1.

Electrical Power
1.1. Electric power generation, transmission and distribution
1.2. Brief treatment of types of power station
1.3. Power generation and transmission problem (flow diagram representation from generator
to consumer terminals)
1.4. Types of power generation
1.5. Distribution of Electrical power using overhead lines and underground cables.
1.6. The distribution transformer in estates.
1.7. The use of AC.in preference to DC. Single and three-phase supplies: delta and star
connections.
1.8. The meaning of impedance, voltage, power and power-factor in AC supply systems.
2. Installations
2.1. Electrical Building services: supply, control and distribution in buildings including:
intakes, diversity.
2.2. Wiring circuits for lighting using loop-in methods. Number of points on one circuit.
Wiring socket outlets
2.3. Conductors and cables including: main parts of cables, types, insulators and the choice of
cable sizes in various types of installation.
2.4. Wiring systems including conduct systems, rubber and PVC sheathed systems. ceiling
roses, lamp holders, switches etc.
2.5. Safety precautions including the need for safety.
2.6. The use of circuit breakers and fuses and the importance of Earthing.
2.7. Illumination: Principle of illumination.
2.8. Definition of terms and the inverse square law.
2.9. Glare and its effects. Types of lamp and lamp fittings.
2.10. Principle of lighting design and illumination requirement for various types of
usual tasks.

Overview of Electrical Power

1.1 Electric power generation, transmission and distribution

Electric power systems are real-time energy delivery systems. Real time means that power is
generated, transported, and supplied the moment you turn on the light switch. Electric power
systems are not storage systems like water systems and gas systems. Instead, generators produce
the energy as the demand calls for it.
The system starts with generation, by which electrical energy is produced in the power plant and
then transformed in the power station to high-voltage electrical energy that is more suitable for
efficient long-distance transportation. The power plants transform other sources of energy in the
process of producing electrical energy. For example, heat, mechanical, hydraulic, chemical, solar,
wind, geothermal, nuclear, and other energy sources are used in the production of electrical energy.
High-voltage (HV) power lines in the transmission section of the electric power system efficiently
transport electrical energy over long distances to the consumption locations. Finally, substations
transform this HV electrical energy into lower-voltage energy that is transmitted over distribution
power lines that are more suitable for the distribution of electrical energy to its destination, where
it is again transformed for residential, commercial, and industrial consumption.
Figure 1 shows a single line diagram of a typical power system. Power is generated at a voltage
of 16kV. This voltage is then stepped up to 330kV using a step-up transformer. This voltage is
then further stepped down at intervals until a voltage of 415V is achieved. 415V represents a three-
phase system while a single-phase system is associated with a voltage level of 220V.

Figure 1: Single Line Diagram of Power System

1.2 Brief Treatment of Types of Power Station

Electrical energy is produced when one form of energy is converted into another. There are many
forms of energy that are converted to electrical which include; solar energy, wind energy,
mechanical energy, heat energy, etc.
Sources of Energy
Sources of energy can be classified into two. Renewable and non-renewable sources. In other
words, they are also referred to as non-conventional and conventional sources respectively.
Non-Renewable Energy Sources (Conventional)
Coal, gas, nuclear, etc., are the main conventional sources of energy. Generating stations which
uses these sources mentioned are referred to as thermal generating stations. The disadvantages of
these stations include:
1. The fuels are likely to be depleted in the near future.
2. They are toxic, hazardous and pollute the environment.
3. They are located at a distance far away from the consumers.
4. Maintenance costs are high.
Renewable Energy Sources (Non-Conventional)
Considering the previously discussed conventional sources, the advantages of this non-
conventional ones over the conventional ones include:
1. Non-polluting processes are used.
2. abundance and perpetuity of the sources.
3. Zero running cost.
However, they are disadvantageous due to the high initial cost and uncertainty due to weather
changes. For example, dense clouds or night hours lead to non-availability of solar energy.
Power stations can be classified according to
a) Source of energy: Renewable sources and non-renewable sources.

b) Load catered for: Peak load, intermediary load and base loads

1.3 Power generation and transmission problem (flow diagram representation from
generator to consumer terminals)
The huge amount of power generated in a power station (hundreds of MW) is to be transported
over a long distance (hundreds of kilometers) to load centers to cater power to consumers with the
help of transmission line and transmission towers.
To give an idea, let us consider a generating station producing 120 MW power and we want to
transmit it over a long distance. Let the voltage generated (line to line) at the alternator be 16kV.
Then to transmit 120 MW of power at 16 kV, current in the transmission line can be easily
calculated by using power formula circuit for 3-phases as follows:
𝑃
𝐼= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 cos 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
√3𝑉𝐿 cos 𝜃

