English for Mechanical Engineering

Lecturer Ioniţiu Ionela, PhD

 Introduction

So far I’ve learnt that an interactive teaching/ learning activity

that will value my students’ interventions should focus on creating a
scientific context that would stimulate the debates within my ESP
seminars and lectures.

One of the aims of these projects has been to develop

materials both for testing the second language competence of
mechanical and maritime engineers and for teaching them the
language that they require for their professional certification. I do not
assume that my users will have an in-depth knowledge of mechanical
and maritime engineering matters. Therefore, the units have been
devised to help students improve their knowledge and use of English
in an engineering environment. Each unit covers vocabulary related
to a certain topic area- ranging from basic maritime and mechanical
engineering vocabulary to conversations on board, safety at work,
types of ships and so on- and is designed to reinforce the grammar
knowledge of students and improve their communicative skills.
I come to realize that the more realistic situations and contexts
I’ll be using, the more realistic my teaching materials and methods
will become. My lectures are addressed to pre-intermediate and
intermediate students that already have a basic knowledge of English
grammar and, therefore, they are thematically-centered on developing
the reading, writing, speaking and listening abilities that they need to
communicate in their studying field. In other words, the lectures aim
to help them:

 Increase their knowledge of technical English.

 Discuss familiar things, key engineering concepts and
principles.
 Communicate with fellow students and engineers in other
countries.
 And, nevertheless, become more fluent and accurate in a
wide range of technical fields.

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Contents

1. Internal vs External Combustion

Engines……………………………………………………p. 4

2. Basic Engine Parts……………………………………...p. 17

3. Engine Problems………………………………………..p. 29

4. Maritime English……………………………………….p. 42

5. Conversations on board………………………………..p. 55

6. Safety at work – Fire safety a top concern in both Civil

and Mechanical Engineering…………………………..p. 65

7. Types of ships…………………………………………...p. 75

8. Naval architecture……………………………………...p. 85

Bibliography………………………………………………...p. 98

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 Internal vs External Combustion Engines

Warming up/ Pre-reading activities

Task 1
Look at the pictures below and state the difference between them.

Task 2
What do you think will be different about cars in the next ten years?
Take into account the following aspects:

materials design power Fuel

Vocabulary practice

External internal piston crankshaft heat

combustion combustion pump
engine engine

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Reading activities

I. Read the text below and complete the following tasks

An external combustion engine is a reciprocating engine for which
combustion takes place outside the cylinders. An early example is
the steam engine, which typically burned coal outside of the engine to
turn water into steam. The Stirling engine is an external combustion
engine that uses a working fluid to move pistons in cylinders. In
an internal combustion engine, on the other hand, a fuel is burned
inside engine cylinders. Though steam engines have largely been
replaced, Stirling engines have many potential applications.
While combustion gases do not enter the cylinders of an external
combustion engine, they must be in thermal contact with the engine
for it to function. In a steam engine, the heat from burning coal is
transferred to water through the walls of a boiler. This heat turns
water into steam, which is directed into the cylinders of the engine.
At the appropriate time, the steam pushes on a piston that turns a
crankshaft. In this way, a steam engine transforms the chemical
energy stored in coal into the mechanical energy of a rotating
crankshaft.
The external combustion engine has had a variety of applications
over the past two centuries. Steam power was used extensively in
factories as well as on ships and trains during the Industrial
Revolution, largely replacing water wheels and animal muscle as
sources of energy. While steam engines were eventually overtaken by
internal combustion engines, they remained the primary power source
into the 20th century.
The Stirling engine has been applied even more flexibly. By
converting rotational energy to electricity, it can take advantage of a
heat source for combined heat and power generation. It can also be
used in reverse as a heat pump—taking in electrical energy and
pumping away heat.
Since the Stirling engine only transfers heat, not matter, into its
cylinders, it does not require combustion to be the heat source. Other
non-combustion forms of heat, such as nuclear power, could work
equally well with this kind of engine. In fact, it has been suggested
that future nuclear power plants may incorporate the Stirling external
combustion engine to simplify the design and increase efficiency.

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1. Skim through the text in order to answer the following
questions:
a) What is the difference between external and internal
combustion engines?
b) List some of the applications of external combustion engines.
c) What seems to be the future of combustion engines?

2. Match the words in column A with their definitions in column

B

1. Internal combustion engine a. a rotating shaft driven

by (or driving) a crank
2. External combustion b. a mechanical device that
engine moves heat by pressure
or suction

3. Crankshaft c. a heat engine in which

ignition occurs outside
the chamber (cylinder or
turbine) in which heat is
converted to mechanical
energy
4. Piston d. a heat engine in which
combustion occurs
inside the engine rather
than in a separate
furnace
5. Heat pump e. mechanical device that
has a plunging or
thrusting motion

II. Read the text below and complete the following tasks.

It was like love, my fascination for those huge, noisy machines that
were already near the end of their golden age. They moved with such
magnificent purpose. They were alive, they had steam, smoke and the
smell of minerals; they burned energy without concealment, and you
could see their fire. (1) … But there was something very human
about the need to keep the fire going by hand, shovelling and
watching, never for a second being able to forget responsibility for

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the journey and the work. Their waste didn’t have to be buried in
lead-lined coffins, it was exhaled as carbon, sulphur and nitrogen, or
swept and scattered as ash, the unburnt particles of coal settling
gently on our clothes and hair.
Some instruments, some things that humans make transcend their
function. (2) … That explosive, rhythmic sound we call puffing says
more to us about getting under way, about departure, than a petrol-
driven snarl can ever do; perhaps it has something close to the beat of
our pulse. Even if we were using up and heating the earth too much,
and no-one knew that at the time, it would have been worth making
an exception for steam engines as they were stunning. (3) …
The honest power of a steam engine is overwhelming – most of its
important parts are on display. You see the great cylinder with cranks
(manivelă) and mechanisms outside it, you see the ingenious
connection of levers (pârghie) and rods to the enormous wheels and
you have already understood that this combination of things will
work, and you might even see how. Unlike a motor car or a nuclear
ship, there’s no secrecy about a steam engine’s force. What engineers
call the ‘motion’, the linked shafts (arbore, ax, osie) and pistons and
wheels that drive the engine, is as fascinating as the movement of a
watch. And almost as jewel-like, for the couplings and connecting
rods were often still chipped and filled smooth by hammer and chisel,
after they came off the milling machine (masina de frezat). Hands
still made parts of these engines, and it is no surprise that drivers
spoke of them as individuals. (4) …

1. Four sentences have been removed from the text. Select the
appropriate sentence for each gap in the text. There is one extra
sentence which you do not need to use.
A. The idea that hordes of people and commodities could be carried.
B. Last but not least, the engine was essentially a boiler held in heavy
frames on a set of steel wheels.
C. Being alive, they raced against themselves, losing more heat than
they used, running by burning their own cargo of coal.
D. That way instruments can be magical.
E. They were beautiful machines; the most beautiful machines
produced in the industrial revolution.

2. Give synonyms for the underlined words.

3. For the following questions, choose the answer (A, B, C or D)

which fits according to the text.

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1. What is one of the attractions of steam engines mentioned in the
first paragraph?
A. their connection with a previous period of history.
B. the speed at which they were capable of travelling.
C. the fact they needed people to make sure they ran properly.
D. the smell of the waste that they produced.

2. Why would it be wrong to criticize steam engines?

A. For the way they changed people’s lives.
B. For damaging the environment.
C. For being less useful than cars.
D. For the amount of noise they made.

3. The author thinks that drivers spoke of steam engines as

individuals because …
A. some of them seemed to have human characteristics.
B. it was possible to see their function from their appearance.
C. they were not wholly manufactured by machines.
D. not all of them were constructed on the same principle.

Writing and speaking activities

1. Comment on the following fragment in about 100 words: It was

like love, my fascination for those huge, noisy machines that were
already near the end of their golden age. They moved with such
magnificent purpose. They were alive, they had steam, smoke and the
smell of minerals; they burned energy without concealment, and you
could see their fire.

2. Prepare a short presentation on one of the topics:

 Your own ideal car of the future
 Fuels of the future
 Future developments in the global car market

Mixed Conditionals

Unreal conditionals (type II + III) sometimes can be mixed, that is,

the time of the if clause is different from the one of the main clause.

PAST PRESENT

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Examples:
If I had won the lottery, I would be rich.
But I didn't win the lottery in the past and I am not rich now.
If I had taken French in high school, I would have more job
opportunities.
But I didn't take French in high school and I don't have many job
opportunities.
If she had been born in the United States, she wouldn't need a visa to
work here.
But she wasn't born in the United States and she does need a visa
now to work here.

PAST FUTURE

Examples:
If she had signed up for the ski trip last week, she would be joining us
tomorrow.
But she didn't sign up for the ski trip last week and she isn't going to
join us tomorrow.
If Mark had gotten the job instead of Joe, he would be moving to
Shanghai.
But Mark didn't get the job and Mark is not going to move to
Shanghai.
If Darren hadn't wasted his Christmas bonus gambling in Las Vegas,
he would go to Mexico with us next month.
But Darren wasted his Christmas bonus gambling in Las Vegas and
he won't go to Mexico with us next month.

PRESENT PAST

Examples:
If I were rich, I would have bought that Ferrari we saw yesterday.
But I am not currently rich and that is why I didn't buy the Ferrari
yesterday.
If Sam spoke Russian, he would have translated the letter for you.
But Sam doesn't speak Russian and that is why he didn't translate the
letter.
If I didn't have to work so much, I would have gone to the party last
night.

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But I have to work a lot and that is why I didn't go to the party last
night.

FUTURE PAST

Examples:
If I weren't going on my business trip next week, I would have
accepted that new assignment at work.
But I am going to go on a business trip next week, and that is why I
didn't accept that new assignment at work.
If my parents weren't coming this weekend, I would have planned a
nice trip just for the two of us to Napa Valley.
But my parents are going to come this weekend, and that is why I
didn't plan a trip for the two of us to Napa Valley.
If Donna weren't making us a big dinner tonight, I would have
suggested that we go to that nice Italian restaurant.
But she is going to make us a big dinner tonight, and that is why I
didn't suggest that we go to that nice Italian restaurant.

1. Using the words in parentheses, complete the text below with

the appropriate conditional form.

1.a. She will take care of the children for us next weekend because
her business trip was canceled.
1.b. But, she (take, not) care of the children for us next weekend if
her business trip (be, not) canceled.

2.a. Tom is not going to come to dinner tomorrow because you

insulted him yesterday.
2.b. But, he (come) if you (insult) him.

3.a. Marie is unhappy because she gave up her career when she got
married.
3.b. But, Marie (be) happy if she (give, not)
up her career when she got married.

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4.a. Dr. Mercer decided not to accept the research grant at Harvard
because he is going to take six months off to spend more time with
his family.
4.b. But, Dr. Mercer (accept) the research grant at
Harvard if he (take, not) six months off to spend more
time with his family.

5.a. Professor Schmitz talked so much about the Maasai tribe because
she is an expert on African tribal groups.
5.b. But, Professor Schmitz (talk, not) so much
about the Maasai tribe if she (be, not) an expert on
African tribal groups.

6.a. I am unemployed because I had a disagreement with my boss and

I was fired.
6.b. But, I (be, not) unemployed if I (have,
not) a disagreement with my boss and I (be,
not) fired.

7.a. Nicole speaks Chinese fluently because she lived in China for ten
years.
7.b. But, Nicole (speak, not) Chinese fluently if she
(live, not) in China for ten years.

8.a. I will not help you study for your test because you have spent the
last two weeks partying and wasting time.
8.b. But, I (help) you study for your test if you (spend,
not) the last two weeks partying and wasting time.

9.a. Eleanor and Ben are not going skiing with us this year because

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Eleanor just had a baby.
9.b. But, Eleanor and Ben (go) skiing with us this year
if Eleanor (have, not, just) a baby.

10.a. I am completely exhausted, so I will not go with you to the

movies tonight.
10.b. But, if I (be, not) completely exhausted, I
(go) with you to the movies tonight.

11.a. She is not worried about the conference tomorrow because she
is not giving a speech.
11.b. But, she (be) worried about the conference
tomorrow if she (give) a speech.

12.a. Frank is not going to the graduation ceremony because he broke

his leg snowboarding last week.
12.b. But, Frank (go) to the graduation ceremony if he
(break) his leg snowboarding last week.

13.a. They are not releasing the prisoner next month because there
was so much public opposition to his parole.
13.b. But, they (release) the prisoner next month if
there (be) so much opposition to his parole.

