Fourth, some of the nomological networks in our research model were found to be statistically non-significant; namely (1) the
moderating effect of a values-driven PCO on the POS-perceived career match link, and (2) the mediating effect of perceived career
match on the POS-intention to stay link. First, as we have argued, the two dimensions of PCOs are likely to have different effects
because they are conceptually distinct. Unlike self-directed PCO, values-driven PCO is not necessarily in tandem with one’s motivation
for self-enhancement, because “being ‘values-driven’ does not have to mean valuing self-expression and autonomy” (Arnold & Cohen,
2008, p. 19). Thus, the logic of self-verification, or self-consistency, should not hold for the interaction between the values-driven PCO
and the self-enhancement variance involved in POS. As such, it is not surprising that the interaction effect is not significant. Caution is
needed in interpreting this, however, as the lack of significance may be attributable not only to such conceptual reasoning but also to
the measurement scale used in this research. Despite its popularity, researchers have offered some criticisms of Briscoe et al.’s (2006)
measure of values-driven PCO (Gubler et al., 2014; Porter et al., 2016). A particularly relevant issue may be that the measure does not
necessarily capture the stable, dispositional aspect of one’s career orientations but instead reflects “subjective career attitudes at a
particular point in time” (Inkson et al., 2010, p. 13, cited in Gubler et al., 2014). This point is particularly sensitive given our use of a
multiwave survey design where values-driven attitudes measured at entry (T1) might not hold through the following waves (T2 -T4).
The values-driven PCO effect could, therefore, be undermined partly as a result of the nature of the measurement used.
Second, and unexpectedly, we found that POS does not have a significant indirect effect on intention to stay via perceived career
match, since there was no direct and significant relationship between these variables. Previous studies have offered mixed views about
how researchers should position intention to stay when considering post-entry STWT processes. Some argue that intention to stay (or
turnover intention) can serve as a direct or proximal outcome of the STWT (Bauer et al., 2007; Lam et al., 2002), whereas others

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N. Takeuchi et al. Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

suggest it may be an indirect or distal outcome (Vandenberghe et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2017). Given the focus of the current research
on individual career adjustment via self-enhancement and self-verification, we aimed to evaluate the relative effect sizes of career
match and the product of POS and career match on various STWT success indicators at the same time. This is consistent with the
intention-to-stay-as-a-proximal-outcome approach. In essence, our results suggest that intention to stay has a smaller effect size
(caused by both perceived career match and its interaction term with POS) than affective organization commitment, job satisfaction,
and career growth. However, the effect of career match on the retention of young newcomers during the STWT should not be
underestimated in light of the evidence that changes in affective organizational commitment and job satisfaction lead to adverse
changes in turnover intention for this group (Vandenberghe et al., 2011).
Finally, our findings have practical implications regarding how employers and career counselors are expected to respond to young
graduate newcomers with low and high self-directed PCO. First, as estimated above, the newcomers with low self-directed PCO,
especially those in the bottom 25–28% of the distribution, have difficulty making work adjustments through alignment of their career
plans with those of their employers. Researchers argue that self-direction in careers “is not an innate trait, but (at least partly)
malleable” (Verbruggen & Sels, 2008, p. 325), and can be improved by career counseling (Verbruggen & Sels, 2008) and support from
mentors (Okurame & Fabunmi, 2014). Counselors and mentors are expected to provide their clients/mentees not only with guidance or
coaching around career choice and advancement, but also with opportunities to become more aware of their own career interests and
goals (Renn et al., 2014; Scandura & Williams, 2004). Such support during the STWT is likely to be particularly effective for student
applicants/graduate newcomers in terms of developing a belief that they can successfully manage their own careers (Renn et al., 2014).
As the newcomers’ self-directed PCO increases through such support, they will be more willing to negotiate their careers with their
employers, including asking, bending, and shaping (Bowles et al., 2019). Their enhanced self-directed PCO, in conjunction with their
employer’s support for newcomers, will then increase their career match with the organization, thus leading to a successful STWT in
the form of career adjustment.
Furthermore, our findings have suggested that young newcomers with strong self-directed PCO require substantive organizational
support from their employers so as to make a successful STWT through career match. Contrary to our findings, however, many em­
ployers and counselors tend to believe that the more self-directed an employee is, the less support he or she needs from the organi­
zation. In light of our findings in support of self-enhancement and verification theories, employers and counselors should be aware that
(1) self-directed newcomers are strongly motivated by self-enhancement needs, (2) support from the organization means feedback
from the employer, and therefore (3) their career adjustment requires high-quality support from their employers commensurate with
their strong career self-directedness.