120000000
𝐼= = 5412𝐴
√3×16000×0.8

Instead of choosing 16 kV transmission voltage, if transmission voltage were chosen to be 330 kV,
current value in the line would have been only 262A. So sectional area of the transmission line
(copper conductor) will now be much smaller compared to 16 kV transmission voltage. In other
words, the cost of conductor will be greatly reduced if power is transmitted at higher and higher
transmission voltage. The use of higher voltage (hence lower current in the line) reduces voltage
drop in the line resistance and reactance. Also, transmission losses are reduced. Standard
transmission voltages used are 132 kV or 330 kV in Nigeria depending upon how long the
transmission lines are.
Therefore, after the generator we must have a step-up transformer to change the generated voltage
(say 16 kV) to desired transmission voltage (say 330 kV) before transmitting it over a long distance
with the help of transmission lines supported at regular intervals by transmission towers. It should
be noted that while magnitude of current decides the cost of copper, level of voltage decides the
cost of insulators. The idea is, in a spree to reduce the cost of copper one cannot indefinitely
increase the level of transmission voltage as cost of insulators will offset the reduction copper cost.
At the load centers, voltage level should be brought down at suitable values for supplying different
types of consumers. Consumers may be big industries (such as steel plants), medium and small
industries and offices and domestic consumers. Electricity is purchased by different consumers at
different voltage level. For example, big industries may purchase power at 132 kV, medium and
big industries purchase power at 33 kV or 11 kV and domestic consumers at rather low voltage of
220V, single phase. Thus, we see that 330kV transmission voltage is to be brought down to
different voltage levels before finally delivering power to different consumers. To do this we
require obviously step-down transformers.
Flow diagram representation from generator to consumer terminals is shown in Figure 2

Figure 2: Flow Diagram Representation from Generator to Consumer Terminals

1.4 Types of power generation
There are many types of generating stations. These include the coal, gas fired, hydro, solar, etc.
Coal Generating Station
Chemical energy stored in coal is transformed into Electrical energy through some processes.
Figure 3 shows a simple schematic diagram of a coal fired thermal station.

Figure 3: Block Diagram of a Coal Fired Station

Coal is heated at a very high temperature in the burner to produce heat energy. This heat is passed
through to the boiler where it converts water into steam. The condenser deals with steam coming
out of the turbine. At this stage, maximum heat is extracted from steam, and the steam left which
is now in the form of water is recycled to the burner.
The turbine receives steam from the boiler and converts its energy into mechanical energy which
drives the generator. the generator gives electrical energy.

Solar Generating Station

In this process, solar energy gotten from the sun is converted to electrical energy. Figure xxx
shows a block diagram of this station.
Energy from the sun is renewable. Solar panel convert this energy into a voltage. The area of
this solar panels determines the output current. The charge controller protects the battery from
excessive discharge of overcharging.
Since the final form of electrical energy required is AC, an inverter is used for this conversion.
Then finally, the loads are connected at this point.

Figure 4: Block Diagram of a Solar Station

Hydro Power Station

Hydro stations convert energy of moving water into electrical energy.

Figure 5: Diagram of a Hydro Station

Types of Hydro Stations

Hydro power stations are divided into three groups depending on the head of water.
1. High Head: These have heads in excess of 300m. For these stations, high-speed Pelton turbine
are used.
2. Medium Head: These have heads between 30m and 300m. Francis turbines are used.
3. Low Head: These have heads below 30m. Kaplan turbines are used.
Make-up of a Hydro Power Station
This station consists of dams, waterways, and conduits that form a reservoir and channel the water
towards the turbine as shown in Figure 5.
Water trapped in the dam passes through the penstock to rotate the turbine. This turbine in turn is
connected to the generator. Water that has passed through the turbine goes out of the station
through the tailrace.
Available Hydro Power
The power that can be extracted from a waterfall depends upon its height and rate of flow. The
available hydro power can be calculated by the equation:
P=9.8qh where:
P= available water power (kW)
q = flow rate(m3/s)
h = head of water (m)
Owing to losses in the turbine and generator, the output power is less that the available power and
is given by:
P=9.8ηgηtqh
Example
A large hydropower station has a head of 324m and an average flow rate of 1370m 3/s. Calculate
the available power and output power if the efficiency of turbine and generator is 90% and 85%
respectively.
a. The available hydro power.