14.a. The hotels filled up months in advance because the festival is

going to include jazz artists from around the globe.
14.b. But, the hotels (fill) up months in advance if
the festival (include) jazz artists from around
the globe.

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 15.a. We are not worried about the recent string of robberies in the
neighborhood because the police have started regularly patrolling the
area.
15.b. But, we (be) worried about the recent string of
robberies in the neighborhood if the police (start, not)
regularly patrolling the area.

Position/ Order of adjectives

Review:
The ORDER of adjectives is quite important in English. There is an
order of adjectives that native speakers of English normally follow.
The list below shows how the order of adjectives is usually
presented; however, there are exceptions and different combinations
depending on the situation.

OPINION APPEARANCE AGE COLOUR ORIGIN MATERIAL TYPE PURPOSE

good usually follows New red Korean Iron electric bread
bad this order: antique purple Chinese brass political bath
beautiful old pink French cotton
ugly size/measure young dark Italian gold
smart big two- green American wooden
dumb small year- navy blue vegetable
high old*
low

shape
round
circular
square

condition
broken
cracked
ripped
fresh
rotten

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*Adjectives are never plural. Therefore, when the adjective contains
a number and noun, the noun associated with the number is singular.
This is a three-year-old car. CORRECT
This is a three-years-old car. INCORRECT

1. Sometimes you need to use two or more adjectives to describe

something or someone. Choose the most natural-sounding
response:

1. He was wearing a ________ shirt.

dirty old flannel
flannel old dirty
old dirty flannel

2. Pass me the ________ cups.

plastic big blue
big blue plastic
big plastic blue

3. All the girls fell in love with the ________ teacher.

handsome new American
American new handsome
new handsome American

4. I used to drive ________ car.

a blue old German
an old German blue
an old blue German

5. He recently married a ________ woman.

young beautiful Greek
beautiful young Greek
beautiful Greek young

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6. This is a ________ movie.
new Italian wonderful
wonderful Italian new
wonderful new Italian

7. She is a ________ supermodel.

beautiful slim Brazilian
Brazilian beautiful slim
slim Brazilian beautiful

8. It's in the ________ container.

large blue metal
blue large metal
blue metal large

9. He sat behind a ________ desk.

big wooden brown
big brown wooden
wooden big brown

10. She gave him a ________ vase.

small Egyptian black
black Egyptian small
small black Egyptian

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 Basic Engine Parts

Warming up/ Pre-reading activities

Task 1
Look at the pictures below and say what they represent.

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17
Task 2
Work in groups. List as many items as you can which use electric
motors.

Vocabulary practice
camshaft; connecting rod; crankcase; crankshaft; cylinder head;
engine block; exhaust manifold; gasket; intake manifold internal;
lobe; combustion engine; oil pan; piston; piston pin; shaft; stroke;
spark plug; water jacket

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Reading activities

Read the text below to complete the following tasks

Engines are machines that convert heat energy into

mechanical energy. They can be grouped into either external
combustion engines or internal combustion engines. An internal
combustion engine is one in which fuel is burned inside the engine in
order to produce energy. Automobiles, trucks and aircrafts have
internal combustion engines.
The internal combustion engine has stationary and moving
parts. The engine block is usually the main and largest stationary part
of an engine. It is made from metal and has a number of shaped
holes. The engine block is made to contain pistons; the large holes
that the pistons move in are cylindrical in shape. The other irregular
shaped holes allow the passage of the water that is used to cool water-
cooled engines. The spaces that form this system of water passages
are called the water jacket.
There are other smaller cylindrical holes that will house such
items as the valves and the bolts that are used to hold the various
stationary engine parts together.
Another metal part, called the “head” or cylinder head is
attached to the top of the engine block. In typical medium-size
engines the cylinder head closes the upper ends of the cylinders and
forms the upper portions of the combustion chambers. The cylinder
head of most modern engines contains the spark plugs.
A cylinder head gasket is used to fill the space between the
head and the block and to prevent the loss of fluids and gases.
Because of the high temperature in the engine, it must be made of a
heat resistant material.
A fuel mixture has to be supplied to each cylinder in order for
combustion to take place. After combustion, the exhaust gases must
have a way of leaving each cylinder. This is accomplished by pipe-
like devices known as intake and exhaust manifolds.
The crankcase is that part of the engine which supports and
encloses the crankshaft, and contains a reservoir for the lubricating
oil, known as the oil pan.
The stationary parts of an engine support the moving parts.
The piston, a moving part, is fitted into each cylinder of an engine.
The piston receives the energy or force of combustion and transmits
that energy to the crankshaft through the connecting rod. The piston

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is attached to the upper end of the connecting rod by means of the
piston pins.

1. Skim through the reading to find the answer to the following

questions:
a) What is an internal combustion engine?
b) List the stationary parts of an engine.
c) What are gaskets?
d) What is the piston pin used for?
e) Where are the spark plugs found?

2. Look at the example below and complete the missing

information:

Example: piston engine

a piston engine is an engine that has one or more pistons

1. intake manifold
2. heat resistant material
3. cylinder head gasket
4. connecting rod
5. external combustion engine

3. Match the words in column A with their definitions in column

B

A B
1. Cylinder head b a. A part of the
crankshaft that
changes reciprocating
movement to rotary
movement
2. Intake manifold c b. A part that is placed
on top of the
cylinders
3. Crank a c. Pipe or tube that
carries fuel-air
mixture to the
cylinder
4. Exhaust d d. Burned gases

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 5. Lobe e e. The raised spot on
the cam
6. Valve f f. Permits or prevents
the flow of fuel-air
mixture to cylinder

4. Complete the text about diesel engines using the words in the
box

mixture; petrol; piston cylinder; spark plug; power; ignition;

torque; compression; induction/intake; fuel injector

Diesel engines differ from (1)_____________ engines in one key

respect; they are not fitted with a (2)________, in each cylinder, to
ignite fuel. This is because when a (3)________ of diesel and air is
compressed inside a hot (4)___________, it will explode
spontaneously, without the need of a spark to provide
(5)__________. A diesel engine must therefore work in a way which
prevents the diesel from exploding before the piston is at the top of
the cylinder. To achieve this, the engine takes in only air during the
(6)________ stage of the cycle. Therefore, during the (7)_________
stage, only air – and not air-fuel mixture- is pressurized. It is only at
the last instant, when full compression has occurred, that the
(8)___________ above each cylinder forces vaporized diesel into the
combustion chamber, where it ignites.

Diesel engines operate at lower speeds than petrol engines, making

them less suitable for high-speed applications. However, they are
more able to (9)______ heavy vehicles, as they can produce greater
amounts of (10)________than petrol engines.

Writing and speaking activities

Advertising plays an important role in promoting cars. Design your

own add for a car using the words in the box below:
Advanced air airbag central climate electric power sunroof
braking conditioning locking control windows assisted
system steering
(ABS) (PAS)

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Before designing it, pay attention to:
 The first impact on viewers
 Advertising media (TV, magazines, radio)
 Images (visual/ verbal)
 The slogan and the logo
 The target audience (age, profession)
 The length and the price of the campaign
 The ways of presenting the information: statistics, graphs,
metaphors, jokes

Conditionals – Type 3.
Review: Form/ Usage

Form
If + Past Perfect, main clause with Conditional II
Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an
invitation.

The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this
case, don't use a comma.

Example: I would have sent her an invitation if I had found her

address.

Usage
Conditional Sentences Type III refers to situations in the past. An
action could have happened in the past if a certain condition had been
fulfilled. Things were different then, however. We just imagine, what
would have happened if the situation had been fulfilled.

Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an

invitation.

Sometime in the past, I wanted to send an invitation to a friend. I

didn't find her address, however. So in the end I didn't send her an
invitation.

Example: If John had had the money, he would have bought a

Ferrari.

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I knew John very well and I know that he never had much money, but
he loved Ferraris. He would have loved to own a Ferrari, but he never
had the money to buy one.

1. Complete the conversation. Put in the correct form of the verb.

Use the past perfect or would have.

A: We didn’t deserve to win. It (1 – be) pretty unfair if Rangers (2 -

lose).
B: Hacker was dreadful. My grandmother (3 - score) if (4 – she/ be)
in that position.
A: And if Burley (5 – not/ be) asleep, he (not/ give) a goal away.
B: If Johnson (7 – not/ be) injured when we needed him most, (8 – it/
be) different.
A: Yes, (9 – we/ beat) them if (10 – he/ be) fit.

2. Put the correct form of the verbs in brackets into the gaps.
Form a Conditional sentence - type III.

1) If the weather (to be) nice,

they (to play) football.
2) If we (to go) to a good restaurant,
we (to have) a better dinner.
3) If John (to learn) more words,
he (to write) a good report.
4) If the boys (to take) the bus to school,
they (to arrive) on time.
5) If the teacher (to explain) the homework,
I (to do) it.
6) If they (to wait) for another 10 minutes,
they (to see) the pop star.
7) If the police (to come) earlier,
they (to arrest) the burglar.

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8) If you (to buy) fresh green vegetable, your
salad (to taste) better.
9) If Alex (to ask) me, I (to
email) the documents.
10) If he (to speak) more slowly,
Peggy (to understand) him.

3. Complete the conversation with the correct form of the verb.

Use the past simple, past perfect, would, or would have.

A: Is Trevor a practical person?

B: Trevor? No, he isn’t. If (he/ be) practical, (he/ put) those shelves
up a bit quicker. It took him ages.
A: Why are you sitting in the dark?
B: Let’s just say that if (I/ pay) my electricity bill last month, (I/ not/
be) in the dark now.
A: Why are you so angry with me? All I did yesterday was play
basketball.
B: If (you/ love) me, (you/ not/ leave) me here all alone on my
birthday.

Adjectives and adverbs

Review: The difference/ Form/ Usage

An adjective tells us more about a noun.

Example: an expensive car, a clever girl
An adverb tells us more about a verb.
Example: He talked nervously.

THE ADVERB
Form
Adjective + ly
sad sadly quiet quietly
nervous nervousl soft softly

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 y

Adjectives ending in -y »»» ily

happy happily angry angrily

Adjectives ending in -le »»» ly

terrible terribly capable capably

Adjectives ending in -ly

in a
friendly
friendly daily daily
way /
manner
in a
lively
lively early early
way /
manner
in a
lonely
lonely monthly monthly
way /
manner
in a
lovely
lovely weekly weekly
way /
manner
in a
silly
silly yearly yearly
way /
manner

Irregular forms
good well low low
fast fast straight straight
hard hard extra extra
long long doubtless doubtless

Double forms
hard hard hardly
near near nearly
late late lately

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Usage
Verb + adverb
The adverb describes a verb
Examp dro careful
He
le: ve ly.
verb adverb
Sh sold her hou quick
e se ly
verb adver
b

Adjective + adverb
The adverb describes an adjective
Examp H neckl wa horri expensi
le: er ace s bly ve.
adver adjecti
b ve
She wa terrib sorry.
s ly
adver adjecti
b ve

Adverb + adverb
The adverb describes an adverb
Examp The play terribly badly.
le: y ed
adverb adverb
He did absolut correct
his ely ly.
homewor
k
adverb adverb

No adverb with the following verbs

form am, is, are, was, were, will
s of be, have been, had been
to be:
seem get turn grow soun
d

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 look fee tast becom smell
l e e

1. This is a part of a story about a spy called X. Put in adverbs

formed from these adjectives: bright, careful, fluent, immediate,
patient, punctual, quiet, safe, secret, slow

The journey took a long time because the train traveled so

1___________. It was hot, and the sun shone 2___________ from a
clear sky. X could only wait 3________ for the journey to end. When
the train finally arrived, he had no time to spare, so he 4___________
took a taxi to the hotel. Y was on time. She arrived 5__________ at
three. No one else knew about the meeting- it was important to meet
6________. “I had a terrible journey”, said Y. “But luckily the pilot
managed to land 7_________.” Her English was good, and she spoke
very 8__________. X was listening 9___________to every word.
They were speaking very 10___________in case the room was
bugged.

2. Choose the correct word or phrase:

1. We could walk free/ freely around the aircraft during the

flight.
2. The young/ the young man with the dark hair is my sister’s
boyfriend.
3. I’m getting quite hungry/ hungrily.
4. The man looked thoughtful/ thoughtfully around the room.
5. Have I filled this form in right/ rightly?
6. I think Egypt is a fascinated/ fascinating city.
7. The two sisters do alike/ similar jobs.
8. I’m pleased the plan worked so good/ goodly/ well.
9. She invented a new kind of wheelchair for the disabled/ the
disabled people.
10. I’m very confused/ confusing about what to do.
11. They performed the experiment scientifically/ scientificly.
12. The hostages must be very afraid/ frightened people.