5.2. Limitations and future research

Because our findings were based on data collected only from Japan, their generalizability to other cultural settings remains un­
known. Although traditional employment practices have been changing in Japan, there still remains a cultural norm that values long-
term stability in employment, albeit to a varying degree (Rodrigues & Guest, 2010). This may drive both organizations and individuals
to develop a sense of interdependence, which might inflate the level of perceived career match and deflate the level of self-directed
PCO. However, recent labor statistics (OECD, 2015) suggest that the average length of service of employees in a single organiza­
tion in Japan (11.9 years) is actually similar to that in many European countries, such as Germany (11.4), Belgium (11.7), France
(12.2), and Italy (12.7). On the other hand, other countries show shorter average length of service (5.3 years in the USA, 5.9 in Korea,
7.6 in Denmark, and 8.9 in the UK). Although this is a single statistical indicator that characterizes only one aspect of labor market
conditions, several European countries may face labor market situations to which this study’s findings could directly apply. However,
this limitation represents an important direction for future research incorporating additional higher-level institutional differences
beyond those of the organization (i.e., regions, countries, etc.).
Second, although our research adopted a time-lagged survey design, some of the relationships between variables were tested cross-
sectionally. Specifically, the statistical relationship between POS and career match was not a cross-lagged effect, although a time
interval was created between the two measures (i.e., POS at T2 and career match at T3). The same is also true for the moderating effect
of self-directed PCO, where we could not capture how changes in self-directed PCO during the STWT period differentiated the POS-
career match link. Again, this may constitute an important avenue for future research, given the lack of empirical work focusing on the
possible malleability of self-directed career attitudes (Gubler et al., 2014; Waters et al., 2014). In particular, little is yet known about
whether, and if so how, young newcomers develop their PCO while experiencing an important career transition. Thus, future research
should examine if self-directed PCO changes during the post-entry STWT period and the effect of any such shifts on STWT success. This
could add a developmental perspective to the analysis of individual career agency by highlighting the possible within-subject lon­
gitudinal effect of a growing agentic orientation to career management and behavior on the post-entry STWT process.
Third, our research relied on self-reported data collected only from newcomers themselves. Given that self-enhancement and self-
verification theories are broadly a part of self-evaluation theory (e.g., Anseel & Lievens, 2006), it is necessary to use subjective
measures to collect cognitive and emotional information. However, complementing this with more objective data, such as formal
feedback about participants’ career development and performance, would help organizations clarify the content and process of their
support and feedback. Moreover, collecting details of actual OSTs and other organization-driven adjustment practices from human
resource departments and/or line managers would also enable researchers to assess the cross-level effects of organization-driven
factors on newcomers’ STWT success. Thus, future studies are encouraged to replicate the current model by adopting multilevel
research designs.

18
N. Takeuchi et al. Journal of Vocational Behavior 128 (2021) 103587

5.3. Conclusions

Despite these limitations, by demonstrating the individual-driven self-enhancement pathway by which POS leads to STWT success
via career match, and by accounting for organization-driven adjustment factors, this research offers new insights into newcomers’
career adjustment process. It also clarifies the boundary condition for the career-match-as-a-mediator model as moderated by holding
a self-directed PCO, based on a self-verification explanation. Further research endeavors are recommended in order to delineate more
precisely the mechanism of young people’s STWT success and career adjustments, not merely from the traditional socialization
perspective, but also in the light of the emerging focus on individualization.

Funding

This research was supported by funding from JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (grant numbers: 21H00749, 20H01545,
18KK0351, 15K13042, 20K01828, 16K03883, and 17H02564).

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Norihiko Takeuchi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Tomokazu Takeuchi: Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Yuhee Jung: Methodology,
Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Professor Jinyan Fan for his rigorous and supportive editorial steer as well as the anonymous reviewers for
their helpful comments on the manuscript.

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