P=9.8qH
P= 9.8×01370×324
P=4350000KW=4350MW
b. The output power.

P=9.8ηgηtqh
P= 9.8×01370×324×0.9×0.85
P=3327.7MW
 Exercise
The Zaire River, in Africa, discharges at a constant rate of 1300km3 per year. It has been
proposed to build a dam in the region where the river drops by 100m. Calculate:
a. The water flow (m3/s)
b. The power that could be harnessed (MW)

1.5 Distribution of Electrical power using overhead lines and underground cables.
Electrical energy is carried by conductors such as overhead lines and underground cables.
Although these conductors appear very ordinary, they possess important electrical properties that
greatly affect the transmission of electricity.
In order to provide electricity to consumers in usable form, a transmission and distribution system
must satisfy some basic requirements. Thus, the system must:
1. Provide the power that consumers need at all times.
2. Maintain a stable nominal voltage that does not vary by more than 10 percent.
3. Maintain a stable frequency that does not vary by more than 0.1Hz.
4. Meet standards of safety.
5. Respects environmental standard.
The energy is carried over lines designated extra-high voltage (EHV), high voltage (HV), medium
voltage (MV) and low voltage (LV).
The design of a power line depends upon the following criteria:
1. The amount of active power it has to transmit.
2. The distance over which the power must be carried.
3. The cost of the power line.

Overhead Transmission Lines

Overhead transmission lines are power lines for sending electricity to far places and they are
mainly used between power stations and substations or between two substations.
Classification of Overhead Transmission Lines
1. Short transmission line: it has a length of about 50km and the line voltage is comparatively low
(<20kV).
2. Medium transmission line: it has a length of about 50-150km and the line voltage is moderately
high (>20kv, <100kv).
3. Long transmission line: it has a length of above 150km. The line voltage is very high (>100kv).
Components of Overhead Transmission Line
1. Conductor: conductors for high voltage transmission are always bare. Stranded copper
conductors or steel reinforced aluminum cable (ACSR) are used. ACSR conductors are usually
preferred because they result in a lighter and more economical line.
2. Insulator: insulators serve as support and anchor the conductors. They insulate them from the
ground. Insulators are made of porcelain. There are two main types of insulators; pin type and
suspension type insulators.
3. Supporting Structure: This keep the conductors at a safe height from the ground and at adequate
distance from each other.

Figure 6: A Transmission Tower

Underground Cable
Electric power can also be transmitted or distributed using underground cables. The advantages of
underground cables are:
1. Less liable to fault.
2. Low maintenance cost.
3. Less chances of fault.
4. Better appearance.
The disadvantages include:
1. Greater installation cost.
2. Insulation problems.
Comparison Between Overhead System and Underground System
1. Public Safety: The underground system is safer than overhead system because all its distribution
wiring is placed underground and there are little chances of any hazard.
2. Initial Cost: The underground system is more expensive due to the high cost of cable insulation
and special components.
3. Faults: The chances of faults in underground system are very rare.
4. Appearance: The general appearance of underground cabling is better.
5. Fault Location and Repairs: If a fault occurs in an underground system, it is difficult to locate
and repair.
6. Maintenance Cost: Underground system has a very low maintenance cost due to less chances
of faults and service interruption from wind and lightening.

1.6 The distribution transformer in estates.

A distribution transformer or service transformer is a transformer that provides the final voltage
transformation in the electric power distribution system, stepping down the voltage used in the
distribution lines to the level used by the customer.
If mounted on a utility pole, they are called pole-mount transformers. If the distribution lines are
located at ground level or underground, distribution transformers are mounted on concrete pads
and locked in steel cases, thus known as distribution tap pad-mount transformers.

Distribution transformers normally have ratings less than 200 kVA, although some national
standards can allow for units up to 5000 kVA to be described as distribution transformers. Since
distribution transformers are energized for 24 hours a day (even when they don't carry any load),
reducing iron losses has an important role in their design. As they usually don't operate at full load,
they are designed to have maximum efficiency at lower loads. To have a better efficiency, voltage
regulation in these transformers should be kept to a minimum.
Distribution transformers are normally located at a service drop, where wires run from a utility
pole or underground power lines to a customer's premises. They are often used for the power
supply of facilities outside settlements, such as isolated houses, farmyards or pumping stations at
voltages below 30 kV. Another application is the power supply of the overhead wire of railways
electrified with AC. In this case single phase distribution transformers are used.
The number of customers fed by a single distribution transformer varies depending on the number
of customers in an area. Several homes may be fed from a single transformer in urban areas. Rural
distribution may require one transformer per customer, depending on mains voltage. A large
commercial or industrial complex will have multiple distribution transformers. In urban areas and
neighborhoods where the primary distribution lines run underground, pad mount transformers,
transformers in locked metal enclosures mounted on a concreted pad, are used.
1.7 The use of AC in preference to DC, Single and three-phase supplies: delta and star
connections.
The reasons for preferring AC system over DC are:

1. It is easy to maintain and change the voltage of AC electricity for transmission and

distribution.