3. Complete the conversation. Decide if you need -ly with the

words in brackets.

27
o A: Henry was charming, as usual. He gave me a lift
back to the office, but it was (hard) worth risking our
lives to save a few minutes. He (near) killed us.
o B: What do you mean?
o A: Well, we’d sat a bit too (long) over our meal, and
we were (late) getting back to work. Henry drove very
(fast). I tried (hard) to keep calm, but I was quite
scared. We went (wrong) and missed a left turn, and
Henry got annoyed. Then a van came round the
corner, and it was coming (straight) at us. I don’t
know how we missed it.
o B: Well, I’m glad you did. And next time you’d better
take a taxi.

28
 Engine Problems

Warming up/ Pre-reading activities

Task 1

Drivers tend to get nervous whenever the "check engine" light

illuminates on their dashboard. It can signal anything from a missing
$3 gas cap to vital repairs. What would you do in these situations?

29
Task 2
How future-oriented are you? Do this quiz and find out.

1. The car will be able to make more intelligent driving

decisions than a human can
a. This is true and the result will be fewer accidents.
b. Surely there are times when people are more
intelligent than machines.
c. Driving will be no fun if I can’t think for myself.
2. There will be no more switches, only voice control.
a. Great! You don’t need to look at the dashboard any
more.
b. Some voice control is OK, but I still want some
switches.
c. I prefer switches.
3. The car will be made of self-cleaning materials.
a. No more wasting time at the car wash.
b. Aren’t we going to become very lazy?
c. But I want to clean my car! I really enjoy it!
4. Joysticks will replace steering wheels.
a. This is something new and it sounds like fun.
b. This could be OK, but it will take me a long time to
get used to it.
c. You only need one hand for a joystick. I like having
both hands on the steering wheel.
5. Sensors in the car will prevent accidents.
a. This means I can really depend on my car.
b. I would like to turn the sensors on and off when I
want.
c. What happens if the sensors don’t work?
6. Most of the tasks you do in your office you’ll be able to do in
your car.
a. This means I won’t waste any time on business trip.
b. I’m not sure if I want to think about work all the time.
c. My car is for fun and relaxing, not for work.

Mostly a’s: Congrats! You are ready for the future. You are not
afraid of change, and you see new technology as a challenge and
something positive.
Mostly b’s: You are not quite ready for the future. You are still asking

30
 yourself why changes are necessary instead of accepting that changes
are going to happen.
Mostly c’s: You are fighting against change and technology. You
seem to be afraid of what the future will bring.

Vocabulary practice

compression; spark; clog; combustion; cylinder head; gasket;

ignition; bearing; tailpipe

Reading activities

Read the text below and complete the following tasks

So you go out one morning and your engine will turn over but it
won't start... What could be wrong? Now that you know how an
engine works, you can understand the basic things that can keep an
engine from running. Three fundamental things can happen: a
bad fuel mix, lack of compression or lack of spark. Beyond that,
thousands of minor things can create problems, but these are the "big
three." Based on the simple engine we have been discussing, here is a
quick rundown on how these problems affect your engine:

Bad fuel mix - A bad fuel mix can occur in several ways:
 You are out of gas, so the engine is getting air but no fuel.
 The air intake might be clogged, so there is fuel but not
enough air.
 The fuel system might be supplying too much or too little fuel
to the mix, meaning that combustion does not occur properly.
 There might be an impurity in the fuel (like water in your gas
tank) that makes the fuel not burn.

Lack of compression - If the charge of air and fuel cannot be

compressed properly, the combustion process will not work like it
should. Lack of compression might occur for these reasons:
 Your piston rings are worn (allowing air/fuel to leak past the
piston during compression).
 The intake or exhaust valves are not sealing properly, again
allowing a leak during compression.

31
 There is a hole in the cylinder.

The most common "hole" in a cylinder occurs where the top of the
cylinder (holding the valves and spark plug and also known as the
cylinder head) attaches to the cylinder itself. Generally, the cylinder
and the cylinder head bolt together with a thin gasket pressed
between them to ensure a good seal. If the gasket breaks down, small
holes develop between the cylinder and the cylinder head, and these
holes cause leaks.

Lack of spark - The spark might be nonexistent or weak for a

number of reasons:
 If your spark plug or the wire leading to it is worn out, the
spark will be weak.
 If the wire is cut or missing, or if the system that sends a
spark down the wire is not working properly, there will be no spark.
 If the spark occurs either too early or too late in the cycle (i.e.
if the ignition timing is off), the fuel will not ignite at the right time,
and this can cause all sorts of problems.

Many other things can go wrong. For example:

 If the battery is dead, you cannot turn over the engine to start
it.
 If the bearings that allow the crankshaft to turn freely are
worn out, the crankshaft cannot turn so the engine cannot run.
 If the valves do not open and close at the right time or at all,
air cannot get in and exhaust cannot get out, so the engine cannot run.
 If someone sticks a potato up your tailpipe, exhaust cannot
exit the cylinder so the engine will not run.
 If you run out of oil, the piston cannot move up and down
freely in the cylinder, and the engine will seize.

In a properly running engine, all of these factors are within tolerance.

1. Work in pairs. Skim through the text in order to answer the

following questions.

32
 a. Which are the three basic things that could stop an
engine from running?
b. Which are the factors that lead to lack of
compression?
c. List the reasons that cause lack of spark.
d. What is the purpose of the gasket?

2. Match the words in column A with their definitions in column

B

A B
1. Compression the closed end of an engine
or pump cylinder
2. Spark a piece of rubber or some
other material that is used to
make a tight seal between
two parts that are joined
together
3. Clog the electrical system in an
engine that causes the fuel to
burn so that the engine
begins working
4. Combustion a connector (usually a
support) that permits the
connected members to rotate
or to move in a straight line
relative to one another.
5. Cylinder head an outlet by which engine
exhaust gases are expelled
from a vehicle (as an
automobile or jet aircraft)
6. Gasket become or cause to become
obstructed
7. Ignition a small fragment of a
burning substance thrown
out by burning material or
by friction
8. Bearing the act of burning something
9. Tailpipe applying pressure

33
Writing activities

1. Write down three reasons for and three reasons against

owning cars.
2. Think about the engine in a vehicle you are familiar with.
Describe specific aspects of it, such as: the type of fuel it uses,
the number of cylinder it has, and how much power and
torque it produces.

Passives
Review: Usage / Form

Usage
Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not
important or not known, however, who or what is performing the
action.

Example: My bike was stolen.

In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was
stolen. I do not know, however, who did it.

Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as

the following example shows:

Example: A mistake was made.

In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not
blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake).

Form

Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle

Example: A letter was written.

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

 the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the
passive sentence
 the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
 the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the
passive sentence (or is dropped)

34
Examples of Passive

Tense Subject Verb Object

Simple Active: Rita writes a letter.
Present
Passive: A letter is written by Rita.
Simple Active: Rita wrote a letter.
Past Passive: A letter was written by Rita.
Present Active: Rita has written a letter.
Perfect Passive: A letter has been written by Rita.
Future I Active: Rita will write a letter.
Passive: A letter will be written by Rita.
can Active: Rita can write a letter.
Passive: A letter can be written by Rita.

Examples of Passive
Tense Subject Verb Object
Present Progressive Active: Rita is writing a letter.

Passive: A letter is being written by Rita.

Past Progressive Active: Rita was writing a letter.
Passive: A letter was being written by Rita.
Past Perfect Active: Rita had written a letter.
Passive: A letter had been written by Rita.
Future II Active: Rita will have written a letter.
Passive: A letter will have been written by Rita.
Conditional I Active: Rita would write a letter.
Passive: A letter would be written by Rita.
Conditional II Active: Rita would have written a letter.
Passive: A letter would have been written by Rita.

Passive Sentences with Two Objects

35
Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means
that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains
an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what
you want to put the focus on.

Subject Verb Object 1 Object 2

Active: Rita wrote a letter to me.
Passive: A letter was written to me by Rita.
Passive: I was written a letter by Rita.

1. Put in the correct form of the verb in Passive into the gaps. Use
the verb and the tense given in brackets.

1) The words by the teacher today. (to explain -

Simple Present)
2) We a letter the day before yesterday. (to send
- Simple Past)
3) This car . It's too old. (not/to steal - will-
future)
4) This street because of snow. (already/to close
- Present Perfect)
5) A new restaurant next week. (to open - will-
future)
6) He to the party yesterday. (to invite - Simple
Past)
7) The blue box . (can/not/to see - Simple
Present)
8) I the book by my friend last Sunday. (to give
- Simple Past)
9) The dishes by my little brother. (not/to wash -
Present Perfect)
10) I by Robert. (not/to ask - will-future)

36
2. Rewrite each sentence using the passive, starting with the
words given:

1. The children’s grandparents looked after them.

The children……
2. My assistant is dealing with this matter.
This matter….
3. They have accounted for all the survivors of the accident.
All the….
4. Customers must pay for any breakages.
All breakages…
5. You can’t rely on Tony to finish the work on time.
Tony can’t…
6. Someone had broken into her apartment during the night.
Her apartment…..
7. People often look on scientists as experts.
Scientists….
8. People might refer to him as “technophobic”.
He…
9. Electronics might intimidate some people, but not me.
Some…

Inversion

1. Inversions with "so", "neither" and "nor"

When "so", "neither" and "nor" are used to make short agreements
they are followed by an inversion.

"I am not into hip hop."

"Neither am I." (Or: "Nor am I.")
"I am fond of flamenco dancing."
"So am I."

Or they can be used in the following way (also including an

inversion).

Jennifer buys only organic fruit and vegetables, and so does Hugh.
They don't mind the higher prices, and neither do we. (Or: ...nor do
we.)

2. Inversions after negative adverbials

37
There are some words and phrases that function as adverbials that
sometimes need an inversion. Look at these two sentences.

Bob rarely speaks to himself.

Rarely does Bob speak to himself.

The adverb here is "rarely". If it comes after the subject, there is no

inversion (as in the first sentence), but if it comes before the subject,
we need an inversion. The word order is inverted and in the case of
the sentence about Bob we use the auxiliary verb "does" in the same
way we do in questions (although this isn't a question).
The sentence with the inversion sounds more formal or more literary,
and sentences like this are less common in ordinary conversation.

The following three are used to describe an event that happened

immediately after another.

Hardly had he stepped outside when it started to rain.

Scarcely had he stepped outside when it started to rain.
No sooner had he stepped outside than it started to rain.

Note that the past perfect tense is used to describe the event that
happened first.

The following sentences with "only" include inversions. Note that it

is not always the first verb that is inverted.

Only after he arrived at the airport did he look for his passport.
Only if you look through this dark glass will you be able to see the
spots on the sun.
We accepted the invitation. Only later did we suspect it might be a
trap.
Only by threatening extreme physical violence was the teacher able
to control the class.

3 Conditionals with inversions

In conditional (hypothetical) sentences we can sometimes drop "if"

and use an inversion.

38
Should you see Nigel, give him my regards.
Were I in your shoes, I would make a formal complaint.
Had I known it was her birthday, I would have bought her a gift.

Note that "should", "were" and "had" are the only verbs that can be
inverted in this way. (And "were" is also used with he, she and it.)

4. Inversions with "as"

Elisabeth was too shy to dance, as was Gerald.

She decided to leave early, as did Gerald.

In these sentences "as" indicates the similarity between two things.

5. Inversions with "so" and "such"

So excited were they that they couldn't sit still.

Such was their excitement that they began to jump up and down.

Note that "so" is followed by an adjective and "such" can be replaced

by "so great" (So great was their excitement that...).

1. The following are the sort of multiple choice grammar. They

may (or may not) include inversions. See if you can get them
right.

1) Thank goodness ___ hurt in the train accident.

didn’t more people get
didn’t get more people
more didn’t get people
more people didn’t get

2) The study showed _____ for maternal and child health.

how is nutrition important
how important nutrition is
that how important nutrition is

39
 that how nutrition is important

3) Only by working three jobs _____ able to support his large family.
he was
he is
he's being
was he

4) The boss didn’t know what to do, _____ the rest of us.
so did
either
neither
nor did

5) It was not until Andrew stopped smoking ____ healthy again.

did he feel
that he started to feel
then he felt
that he did feel

6) ___ you see Frank at the conference, give him my regards.