2. Plant cost for AC transmission (circuit breakers, transformers etc.) is much lower than the

equivalent DC transmission

3. From power stations, AC is produced so it is better to use AC than DC instead of converting

it.

4. When a large fault occurs in a network, it is easier to interrupt in an AC system, as the sine

wave current will naturally tend to zero at some point making the current easier to interrupt.

5. It is easier to convert AC to DC rather than the other way around.

6. AC can be stepped up and back down with transformers quite easily whereas DC cannot

as transformers rely on a constantly changing EMF (electromotive force).

7. If the DC was left at the supply voltage over a very large distance the volt drop would be

too great and the wires would have to be enormously thick (and expensive) in order to carry

the required current.

 8. Modern technology has brought about ways to step up voltage of DC with solid state

circuitry and is becoming a possibility for the future, but it is still expensive and not quite

as efficient or reliable as the good old transformer.

Single Phase and Three Phase Supply

The AC power is a kind of electricity in which the flow of current is frequently changing directions.
The system of power supply is categorized into two namely single-phase power supply and three
phase power supply. For most industrial and businesses, three phase supply is used to run high
loads, whereas homes are generally supplied by a single phase because home appliances require
less power.
Single Phase Supply
Single phase supply is the delivery of AC power by a system in which all the supply voltages
change. In every cycle, a single-phase system voltage achieves a peak two times as shown in Figure
7. This type of phase supply provides up to 230v. The application of this supply is mostly for
running small home appliances like fans, heaters, etc.

Figure 7: Waveform of a Single-Phase Supply

Benefits of Single Phase Supply
The benefits of choosing a single-phase supply include the following:
1. The design is less complex.
2. Design cost is less.
3. Most efficient AC supply for up to 1000 watt.
Three Phase Supply
The three-phase power supply includes four wires such as one neutral is included as well as three
conductors. The three conductors are 120 degrees apart from each other as shown in Figure 8. This
supply is constant and not at all totally falls to zero.

Figure 8: Waveform of a Three Phase Supply

Benefits of Three phase Supply

1. Reduction in copper utilization
2. Facility to run high power loads.
Differences Between Single Phase and Three Phase Supplies
1. The single-phase power supply has one distinct wave cycle whereas three phase has three
distinct wave cycles.
2. Single phase require two wires to complete the circuit whereas three phase needs 3/4 wires.
3. The voltage of single phase is 230v whereas three phase voltage is 415v.
4. The capacity of power transfer in single phase is minimum as compared to three-phase.
5. The efficiency of single phase is lower than that of three-phase.
6. Single phase AC power supply is utilized for home appliances while three phase supply is used
in huge industries to run heavy loads.
Star and Delta Connection
A load generally requires two conductors to connect to, as this constitutes a closed circuit (an
exception are three-phase motors that connect to all three conductors). When power is delivered
in three phases, the designer has two distinct choices: a load can be connected either between one
phase and ground, or between one phase and another phase. In each case, the three phases will
supply three separate loads. The first arrangement, where three loads are connected between one
phase each and ground, is called a star connection (the schematic diagram resembles the letter Y)
as in Figure 9b. The second arrangement, in which three loads are connected between one pair of
phases each, is called a delta connection as shown in Figure 9a.