Should
Would
Might
Could

7) Strange ___ , he chose not to undergo surgery.

may it seem
as may it seem
was it that
as it may sound

40
8) Try ___ he could not save the drowning woman.
did he hard
as he might
as hard as
though he did

9) So ___ that she licked the plate clean.

being hungry
great her hunger
hungry was she
had she hunger

10) Effie disliked the film, ___.

as did Frank
and also disliked it Frank
nor Frank
so Frank did

11) ___ the medicine than she began to feel better.

Not until she swallowed
Hardly did she swallow
No sooner had she swallowed
Having swallowed

12) Only by speaking more ___ improve your fluency in English.

you are able to
is it possible to
does
will it

41
 Maritime English: Basic Terms and Vocabulary

This unit presents some key basic vocabulary related to parts of ships
and positions in ships and words of rank and onboard tasks.

Warming up / Pre-reading activities

Task 1
1. Look at the picture below and use these words to name the
parts of the ship (a–h).

Stern keel rudder bows davit container bridge propeller

Task 2
1. Ask students to name ranks and jobs on board ship.

Vocabulary practice

42
Study the table below
Stern The back part of a boat or ship
(pupa)
Dock to haul or guide into or alongside
a dock
Galley The kitchen of a ship or airplane
Berthing areas a place to sleep on a ship, train
Cargo something that is carried from
one place to another by boat,
airplane
Keel The chief structural member of a
boat or ship that extends
longitudinally along the center of
its bottom and that often projects
from the bottom
Rudder a flat, movable piece usually of
wood or metal that is attached to
a ship, boat, airplane, etc., and is
used in steering
Bow The forward part of a ship —
often used in plural <crossing
the bows> (prova)
Davit a crane that projects over the
side of a ship or a hatchway and
is used especially for boats,
anchors, or cargo
Bridge The forward part of a ship's
superstructure from which the
ship is navigated
Propeller a device with two or more blades
that turn quickly and cause a
ship or aircraft to move

Read the texts below and complete the following tasks

1. Ships are generally organized into three departments (Deck,

Engineering and Stewards). The deck department has responsibility
for ship handling and general maintenance. The engineering

43
department deals with propulsion. The stewards department handles
supplies and living quarters. The full range of ranks is provided here.
Though not all ships will have all these positions and some ships will
have more than those listed here.

Deck department
Officers:
• Master
• Chief Officer / Chief mate
• Second Officer
• Third Officer
• Boatswain

Unlicensed mariners:
• Able seaman
• Ordinary seaman

Engineering department
Officers:
• Chief engineer
• Second Engineer /First assistant engineer
• Third Engineer / second assistant engineer
• Fourth Engineer / Third assistant engineer
• Fifth engineer / Junior engineer

Unlicensed mariners:
• Oiler
• Greaser
• Wiper
• Utilityman
• Machinist
• Tankerman

Steward’s department
• Chief steward
• Chief Cook
• Stewards assistant

(On a cargo ship all three of these jobs are usually done by
unlicensed mariners)

44
2. Ordinary Seamen work in all departments: deck, engineering and
stewarding. They help with docking and undocking and sometimes
stand watch. Most of the time Ordinary Seamen maintain the vessel;
chipping, scraping and painting. They also clean the vessel’s interior
and help in the galley.
Living conditions for Ordinary Seamen are different from ship to
ship. On large ships Ordinary Seamen have private rooms and share
bathrooms. Smaller ships have multiple berthing areas.
With experience an Ordinary Seaman can get promotion to Able
Seaman.

3. A: Marseille Port Control, Marseille Port Control, Marseille Port

Control. This is container ship Sandpiper 1763 on Channel 4, over.
B: Sandpiper, this is Marseille Port Control. Go ahead, over.
A: Marseille Port Control this is Sandpiper. Information: My ETA is
10.15, over.
B: Sandpiper, this is Marseille Port Control, Question: what is your
cargo? Over.
A: Marseille Port Control, this is sandpiper. Answer: we have one
thousand five hundred containers on board. There is no dangerous
cargo, over.

1. Skim through the texts and answer the following questions:

1. How is the crew organized?
2. What do you think is the difference between an unlicensed mariner
and an officer?

3. Which are the three things Ordinary Seamen do to maintain a

vessel?
4) What word in the text means ‘inside’?
5) What terms in the text mean crews quarters? (2 words)
6) What word means to go up a rank?
7) What do you think ETA stands for?

2. Write down the Maritime English words for the following:

1. Wall
2. Bed

45
 3. Floor
4. Room
5. Kitchen
6. Canteen
7. Tap
8. Corridor
9. Steering wheel
10. National flag

3. Fill in the blanks with the right words from the box:

Pump out remove keep push will be

distributed sit down drink clear join
will get hold on enter obey fire is

1. ___________ lifeboat/ liferaft only when ordered by an

officer.
2. ___________ entrance of the lifeboat/ liferaft when entering.
3. Do not _______ each other when entering the lifeboat.
4. _________ ropes or to your seat when lowering/ hoisting.
5. ________ in the lifeboat immediately.
6. ________ your lifejackets on.
7. Do not _________ your head covering.
8. ______ the water.
9. Provisions and drinking water ______ by an officer.
10. Everybody ________ the same ration of provisions and water.
11. Warning! Do not _______ sea water whatever the situation.

46
 12. Strictly _________ all instructions given by your officer.
13. Discipline in lifeboat __________ of vital importance.
14. _______ rockets to attract attention.
15. _________ the other lifeboats.

4. Briefing crew and passengers. Fill in the blanks with the words
listed below:
danger, watch-keepers, assembly stations, minor fire, cabin,
announcement, safety reasons, fire parties, bridge, lifejackets, escape
routes, muster list

This is your Captain speaking. We have a (1)_________ in the

engine room. There is no immediate (2)________ to crew,
passengers or vessel- and there is no reason to be alarmed. For
(3)________ I request all crew members to go to their
(4)_________. All officers to report to the (5)_________.
(6)_________ remain at stations until further order. As soon as I
have further information I will make another (7)_________ -
there is no danger at this time. (8)_________ are fighting the fire.
This is your Captain speaking. I have another announcement: The
fire is not under control yet. Leave the (9)_______ immediately-
close all openings. Take (10)_______ with you. Take your
emergency equipment with you according to (11)________.
Follow (12)______ shown.

Writing / Speaking activities

47
 1. Imagine you are the captain of a cruise liner and your crew
and passengers are exposed to extreme weather conditions.
Write about the steps you should follow when in charge of
such a vessel.
2. Career profile: Marine Engineer or Deck Officer. Select one
of the professions mentioned and write about the
responsibilities or duties, qualities, preparations or training
you need for the job.
Linking verbs: be, appear, seem, become, get, etc.
Review
A linking verb is a verb which connects a subject to
its predicate without expressing an action. A linking verb is used to
re-identify or describe its subject.
The word, phrase, or clause which follows a linking verb to re-
identify or describe the subject is called the subject complement.

Example: She seemed unable to concentrate.

A List of Linking Verbs

The most common linking verb is the verb to be. Other common ones
relate to the five senses (to look, to feel, to smell, to sound, and to
taste). Here is a list of common linking verbs:

to be to come
to appear to get
to become to grow
to feel to turn into
to look
to seem
to smell
to sound
to taste

Examples of Linking Verbs Used to Re-identify the Subject

48
Here are some examples of linking verbs (shaded) re-identifying the
subject:

Alan is a beast.
His father was the headmaster.
This project is a disaster
.

Examples of Linking Verbs Modifying (Describing) the Subject

Here are some examples of linking verbs (shaded) modifying the

subject:

 Alan seems drunk.

 The soup smells delicious.
 His voice sounds flat
.

Linking Verbs Are Not Action Verbs

The verbs to be, to become, and to seem are always linking verbs.
They always link the subject to the predicate to re-identify or describe
it. However, the other verbs in the list above are not always linking
verbs. Remember, linking verbs do not express an action. However,
some of the verbs in our list can express an action. For example:

He smells the soup. (In this example, smells is not a linking verb. This
time, it is an action verb. It has taken a direct object. He is doing
something to the soup.)

Tony smells awful. (In this example, smells is a linking verb. It links
the subject Tony to the adjective awful to modify Tony.)

Here is another example:

The inspector will feel the fabric. (In this example, will feel is not a
linking verb. This time, it is an action verb. It has taken a direct

49
object. The inspector will do something to the fabric.)

The fabric will feel soft. (In this example, will feel is a linking verb. It
links the subject The fabric to the adjective soft.)

Linking Verbs in the Passive Voice and Progressive Tense

The verb to be is used to form the passive voice and the progressive
tenses. For example:

He was painted.(This is the passive voice.)

He is complaining. (This is the present progressive tense.)

As past participles (here, painted) and present participles

(here, complaining) are classified as adjectives, the constructions
above are no different from these:

He was happy.
He is happy.

Therefore, the "to be" part of a passive construction

(here, was painted) and a verb tense (here, is complaining) can be
considered a linking verb.

1. Underline the verbs in the following sentences and tell whether

they are action or linking verbs.
1. The ghost appeared in the doorway.
2. The child appeared tired.
3. Bill became the president of the student council.
4. The cloth on the table felt soft and fuzzy.
5. Jeannie grows taller every day.
6. The tree grows every day.
7. John felt sick after lunch.
8. The leftover food from the picnic smelled rotten.
9. Steve smelled the flowers.
10. Please stay in the house.
11. Mom tasted the soup.
12. The soup tasted salty.

50
13. Jenny looks at the pictures in the book.
14. Jenny looks beautiful in that dress.
15. The radio sounded the emergency alarm.

2. Complete the sentences with went or turned (into) and one of

the following words or phrases. If either verb is possible, write
them both.

bald black dead a film forty missing white wild

1. Just like his father, he ______before he was thirty.

2. Having now________, he feels that his footballing career is
coming to an end.
3. I was so dirty, the water in the bath ____________as soon as I
stepped into it.
4. When I picked up the receiver, the line _______.
5. When we broke the news to Val, her face __________ and she
collapsed.
6. The jewels _____________ at the exactly the same time as the
child vanished.
7. Her latest novel, The Inner Limits, is to be ________.
8. When Germany scored for a seventh time, the crowd __________
with excitement.

3. Underline the correct or more likely alternative.

1. Sorry I’m late. I became/ got lost.
2. Although he was young, he became/ got regarded by people as
their leader.
3. He wouldn’t let me get a word in and it became/ got a bit irritating
in the end.
4. It’s time to go to school. Become/ get ready quickly.
5. She became/ got a minister in the government in 1981.
6. As the microscope was focused, the bacteria became/ got visible.
7. The children became/ got really excited on Christmas Eve.
8. As his condition worsened his speech became/ got unintelligible.

Reflexive and emphatic pronouns

Review: Form/ Usage

Reflexive pronouns

51
Reflexive pronouns are formed by the addition of the
suffix self (singular) or selves (plural) to simple pronouns such as
my, your, her, him, it, them and our.

My + self = Myself
Your + self = Yourself
Our + selves = Ourselves
Them + selves = Themselves
It + self = Itself

When the subject and the object refer to the same person, a reflexive
pronoun is used for the object.

I cut myself. (Here the subject and the object refer to the same person
– I.)
You cut yourself. (Here the subject and the object refer to the same
person – you.)
She cut herself. (Here the subject and the object refer to the same
person – she.)
The child cut itself.
We cut ourselves.

Note: When self is used independently, it is a noun and not a

pronoun.

An honest man keeps his self free from all vices.

One’s self is always more important to one than anything else.

Emphatic pronouns

When reflexive pronouns are used to put emphasis on a particular

noun they are called emphatic pronouns.

He himself told me this.

I finished the job myself.
They themselves admitted their mistake.
We ourselves witnessed the accident.

Notes:
The emphatic pronouns cannot be used as subjects. It is therefore
wrong to say:

52
John and myself went there.
Herself swam in the river.
I invited herself to tea.

The correct sentences are as follows:

John and I went there.

She swam in the river.
I invited her to tea.

Difference between reflexive and emphatic pronouns

A pronoun is a reflexive one if the action of the subject reflects upon

the doer. Emphatic pronouns, on the other hand, are used to just
emphasize the action of the subject.

He cut himself. (Reflexive: here the subject and object refer to the
same person.)
He himself cut the cake. (Emphatic: here the emphatic pronoun
himself merely puts emphasis on the noun he.)
I spoke to the principal myself. (Emphatic)
You must blame yourself for the loss. (Reflexive)

Note that an emphatic pronoun can be removed from the sentence and
the core meaning would not be affected. A reflexive pronoun, on the
other hand, is indispensable. The sentence wouldn’t make complete
sense if you remove the reflexive pronoun.

Compare:

He himself cut the cake. He cut the cake.

He cut himself. He cut …what?

You will have noticed that in the first pair of sentences, the core
meaning doesn’t change when the emphatic pronoun himself is
removed from the sentence. In the second pair of sentences, the
meaning changes or becomes incomplete when the reflexive pronoun
is removed.

Notes:
If the reflexive pronoun in a sentence is replaced by the reciprocal

53
pronoun ‘each other’, the meaning of the sentence changes
drastically.

Compare:

John and Peter blamed themselves for the loss. (John blamed himself
and Peter blamed himself.)
John and Peter blamed each other for the loss. (John blamed Peter
and Peter blamed John.)

1. Tell which pronouns in the following sentences are reflexive

and which are emphatic.
1. I will do it myself.
2. John hurt himself while he was jogging in the park.
3. He himself made the remark.
4. I wash myself when I get up.
5. The boys fooled themselves.
6. We have got ourselves into a mess.
7. Susie killed herself.
8. We enjoyed ourselves at the party.
9. You have set yourself an unattainable goal.
10. We exerted ourselves.
11. A house divided against itself cannot stand.
12. You always think about yourself.
14. He was sitting by himself.
15. I cannot bring myself to do it.
16. The poor woman poisoned herself.
17. I myself did the job.
18. They gave themselves a lot of trouble.

2. A group of friends are going on a coach trip together. They are

meeting at the coach stop. Complete the conversation. Put in the
personal pronoun (I, me, you, etc) or a reflexive pronoun (myself,
yourself).

A: Where is Martin?
B: He is ill. I spoke to 1______ yesterday. He was feeling a bit sorry
for 2__________.
A: Oh, poor Martin. And what about the twins?
B: 3___________came with Janet and me. 4___________gave
5________ a lift.
A: Yes, the twins came with 6________ in the car.

54
B: I hope they are going to behave 7___________.
A: Oh, I’m sure they will.
B: 8_________’ll be nice to have a day out. 9______ say it’s going to
stay sunny.
A: I’m sure we’ll all enjoy 10_________.
B: Where’s Anna?
A: Oh, she‘s here somewhere. I spoke to 11_________ a moment
ago. She was standing right next to12 __________.

Conversations on Board: Emergency Actions, Standard

Wheel and Engine Orders.
Warming up/ Pre-reading activities
Task 1
Do this quiz to test your knowledge of marine emergency procedures.

1) Which is the VHF channel for emergencies?

2) What colour flare signals distress?
3) With what code words do you start a call for an urgent safety
message?

4) What is a Mayday relay?

a) when there is more than one emergency
b) when you transmit a distress message for another person
c) a VHF network

5) Who do you send a Mayday call to?

a) the coastguard
b) the nearest ship
c) everyone

Vocabulary practice

man overboard, fire on board, collisions with other vessels and with
static objects like jetties, illness and disease on board, piracy,
leaking, sinking, damage done by weather, attacks by animals / fish,
OoW, starboard, buoy

55
Reading activities
Read the texts below and complete the following tasks

1. Wheel orders are given by the Officer of the Watch to the

helmsman. The normal procedure is for the helmsman to repeat the
order. All wheel orders are held until a new order is received. The
helmsman reports immediately if the vessel does not respond (answer
the wheel).

2. There are three levels of emergency and they are announced by

different call signs:

 Mayday (repeated three times) is used for ‘grave and

imminent danger to life or vessel’.
 Pan-pan (repeated three times) is for ‘an emergency on
board but no immediate danger to anyone’s life or to
the vessel’.
 Sécurité (repeated three times) is the least urgent and
it is used for ‘important safety information’. The
emergency VHF channel is almost always Channel 16.

3. Emergency call: part one

Captain of Ligari: May day, May day, May day. All stations, all
stations, all stations. This is Ligari, Ligari, Ligari. May day. Over.
Ulsan coast guard: Hello Ligari. This is Ulsan Coast Guard. Channel
one six. Question: What is the nature of your emergency? Over.
Captain of Ligari: Ulsan, this is fishing vessel Ligari. We are taking
on water very fast and we have got dead batteries. Request immediate
assistance. Over.
Ulsan coast guard: Fishing vessel Ligari. This is Ulsan coast guard.
Question: What is your position? Over.
Captain of Ligari: Hello Ulsan. We are in the Japan Sea, about twenty
kilometres North-West of Busan. Over.

Emergency call part two:

Ulsan coast guard: Thank you Ligari. Confirm: twenty kilometers
North-West of Busan. Over.
Captain of Ligari: Affirmative Ulsan. Over.
Ulsan coast guard: Ligari, this is Ulsan coast guard. Question: How
many are on board? Over.
Captain of Ligari: Ulsan. Answer: Crew of three. Over.

56
Ulsan coast guard: Ligari. This is Ulsan coastguard. We are coming
to your assistance. Stand by on channel one six. Over.
Captain of Ligari: Ulsan. I’m standing by on channel one six.

1. Skim through the texts to answer the following questions:

1. When a helmsman receives an order what does he do?

2. Which are the three levels of emergency?
3. What is the frequency of the emergency channel?

4. What were the emergencies reported by the captain of Ligari?

5. What was the ship’s position?

2. Match the orders in column A with their meanings in column

B.

1. ‘Full ahead both’ a. Stay on the heading

given earlier

2. ‘Dead slow astern’ b. Hold rudder in the fore

and aft position

3. ‘Stand by engine’ c. Reduce the amount of

rudder to 20°

4. ‘Bow thrust half to port’ d. Reverse very slowly

5. ‘Midships’ e. Maximum speed for two

engines

6. ‘Ease to twenty’ f. Get ready

7. ‘Steady as she goes’ g. Move the ship’s head to

port on 50% power

3. Choose the correct words in the brackets to complete these

wheel and engine orders.

Wheel orders
OoW: Steer starboard five.

57
 Helmsman: (To steer/Steering/Steered) starboard five sir.
OoW: Hard- (to/the/a) -port.
OoW: (Reduce/Easy/Lower) to one-five and steady as she goes.
Helmsman: Steady (to/on/by) one-five sir.
OoW: Keep the buoy on the port side.
Helmsman: (Keep/Kept/Keeping) buoy on port side sir.

Engine orders
OoW: Stand (to/by/on) engine room.
Engineer: Engine room standing (to/by/on), sir.
OoW: (Slow astern/Reverse slowly/Go backwards).
Engineer: (Going slowly backwards/Astern slow/Slowly astern), sir.
OoW: Stop engines.
Engineer: (Engines stopping/Stop engines/I stop the engines), sir.
OoW: (Dead/Very/Really) slow ahead.
Engineer: (Going/Dead/Very) slow (forwards/ahead/in front), sir.
OoW: (Full ahead/Maximum speed/Top speed).

4. Briefing crew and passengers. Fill in the blanks with the words
listed below:
danger, watch-keepers, assembly stations, minor fire, cabin, announcement
safety reasons,fire parties, bridge, lifejackets, escape routes, muster list

This is your Captain speaking. We have a (1)_________ in the

engine room. There is no immediate (2)________ to crew,
passengers or vessel- and there is no reason to be alarmed. For
(3)________ I request all crew members to go to their
(4)_________. All officers to report to the (5)_________.
(6)_________ remain at stations until further order. As soon as I
have further information I will make another (7)_________ -
there is no danger at this time. (8)_________ are fighting the fire.
This is your Captain speaking. I have another announcement: The
fire is not under control yet. Leave the (9)_______ immediately-

58
 close all openings. Take (10)_______ with you. Take your
emergency equipment with you according to (11)________.
Follow (12)______ shown.

Writing activities

1. Attempted hijacking: 5 pirates with automatic weapons attacked a

tanker in the Aden gulf. They boarded the vessel. They attacked the
Master, Chief engineer and Radio Officer and stole $ 7000.
Wish and if only.
Review: Usage/ Form
Use of I wish / if only:
There are three distinct types of I wish / if only sentences:

 Wish, wanting change for the present or future with the

simple past.
 Regret with the past perfect.
 Complaints with would + verb.

1. Expressing a wish:

Form:

If only / I wish + simple past

Example:

If only I knew how to use a computer. (I don’t know how to use a

computer and I would like to learn how to use it)

Usage:

 To express a wish in the present or in the future.

 The simple past here is an unreal past.

When you use the verb to be the form is “were”.

Example:

59
I wish I were a millionaire!

2. Expressing regret:

Form:

If only / I wish + past perfect

Example:
If only I had woken up early. (I didn't wake up early and I missed my
bus.)
Usage:

 To express a regret.
 The action is past.

3. Complaining:

Form:

I wish / if only + would + verb

Example:

I wish you wouldn't arrive so late all the time (I'm annoyed because
you always come late and I want you to arrive on time)

Usage:

 To complain about a behavior that you disapprove.

 Expressing impatience, annoyance or dissatisfaction with a
present action.

1. Decide whether these statements express a "wish" or a

“regret":

1) I wish I could fly.

2) If only she had seen the doctor earlier. He could have saved
her.
3) If only I traveled to New York.
4) I wish I were a doctor.

60
 5) If only I met him earlier.

2. Fill in the gaps with the correct form of the verbs in brackets:
1) Alice didn't get a good grade. She wishes she (work)
……. harder.
2) Tom likes football very much. He wishes he (become)
………. a professional football player.
3) He was running very fast when he had a heart attack. If only
he (not/run) …… so fast.
4) She's keen on computers. She wishes she (study)
……. computer science next school year.
5) I am sorry I don’t know how to use the computer. If only I
(know) ……. how to use it.
6) I stayed late at work and missed the last bus. I wish I
(not/stay) ……. at work late
7) I wish I (talk) ……. to him
yesterday.
8) I need help badly. If only you (can)
…… help me.
9) My old car often breaks down. I wish I (buy)
….. a new car.
10) He didn't pass the exam. If only he (work)
….. hard.
11) She was absent. I wish she (attend) ….. the conference.
12) What a beautiful house! I wish I (have)
… a house like this one.
13) I wish I (be) ….. rich. I would
buy a farm and enjoy the calm of the countryside.
14) They had that bad accident because they were careless. If only
they (be) ….. more careful.
15) We saw the film. I wish you (see)
…. it with us. It was an amazing evening.
16) I like traveling around the world. If only I (have)
….. time to realize my dream.

To infinitive /vs/ Bare infinitive.

Review: Form/ Usage
The infinitive of a verb is its basic form with or without the
particle to:

61
Examples:

'do' or 'to do'

'be' or 'to be'

The infinitive without to is called bare infinitive ('do', 'be')

The infinitive with to is called full infinitive ('to do', 'to be')

1. The bare infinitive

Usage
The bare infinitive is used as the main verb after the dummy auxiliary
verb do, or most modal auxiliary verbs (such as will, can, or should.)

Examples:

I do know him
I do like you.
I can do it.

Several common verbs of perception, including see, watch, hear, feel,

and sense take a direct object and a bare infinitive.

Examples:

I saw it happen
I watched it happen

The bare infinitive is also used with several common verbs of

permission or causation, including make, bid, let, and have.

Example:

I made/bade/let/had him do it.

(However, make takes a to-infinitive in the passive voice.
I was made to do it.

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The bare infinitive is also used after had better.

Example:

You had better leave now

The verb help is followed by the bare infinitive.

Example:

He helped them do it. ("He helped them to do" it is also possible)

With the word why.

Example:

Why say it?

2. The full infinitive

Usage
The full infinitive is used as follows:
The full infinitive can function as a noun phrase. In this case it is
used as follows.

As a subject.

Examples:

To err is human, to forgive is divine.

As an object.

Examples:

I intended to marry her.

He wanted to know the whole truth.

It can also be used like an adjective or adverb.

Examples:

63
This is the game to watch. (to watch functions as an adjective,
modifying the noun game)
This is the problem to think about. (to think about functions as an
adjective modifying the noun 'the problem')
He went to his friend's house to study. (to study functions as an
adverb answering the question why he went to his friend's house)
He is ready to go. (to go functions as an adverb, modifying the
adjective 'ready'.)

It is used to mean "in order to" to express purpose

Examples:
You need to exercise regularly to lose weight. (...in order to
lose weight)
He works hard to earn a lot of money. (...in order to earn a lot of
money)

1. Choose the correct form (infinitive with or without to).

1) I can …. English. (speak/ to speak)
2) We have …. our homework. (do/ to do)
3) You must ….. at home. (stay/ to stay)
4) I will …. you. (help/ to help)
5) He cannot ….. us. (see/ to see)
6) My little sister learns …... (speak/ to speak)
7) They want ….. to the cinema. (go/ to go)
8) You should ….. your parents. (ask/ to ask)
9) I'd like ….. a dog. (have/ to have)
10) May we …. in? (come/ to come)

2. There is at least one mistake in each sentence. Suggest

appropriate corrections.

1. She longed the holidays to come so that she could be with her
family again.
2. I overheard say that he’s thinking of moving to Manchester.
3. We watched to play football until it started to rain.
4. My parents encouraged work hard at school.
5. I think we should let them to stay until the weekend.
6. Sam promised me to show me how to fish for salmon, but he
never had the time.

64
 7. I hear her tell that she’s got a new job. (someone told me
about it)
8. This card entitles to take an extra person with you free.
9. They let them to borrow their car while they were on holiday

Safety at work: Fire Safety – a top concern in both Civil

and Mechanical Engineering.

Warming up/ Pre-reading activities

Task 1
Look at the pictures and list the safety equipment the operator is
wearing/ should have worn to avoid catastrophes/ injuries/ casualties.

Vocabulary practice:
Study the following table
Safety helmet, ear muff, ear plugs,

65
safety gloves, safety shoes with
steel toe caps, overalls, fume
mask, dust mask, safety goggles,
welding glasses
Risks and hazards Combustion, contamination,
drains, dust, explosion,
flammable, friction, fumes,
fumigation, gas, harmful, shock,
spraying, toxic, vapour
Effects Adverse effects, burn, cancer,
dizziness, genetic damage,
impair infertility, irreversible
effects, vomiting
Protective measures Avoid contact with, dispose of,
dry, handle, keep precautionary,
protect, recycle, rinse, seal
tightly, wash, well-ventilated

Reading activities

I. Skim through the text in order to answer the following

questions
Procedures for safe working practice
 Think safety, try to predict, avoid and eradicate hazards.
 The following protection must be worn prior to entering a
machine space: skin protection, protective clothing, footwear
with slip and oil resistant soles, ear defenders and hard hat.

66
  Check where repair work and maintenance work is in
progress and ensure correct warning signs are in position.
 Do not run in a machinery space.
 Ensure visitors are suitably dressed, protected and familiar
with E.R. procedures. Officer in charge must be informed of
their presence.

1. Answer the following questions:

1. Who is the document for?
a. machine operatives
b. managers
c. all employees
d. injured employees
2. Who wrote this document?
a. Trade union representatives
b. Technician
c. Manager
d. Medical staff
3. What is the writer’s intention?
a. To prevent accidents
b. To ensure speedy help for injured employees
c. To protect the company
d. To warn about damages

2. Complete the following sentences with a form of the word in

brackets.

67
a. When working in this area, please wear ___________ clothing.
(protect)
b. Heating this liquid may cause an _____. (explode)
c. Petrol and oil are _______ chemicals. (flame)
d. Working in a noisy factory without ear protectors is a ______
activity. (danger)
e. These chemicals must be kept in a locked cupboard because they
are ________. (harm)
f. Make sure the containers are _____ sealed. (tight)
g. While they repair the roof, we will close this department as a
________ measure. (precaution).

II. Read the text below to complete the following tasks

Catastrophes at sea and in the air make grim headlines: they represent
a great deal of sorrow for the families of the dead and injured. Why
do they occur? (1) … Pyromaniacs light fires, as in the case of the
ferry, Scandinavian Star, sailing from Norway to Denmark. In the
week following that tragedy, there were two other cases of fires on
board ferries: on one plying between Wales and Ireland, and on
another between Portsmouth and Cherbourg. In both of them, a man
died.
(2) … Talking after the Scandinavian Star had been towed into the
small port of Lysekil, a Swedish police spokesman made it clear how
awful it had been. He said: "The toll from the blaze that engulfed the
ferry south of Oslo fjord is still officially 75 dead and 60 missing but
about 100 bodies have already been taken off the ship and as many as
50 to 100 could still be on board.
People tried to save themselves in the cabins and they are lying in big
piles and it's difficult to figure out how many there are. There are a
lot of children."
In the immediate aftermath of such catastrophes reports of inadequate
safety measures circulate. (3) … On a wider scale, newspapers
reported once again on the world-wide system of "flagging-out"
which means that ships are not registered in the countries where they
operate, and where the regulations are strict and expensive, but in

68
places like Panama and Cyprus and the Bahamas, where they are lax
and cheap. The Scandinavian Star, although Danish-owned, was
registered in the Bahamas.
One of the more outrageous cases came to light in October 1989. (4)
… West German police arrested and charged two men, the ship's
British master and its German owner. They were charged with flying
a false flag, and forgery of Belize government documents. A police
officer said:
"Belize was not the latest entrant in the cheap flag stakes; they in fact
operate no shipping whatsoever. When we contacted the Belize High
Commission in London, they were astonished to learn that a ship was
pretending to be registered in their country."
(Safety at sea, The Times)

1. Four sentences have been removed from the text. Select the
appropriate sentence for each gap in the text. There is one extra
sentence which you do not need to use. 4 points
A. On board the Scandinavian Star, a fireman said the ferry had only
one system to pump and spray water on to the flames and that
pumping and spraying had to be done alternately.
B. These would have been properly trained in fire-fighting and
lifeboat drills and been able to communicate with their officers and
the passengers in the event of an emergency.
C. Terrorists plant bombs, as in the case of the destruction of the
American airliner over Lockerbie in Scotland.
D. Clearly, fire is a commonplace hazard, and a very dangerous one,
at sea.
E. A general cargo ship named the Bosun set sail from Hamburg
under the flag of the small central American state of Belize.

2. Match the words in column A with their definitions in column

B.

1) Fire-fighting a) a tax or fee paid for some

liberty or privilege (as of
passing over a highway
or bridge)
2) Flag out b) an intensely burning fire
3) Toll c) To flow over and enclose
4) Blaze d) Working to put out fires
5) Engulf e) To register a flag in a
different country

69
3. Sum up the text in about 50 words.

4. For the following questions, choose the answer (A, B, C or D)

which fits according to the text.
1. Fires sometimes occur on board ships …
A. because someone deliberately lights them.
B. when there are inadequate safety measures.
C. when the crew has not been trained.
D. because the safety measures are inadequate.
2. Flagging-out …
A. is common all over the world.
B. means that ships must register.
C. is a matter of flying the national flag.
D. helps poor nations export.
3. What were the two men charged with?
A. Flying a foreign flag.
B. Flying a cheap flag.
C. Forgery of German government documents.
D. Flying a false flag, and forgery of Belize government documents.

Writing activities
1. Make a list of your own safety rules for one of these activities:
handling cargo, sailing or working on a site.
2. Catastrophes at sea and in the air make grim headlines: they
represent a great deal of sorrow for the families of the dead
and injured.

Tag questions.
Review: Usage/ Form
Usage
Tag questions are the short questions that we put on the end of
sentences – particularly in spoken English. There are lots of different
question tags but the rules are not difficult to learn.

Form

70
Positive/negative

If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is

negative.

He’s a doctor, isn’t he?

You work in a bank, don’t you?

... and if the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is
positive.

You haven’t met him, have you?

She isn’t coming, is she?

With auxiliary verbs

The question tag uses the same verb as the main part of the sentence.
If this is an auxiliary verb (‘have’, ‘be’) then the question tag is made
with the auxiliary verb.

They’ve gone away for a few days, haven’t they?

They weren’t here, were they?
He had met him before, hadn’t he?
This isn’t working, is it?

Without auxiliary verbs

If the main part of the sentence doesn’t have an auxiliary verb, the
question tag uses an appropriate form of ‘do’.

I said that, didn’t I?

You don’t recognise me, do you?
She eats meat, doesn’t she?

With modal verbs

If there is a modal verb in the main part of the sentence the question
tag uses the same modal verb.

They couldn’t hear me, could they?

You won’t tell anyone, will you?

71
Let’s have a cup of coffee, shall we?

With ‘I am’

Be careful with question tags with sentences that start ‘I am’. The
question tag for ‘I am’ is ‘aren’t I?’

I’m the fastest, aren’t I?

1. Put in the correct question tags.

1) She is collecting stickers, ….?

2) We often watch TV in the afternoon, …..?
3) You have cleaned your bike, …..?
4) John and Max don't like Maths, …..?
5) Peter played handball yesterday, ……?
6) They are going home from school, ……?
7) Mary didn't do her homework last Monday, ……?
8) He could have bought a new car, ……?
9) Kevin will come tonight, …..?
10) I'm clever, ……?

2. Complete the sentences with the correct question tags.

1) Mr McGuinness is from Ireland, …..?

2) The car isn't in the garage, ……?
3) You are John, …..?
4) She went to the library yesterday, …..?
5) He didn't recognize me, …..?
6) Cars pollute the environment, ……?
7) Mr. Pritchard has been to Scotland recently, …..?
8) The trip is very expensive, …..?
9) He won't tell her, ……?
10) Hugh had a red car, ……?

Ing forms: Participle /vs/ Gerund

Review: Usage/ Form

The '-ing' form of the verb may be a present participle or a gerund.

72
The form is identical, the difference is in the function, or the job the
word does in the sentence.

The present participle:

This is most commonly used:

 as a constituent part or a marker of the continuous form of a

verb,
he is painting; she has been waiting

 after verbs of movement/position in the pattern:

verb + present participle,
She sat looking at the sea

 after verbs of perception in the pattern (ACC + PrPart; NOM

+ PrPart):
verb + object + present participle,
We saw him swimming

 adverbial participle clauses with a variety of circumstantial

meanings: manner, cause, time:

While leaving, I came to realize that I have made a big mistake.

 Absolute participle clauses, with an obligatory nominative

subject:

The guests leaving, we could sit on the coach.

 as a pre or post-nominal modifier or an adjective,

e.g. amazing, worrying, exciting, boring

The gerund:

This always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a
verb), so it can be used:

 as the subject of the sentence:

Eating people is wrong.

73
  after prepositions:
Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?
She is good at painting

 after certain verbs, such as verbs of liking and disliking

e.g. like, hate, admit, imagine

 in compound nouns,
e.g. a driving lesson, a swimming pool, bird-watching, train-
spotting

 gerund clauses: POSS, ACC, PRO – ing

I encouraged his, him, PRO singing.

1. State whether the –ing forms given in the following sentences

are participles or gerunds. In the case of participles, name the
noun or pronoun they qualify. In the case of gerunds, state what
function they serve in the sentence.

1. Hearing a loud noise, we ran to the window.

2. The motorcyclist was fatally injured in the accident and is now
fighting for his life.
3. He ruined his sight by watching TV all day.
4. We saw a clown standing on his head.
5. Asking questions is a whole lot easier than answering them.
6. Waving their hands, the audience cheered the winner.
7. Plucking flowers is forbidden.
8. Jumping over the fence, the thief escaped.
9. I was surprised at John’s being absent.
10. We spent the whole day playing cards.
11. A miser hates spending his money.
12. John was angry at Alice trying to lie to her.
13. Praising all alike is praising none.
14. Are you afraid of speaking the truth?
15. Singing to herself is her chief delight.

2. Point out the present participles and gerunds in the following

sentences.

1. He has ruined his lungs by smoking.

2. Asking questions is easier than answering them.

74
3. We saw a clown standing on his head.
4. He hates spending money.
5. Waving their hands, the spectators cheered the runners.
6. We are fighting a losing battle.
7. It is freezing cold.
8. We are confident of winning the election.
9. The boy cried thinking that he would be whipped.
10. Can you teach me painting?

Types of Ships: Description of a Ship.

Warming up/ Pre-reading activities

Task 1
Ask students to name, describe and define the various types of cargo
vessels in use.

Vocabulary practice
Study the words in the box below

hull, trim, tugboat, bulk carrier, tanker, keel, ballast, steer, draft,
derrick, propeller, deadweight, reefer ships, capsize, hold, stow

Reading activities

Read the texts below and complete the following tasks

A. In 2007, there were 34,882 vessels with a gross tonnage of over

one thousand tons carrying the great majority of the world’s trade.
These ships come in many different shapes and sizes and are often
custom built for specific tasks such as tugboats, cable ships and
survey vessels. Among the most common types are bulk carriers
which carry dry cargo, tankers which carry liquid cargo and

75
container ships which transport goods in standard sized containers.
Most dry cargo is carried by container ships. Containers are a
standard size and they are piled up on the decks of container vessels
so that there is no waste of space.
Ships pay high charges for using docks so fast loading and unloading
is often a priority. Stevedores are employed at most ports to man
cranes and move cargo to and from ships and warehouses on the
quayside, however loading and unloading is also done by mariners,
sometimes being paid extra for this work.
A very important aspect of loading a ship is the trim – load must be
distributed so that the ship is stable and stress on the hull is
minimized. When cargoes are loaded codes and guidelines have to be
applied and officers need knowledge of cargoes and ballasting.

B. a) Bulk carriers transport high tonnage cargoes such as coal, grains

and ores. When loading a bulk carrier it is very important to trim the
cargo correctly. Wrongly distributed cargo causes instability and an
unstable ship will roll. Usually water is taken into the ballast tanks to
improve a ship’s trim.
b) A cargo may move during a voyage. Also the vibration of a ship
can cause a cargo to liquefy. The liquid cargo will then move to one
side of the hold. When a cargo moves it will make the ship list and
capsize. Some cargoes may heat up causing hazards such as fires,
explosions and toxic gasses.
c) On container ships, containers are stacked both in the holds and on
the upper deck. On the upper deck cargoes are exposed to the sun,
spray and rainwater and big rises and falls in temperature. Below
decks it is possible to control temperature and ventilation. Containers
packed with batteries, electronic equipment, tea etc are therefore
stowed in the hold. Containers of glass, ceramics and machine parts
are stacked on deck.

C. General cargo ships are prone to accidents and great importance is

attached to loading cargo in such a way that a vessel is kept on an
even keel. To do this a vessel is trimmed – that is, the weight of the
cargo is evenly distributed about the ship. Apart from distributing the
weight of cargo, a vessel takes on ballast. This is water added to the
ballast tanks. Ballast increases propeller immersion and improves
steering, trim and draft. It is taken on in the coastal waters of one
place and discharged when the cargo is unloaded. Ballast water
contains a variety of biological material and poses a danger to public
health and the environment.

76
Merchant ships are described in terms of their tonnage. Their
deadweight is the weight in tons of the cargo, stores and fuel when
she is down to her loading marks. Many cargo ships have derricks
which are basically cranes for handling cargo.

1. Skim through the texts to answer the following questions

1. How are ships classified?
2. Who is responsible for arranging pick up of the containerized
cargo?
3. What kind of merchandise is stored in containers?
4. What is the purpose of the ballast?
5. When/where is the ballast taken on?
6. What does deadweight stand for?
7. Which are the causes that lead to hazards on ships?

2. Read the second text again and find words that mean the
following:

 the movement of a ship side to side

 make something better
 turn into liquid
 poisonous
 uncovered

3. Match the words in column A with their definitions in column

B

1. Hull a. a small, powerful boat

that is used for pulling
and pushing ships
especially into harbors
or up rivers
2. Trim b. A boat carrying things
that are transported and
sold in large amounts

77
3. Tugboat c. the main part of a ship
or boat : the deck, sides,
and bottom of a ship or
boat
4. Bulk carrier d. a vehicle (such as a
ship, truck, or airplane)
that is designed to carry
liquids
5. Steer e. a person whose job is to
load and unload ships at
a port
6. Ballast f. the position of a ship or
boat especially with
reference to the
horizontal
7. Keel g. heavy material (such as
rocks or water) that is
put on a ship to make it
steady or on a balloon
to control its height in
the air
8. Stevedore h. to control the direction
in which something
(such as a ship, car, or
airplane) moves
9. Draft i. a device with two or
more blades that turn
quickly and cause a
ship or aircraft to move
10. Capsize j. the chief structural
member of a boat or
ship that extends
longitudinally along the
center of its bottom and
that often projects from
the bottom
11. Derrick k. load or load-pulling
capacity
12. Propeller l. a tall machine with a
long part like an arm
that is used to move or

78
 lift heavy things
especially on ships

13. Tanker m. to turn so that the

bottom is on top

4. Work in pairs. Match the type of cargo in the list below with
hazards on the right:

A B
1) Ammonium nitrate a) Falls
2) Timber b) collapse of load
3) Coal c) Explosions
4) LPG d) Fire
5) Containers e) unsafe lashings
f) dust
g) toxic gasses

Writing and speaking activities

1. Imagine you represent the port authority. A ship’s captain

needs information about the port facilities.
2. Invite students to explain everything they know about
transporting and stowing hazardous goods, the kinds of
restrictions placed on ships, the dangers of discharging
ballast, accidents involving cargoes, dangers from the weather
etc. ask if they have any experience of transporting the goods.

Core modals
Review: Form/ Usage
All the auxiliary verbs except be, do and have are called modals.
Unlike other auxiliary verbs modals only exist in their helping form;
they cannot act alone as the main verb in a sentence.
Be, do, and have also differ from the other auxiliaries in that they can
also serve as ordinary verbs in a given sentence.

The core modal verbs are:

CAN / COULD / MAY / MIGHT / MUST / SHALL / SHOULD / WI
LL /WOULD

79
Modal Example Uses
Can They can control their own budgets. Ability / Possibility
We can’t fix it. Inability /
Can I smoke here? Impossibility
Can you help me? Asking for
permission
Request
Could Could I borrow your dictionary? Asking for
Could you say it again more slowly? permission.
We could try to fix it ourselves. Request
I think we could have another Gulf Suggestion
War. Future possibility
He gave up his old job so he could Ability in the past
work for us.
May May I have another cup of coffee? Asking for
China may become a major economic permission
power. Future possibility
Might We'd better phone tomorrow, they Present possibility
might be eating their dinner now. Future possibility
They might give us a 10% discount.
Must We must say good-bye now. Necessity /
They mustn’t disrupt the work more Obligation
than necessary. Prohibition
Shall Shall I help you with your luggage? Offer
(More Shall we say 2.30 then? Suggestion
common Shall I do that or will you? Asking what to do
in the
UK than
the US)
Should We should sort out this problem at Saying what’s right
once. or correct
I think we should check everything Recommending
again. action
Profits should increase next year. Uncertain prediction
Will I can’t see any taxis so I’ll walk. Instant decisions
I'll do that for you if you like. Offer
I’ll get back to you first thing on Promise
Monday. Certain prediction

80
 Profits will increase next year.
Would Would you mind if I brought a Asking for
colleague with me? permission
Would you pass the salt please? Request
Would you mind waiting a moment? Making
"Would three o`clock suit you?" - arrangements
"That’d be fine." Invitation
Would you like to play golf this Preferences
Friday?
"Would you prefer tea or coffee?" -
"I’d like tea please."

Note
 The modal auxiliary verbs are always followed by the base
form or bare infinitive.
 Modal verbs do not take "-s" in the third person singular.
 You use "not" to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple
Present and Simple Past.
 Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the
future tenses.

1. Complete the sentences using the modals listed in the box

below. Some gaps may have more than one correct answer.

can could have to must might should

1. Ted's flight from Amsterdam took more than 11 hours.

He be exhausted after such a long flight.
He prefer to stay in tonight and get some rest.

2. If you want to get a better feeling for how the city is laid out,
you walk downtown and explore the waterfront.

3. Hiking the trail to the peak be dangerous if you are

not well prepared for dramatic weather changes. You
research the route a little more before you attempt the ascent.

81
4. When you have a small child in the house, you leave
small objects lying around. Such objects be swallowed,
causing serious injury or even death.

5. Dave: you hold your breath for more than a minute?

Nathan: No, I can't.

6. Jenny's engagement ring is enormous! It have cost a

fortune.

7. Please make sure to water my plants while I am gone. If they don't

get enough water, they die.

8. I speak Arabic fluently when I was a child and we

lived in Egypt. But after we moved back to Canada, I had very little
exposure to the language and forgot almost everything I knew as a
child. Now, I just say a few things in the language.

9. The book is optional. My professor said we read it if

we needed extra credit. But we read it if we don't want
to.

10. Leo: Where is the spatula? It be in this drawer but

it's not here.
Nancy: I just did a load of dishes last night and they're still in the dish
washer. It be in there. That's the only other place
it be.

11. You take your umbrella along with you today. The
weatherman on the news said there's a storm north of here and
it rain later on this afternoon.

12. we pull over at the next rest stop? I

really use the bathroom and I don't know if

82
I hold it until we get to Chicago.

13. Oh no! Frank's wallet is lying on the coffee table. He

have left it here last night.

14. Ned: I borrow your lighter for a minute?

Stephen: Sure, no problem. Actually, you keep it if you
want to. I've given up smoking.

15. Do you chew with your mouth open like that? Geez,
it's making me sick watching you eat that piece of pizza.

16. Mrs. Scarlett's body was found in the lounge just moments ago,
and it's still warm! Nobody has left the mansion this evening, so the
killer be someone in this room. It be any
one of us!!!

17. I was reading the book last night before I went to bed. I never
took it out of this room. It be lying around here
somewhere. Where it be?

Asking people to do things

Polite requests

 We can use can or could in a request, when we ask someone

to do something.
 Could is often more polite than can.
 We can also use Do you mind…? or Would you mind…?
with an –ing form.
 We can also use Would you like to…?
 We do not use Do you like to…? or Make the bed for me. –
These may sound very abrupt and impolite without a phrase
like Could you…?

Examples

83
Can you pass me the salt, please?
Could you send me an email until tomorrow?
I wonder if you could explain me the rule again.
Do you mind turning off the TV?
Would you mind paying attention?
Would you like to go for a stroll?

The imperative

We can sometimes use the imperative to ask people to do things

when we are friends in an informal situation. But we do not use it to a
stranger in a more formal situation.

Examples

Bring another cup of tea. Hurry up or we’ll miss the train.

Don’t make so much noise.

Even people in authority often avoid using the imperative to give

orders. They prefer to use I want/ I’d like you to…, You must…, or a
polite request.

Examples
I want you all to be here at six a.m. I would like you to be more
careful

1. Mr Johnson is the manager of Dellco. He tells everyone what to

do. Complete his sentences using the words in the box below:

could, have, like, mind, must, want, wonder, would

1. Would you ___________ making some tea, Alan?

2. You ________ inform me of any developments
3. Could I _______ the latest sales figures, please?
4. Would you __________ to arrange a meeting some
time next week, Fiona?
5. I ________ everyone to read the report.
6. _______ I see the file, please, Mark?
7. ______ you mind putting this in writing?
8. I ________ if you could translate this letter, Linda.

84
 9. __________ you meet our customer at the airport?

2. Read about each situation and then make the request. Use the
words in brackets.

1. It is cold in the restaurant. Ask the waiter to shut the window.

(could)
2. You are buying a coat. Ask the assistant for a receipt. (can)
3. You want to know the time. Ask someone in the street.
(could)
4. You need someone to help you. Ask a friend. (can)
5. You have bought some food, but you haven’t got a bag. Ask
the assistant. (could)
6. You are carrying a tray. Ask someone to clear a space on the
table. (mind)
7. You are on the phone. You want to speak to the manager.
(could)
Naval Architecture
Warming up/ Pre-reading activities
Task 1
Look at the pictures below and state what they represent. Match the
pictures with the labels below:
a. a shipyard b. a ship launching
c. naval architects debate d. the blueprints of a battleship

1. 2.

3. 4.

85
9
Task 2
What do you think naval architects do?

Vocabulary practice
Study the words from the table below
shipyard, hull, weld, keel, mold, afloat, trawler, ferry, bulk
carrier,

Reading activities
Read the texts below to complete the following tasks
A. A vessel's design starts with a specification, which a naval
architect uses to create a project outline, assess required dimensions,
and create a basic layout of spaces and a rough displacement. After
this initial rough draft, the architect can create an initial hull design, a
general profile and an initial overview of the ship's propulsion. At
this stage, the designer can iterate on the ship's design, adding detail
and refining the design at each stage.
The designer will typically produce an overall plan, a general
specification describing the peculiarities of the vessel, and
construction blueprints to be used at the building site. Designs for
larger or more complex vessels may also include sail plans, electrical
schematics, and plumbing and ventilation plans.
As environmental laws are strictening, ship designers need to create
their design in such a way that the ship -when it nears its end-of-
term- can be disassembled or disposed easily and that waste is
reduced to a minimum.

86
B. Ship construction takes place in a shipyard, and can last from a
few months for a unit produced in series, to several years to
reconstruct a wooden boat like the frigate Hermione, to more than
10 years for an aircraft carrier. Hull materials and vessel size play a
large part in determining the method of construction. The hull of a
mass-produced fiberglass sailboat is constructed from a mold, while
the steel hull of a cargo ship is made from large sections welded
together as they are built.
Generally, construction starts with the hull, and on vessels over about
30 meters (98 ft), by the laying of the keel. This is done in a dry
dock or on land. Once the hull is assembled and painted, it is
launched. The last stages, such as raising the superstructure and
adding equipment and accommodation, can be done after the vessel is
afloat.
Once completed, the vessel is delivered to the customer. Ship
launching is often a ceremony of some significance, and is usually
when the vessel is formally named. A typical small rowboat can cost
under US$100, $1,000 for a small speedboat, tens of thousands of
dollars for a cruising sailboat. A 25 meters (82 ft) trawler may cost
$2.5 million, and a 1,000-person-capacity high-speed passenger ferry
can cost in the neighborhood of $50 million. A ship's cost partly
depends on its complexity: a small, general cargo ship will cost
$20 million, a Panamax-sized bulk carrier around $35 million,
a supertanker around $105 million and a large LNG carrier nearly
$200 million. The most expensive ships generally are so because of
the cost of embedded electronics: a Seawolf-class submarine costs
around $2 billion, and an aircraft carrier goes for about $3.5 billion.

1. Skim through the texts in order to answer the following

questions
1. Which are the steps followed by a naval architect to design a
vessel?
2. What does a naval architect need to know in terms of
environmental laws?
3. How long does constructing a ship last?
4. Which are the two methods of constructing a hull mentioned in the
text?

87
5. What does ship launching imply?
6. Why is the price of constructing a ship so high?

2. Match the words in column A with their definitions in column

B
A B
1. Shipyard a) the frame on or around
which an object is
constructed
2. Hull b) a ship that carries non-
liquid cargoes such as
grain or ore in bulk
3. Weld c) the chief structural
member of a boat or
ship that extends
longitudinally along the
center of its bottom and
that often projects from
the bottom
4. Mold d) a boat that is used to
carry people and things
for a short distance
between two places
5. Keel e) a boat that is used for
catching fish with a
large net
6. Afloat f) the main part of a ship
or boat : the deck, sides,
and bottom of a ship or
boat
7. Trawler g) to join pieces of metal
together by heating the
edges until they begin
to melt and then
pressing them together
8. Ferry h) the force that moves
something forward
9. Bulk carrier i) a place where ships are

88
 built or repaired
10. Propulsion j) floating on water

3. Listening / Watching activities

Career advice on becoming a naval architect. Listen to the tape in
order to complete the missing information.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eAm4r7IYC1M

1. How long does it take till a ship is handed over?

__________________________________________.

2. When did he start to be interested in ships? How old was he?

__________________________________________.

3. Who encouraged him to design bigger liners?

____________________________________________.

4. How many times was the project Queen Mary 2 put on hold?
_____________________________________________.

5. Why was the project nearly cancelled?

__________________________________.

6. What was his initial profession?

__________________________________.

7. What was he going to do after the launch of Queen Mary 2?

_____________________________________.

Writing activities
1. Career profile: Marine Engineer, Mechanical Engineer or
Naval Architect? Select one of the professions mentioned and
write about the responsibilities or duties, qualities,
preparations or training you need for the job.

2. What’s the difference between a Naval Architect and a

Marine Engineer?

89
Marginal Modals
Review: Form/ Usage
Definition
A verb (such as dare, need, used to, ought to) that displays some but
not all of the properties of an auxiliary. A marginal modal can be
used as either an auxiliary or a main verb.
There are two properties that unite this narrow class of marginal
auxiliaries. First, in terms of meaning, they resemble modal
auxiliaries like can, must, etc. Second, they can be constructed either
as pure auxiliaries or as main verbs without a difference in meaning.

Dare and need

Both dare and need can be used as auxiliary verbs. In this use, like
other auxiliaries:

 they precede not

 they invert with the subject in the formation
of yes/no questions.

Examples

I dare not speak to the Dean about this. (cf. the

modal auxiliary would: I would not speak to the Dean...)
We need not tell the Dean about this. (cf. the modal must: We must
not tell the Dean about this.)
Dare I speak to the Dean about this?
Need we tell the Dean about this?

Both verbs may also be constructed as main verbs. In this use, like
main verbs, they require do-insertion when negated by not and
in yes/no questions:

Examples

I did not dare to speak to the Dean about this.

We do not need to tell the Dean about this.
Do I dare to speak to the Dean about this?
Do I need to tell the Dean about this?

90
The main verb construction is also distinguished by the form of the
following verb. Thus, whereas auxiliaries are followed by the so
called bare infinitive, which lacks the infinitive marker to, in the
main verb construction, dare and need are followed by the to-
infinitive.
Moreover, when used as as main verbs, both dare and need agree
with the verb, e.g. by taking the 3rd person singular -s. The first pair
of examples below illustrates the auxiliary construction, whereas the
second pair illustrates the main verb construction:

Examples

No one dare approach him before breakfast.

Everyone need approach him at the right time.
No one dares to approach him before breakfast.
Everyone needs to approach him at the right time

Ought to and used to

The reason for giving the forms as ought to and used to (instead
of ought and used) is simply that they only very rarely occur
without to. Thus, from this perspective they behave as main verbs.
However, with respect to their behaviour in negative clauses and
in yes/no questions, they often behave as auxiliaries:

Examples:

We ought not to tell the Dean about this.

Ought we to tell the Dean about this?
We used not to prepare the samples as carefully as this.

With used to, the only form of yes/no question in current usage is the
main verb construction (with do-insertion), as in (2). In clauses
negated by not, such as (1), the main verb construction is also
common:

Examples

(1) We did not use to prepare the samples as carefully as this.

91
(2) Did you use to prepare the sample as carefully as this?

1. Choose the correct answer.

1. Jim doesn’t have a girlfriend now, but he didn’t use to/ used
to/ was using to.
2. People aren’t used to using/ doesn’t use/ isn’t used to using
the Internet yet.
3. I use/ got used/ used to play football when I was young. I am
too old and fat to play now.
4. Pepe Juan was in London for a year. He liked England, but he
could ever get used to/ could never get used to/ can ever get
used to the insipid food and terrible weather.
5. I’ve been getting up early every day for years but I used/ am
still not used / am already used to it.

2. Match the sentence beginnings and ends

1. You mustn’t drink alcohol a. to enjoy it

2. You mustn’t keep medicines b. when you go
into a pub
3. You don’t have to be a member c. if teachers
object to the new
curriculum
4. You don’t have to play golf well d. to run up and
down the aisle of the
aircraft
5. Newspapers mustn’t e. to use the tennis
club

92
6. You don’t have to drink alcohol f. when you drive
7. Newspapers don’t have to say g. who provided
their information
8. Children mustn’t be allowed h. where children
can get them
9. You mustn’t be surprised i. mislead the
public

3. Complete the conversation. Put in must, mustn’t or needn’t:

A: You ________ take the umbrella. It isn’t going to rain.
B: Well, I don’t know. It might do.
A: Don’t lose it then. You _________ leave it on the bus.
B: Come on. We __________ hurry. We ___________ be late.
A: It’s only ten past five. We _________ hurry. There’s lots of time.
B: My sister and I are going a different way.
A: Oh, you _________ go off on your own. It isn’t safe. We
________ keep together in a group.
B: I’ll put these cups into the dishwasher.
A: No, you ________ put them in there. It might damage them. In
fact, we ________ wash them all. We didn’t use them.
B: I __________ forget to type this letter.
A: Yes, it ________ go in the post today because it’s quite urgent.
But the report isn’t so important. You ________ type the report
today.

4. Complete the conversation with should, shouldn’t, ought or

oughtn’t.

93
A: I can’t come out tonight, Rachel. I _______to do some more work.
I’m behind everything. I’ve got so much to do.
B: You ________ worry so much, Vicky. Don’t panic. You
__________ to relax sometimes. You ________ take a break.
A: I know I ___________ panic, but I do. I can’t help it.
B: Anyway, you’re doing OK, aren’t you? Your results have been
good. You ________ be pleased. You ________ to invent problems
for yourself.

Negative statements and questions

Negative sentences

A negative sentence (or statement) states that something is not

true or incorrect. A negative adverb has to be added in order to negate
or “cancel” the validity of the sentence. This “negation” element is
created according to the following general rule.
The Negation Rule: In English, in order to claim that something is
not true, you form a negative sentence by adding the word not after
the first auxiliary verb in the positive sentence. If there is no auxiliary
verb in the positive sentence, as in the Present Simple and Past
Simple tenses, then you add one (in both these cases, the auxiliary
verb do).

Double negatives:

A double negative uses two negative words (in bold below) in the
same clause to express a single negative idea:

We didn't see nothing. [ = We saw nothing.]

She never danced with nobody. [ = She didn't dance with anybody.]

The rules dictate that the two negative elements cancel each other out
to give a positive statement instead, so that the sentence ‘I don’t
know nothing’ could literally be interpreted as ‘I do know
something’.

94
Double negatives are standard in many other languages and they were
also a normal part of English usage until some time after the
16th century. They’re still widely used in English dialects where they
don’t seem to cause any confusion as to the intended meaning.
Nevertheless, they aren’t considered acceptable in current standard
English and you should avoid them in all but very informal situations.
Just use a single negative instead:

We didn’t see anything.

She never danced with anyone.

There is one type of double negative that is considered grammatically

correct and which people use to make a statement more subtle. Take a
look at the following sentence:

I am not unconvinced by his argument.

The use of not together with unconvinced suggests that the speaker
has a few mental reservations about the argument. The double
negative creates a nuance of meaning that would not be present had
the speaker just said:

I am convinced by his argument.

Negative questions

Contracted and un-contracted negative questions have different

word order. Un-contracted negative questions are usually used in a
formal style.

Examples

Aren’t you coming? (Contracted – auxiliary verb + n’t + subject)

Doesn’t he understand? (Auxiliary verb + n’t + subject)
Are you not coming? (Uncontracted – auxiliary verb + subject + not)
Does he not understand? (Auxiliary verb + subject + not)

Two meanings

95
A negative question can have two different kinds of meanings. It can,
for example, be used to ask for confirmation of something you believe
to be true.

Example

Didn’t you see Ann yesterday? How is she doing? (= I believe that
you saw Ann yesterday.)

You may also express your opinions in a more polite way by

changing them into negative questions.

Example

Wouldn’t it be nice to paint that wall green? (More polite than ‘It
would be nice to paint that wall green.’)

A negative question can also be used to ask for confirmation of a

negative belief. In this case the speaker is surprised that something
has not happened or is not happening.

Example
Hasn’t the postman come yet?

Polite requests, offers, complaints etc

Pressing offers and invitations often assume the form of negative

questions. They usually begin Won’t you…? Wouldn’t you…? or
Why don’t you…?

Wouldn’t you like something to drink?

Why don’t you come and spend the evening with us?

1. Ask a question using the negative form.

1. You are not English.

?
2. You worked today at

96
3:00. ?
3. He is eating at the
moment. ?
4. Remy has got a
bike. ?
5. Would you come
tomorrow? ?
6. Juliet has a big
family. ?
7. They will pass their
exam. ?
8. Paul is French. ?
9. We went to the beach
yesterday. ?
10. I will realize all my
dreams. ?
11. My friends enjoyed the last Thanksgiving
feast. ?
12. The name of Ali's dog is
Pépito. ?
13. My grandparents lived in a small
village. ?
14. Sonia has two
children. ?
15. Tania is going
abroad. ?
16. Juan will help poor people when he is
rich. ?
17. I'd give you a present for your
birthday. ?
18. The Earth turns around the
Sun. ?

97
 19. Did you succeed in doing the
exercise? ?

2. Revise each sentence to fix any double negatives that are

present.

1. While walking out the door, Kyle did not lock no doors.
2. The other girls in Kennedy’s class don’t never seem interested
in joining her study group.
3. Kara did not go nowhere during her time off from work.
4. A tiny bite or small piece of chocolate cake will not do no
damage to your dieting efforts.
5. I remember how when I was a young child I could not hardly
wait for Christmas morning.
6. Caleb was not unhappy with the results of his math test.
7. Just because Kylie cannot decide what she wants to give up
does not mean she don’t want to give up nothing.
8. Kathy has not done no cleaning since before the baby was
born.
9. The doctor would not give nothing to patients he had not seen
before that were asking for prescriptions.
10. Kenneth was not unhappy with the results of the experiment.

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