Figure 9: (a) Delta (b) Star Connection

For the star connection, it is obvious that the voltages (known as phase-to-ground voltages) and
currents for each load will be spaced 120 degrees apart. The same is true for the delta connection,
but it is less obvious. The choice of delta or star connection has some ramifications for reliability,
in case there should be a short circuit. The delta configuration as a whole is ungrounded or floating,
meaning that no point on the circuit is connected to ground or to any point that has a particular,
known potential. Consequently, if any part of the circuit accidentally gets grounded, the delta
circuit can continue to operate on an emergency basis. Because of this property, the delta
configuration is used where reliability is most important, such as auxiliary equipment in power
plants, or on smaller transformers.
The star configuration, by contrast, is normally grounded at the center or neutral point. The star
connection is typically used on generators, main transformer banks, and transmission lines. It is
also possible to switch between delta and star connections, which is frequently done by
transformers that are wired in a delta configuration on one side and star on the other.
Comparison between star connection and delta connection
1. Star connection is either a three or a four-wire connection while delta connection is always a
three-wire connection.
2. There is a neutral wire in star connection while there is no neutral wire in delta connection.
3. In star connection, the line voltage and phase voltage are same while in delta connection, the
line voltage and phase voltage are same.
4. In star connection, the line current and phase current is same while in delta connection, the line
current and phase current are different.
Example
Three loads each of resistance 20 ohms are connected in star. If the effective voltage induced in
each phase is 120V, calculate:
a. The phase current
Each resistor behaves as a single-phase load connected to an effective voltage of 120V. The phase
current is given by:
𝑉𝑝ℎ = 𝐼𝑝ℎ × 𝑅
𝑉𝑝ℎ 120
𝐼𝑝ℎ = = = 6𝐴
𝑅 20

b. The power dissipated in each resistor

𝑉2 1202
𝑃= = = 720𝑊
𝑅 20

Exercise
Three identical impedances are connected in delta across a 3-phase 550V line as shown in Figure
10. If the line current is 10A, calculate the following:
a. The current in each impedance
b. The value of each impedance (ohms)

Figure 10
1.8 The meaning of impedance, voltage, power and power-factor in AC supply systems.
Impedance in AC circuit
Impedance Z is the ratio of the voltage to the current, measured in Ohms. Impedance is the
opposition to the flow of sinusoidal current.

Figure 11: Impedance triangle

For a resistor, Z=R
For an inductor, Z=jωL
For a capacitor, Z=1/jωC
AC Power
In a DC circuit, the expression for power is very simple and is given by P=VI. However, in AC
circuit, the power is not a steady value as both voltage and current are alternating in nature and
they may not be in the same phase. Unlike DC power, AC power is a complex quantity which
comprises of both real and imaginary power.
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos(𝜃)
Reactive Power
Reactive power is generated from reactive elements i.e. inductance and capacitance. Its unit is VAr
and is given by:
Q = VIsinθ
The reactive power of inductance is positive while that of capacitance is negative. This is because
reactance of inductor is positive while reactance of capacitor is negative. We can therefore say
that inductor absorbs reactive power while capacitor injects reactive power.
Complex Power (Apparent Power)
The product of rms value of voltage and current in a circuit is called complex power. It is
represented by S and its unit is VA. It is given by:
S=VI*

In complex form, S=P+jQ for inductive circuit and S=P-jQ for capacitive circuit.
Power Factor
The ratio of active power to the apparent power in an AC circuit is called power factor.
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
The power factor is also equal to the cosine of the phase angle between the applied voltage and the
circuit current.
A circuit in which the current lags the voltage i.e. inductive circuit is said to have a lagging power
factor. Similarly, a circuit in which the current leads the voltage i.e. capacitive circuit is said to
have a leading power factor.
Example
1. Given that V(t) = 120cos (377t + 45º) V and I(t) = 10cos(377t − 10º)A, Find the average power
absorbed by the circuit.
Solution
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
120 10
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = cos 55
√2 √2

Pave = 344.2W

2. Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance Z=(30-j70)ohms when a voltage

V=120∠0º is applied across it.
Solution
𝑉 120∠0°
𝐼 = 𝑍 = 30−𝑗70 = 1.576∠66.8°

120 1.576
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 66.8
√2 √2

Pave = 37.24W
Exercise
1. A 3-phase motor, connected to a 400V line, draws a line current of 5A. If the power
factor of the motor is 80 percent, calculate the following:
a. The total apparent power
b. The total active power
c. The total reactive power absorbed by the machine

2. A manufacturing plant draws a total of 415 kVA from a 2400V (line to line) 3-phase line.
If the plant power factor is 87.6% lagging, calculate the impedance of the plant.
2.1 Electrical Building Services: supply, control and distribution in buildings including:
intakes, diversity.
Supply to adequate electric service to both present and future probable load has to be cost effective
and safety for convenient purpose. The function of electric power distribution of an installation is
to receive at one or more points and to deliver it to individual appliances such as lamps, motors.
The distribution system to the building is to make it almost suitable for best designed and
installation of equipment in the best position. For best distribution system the Engineer must have
details concerning the loads and knowledge of the various type of systems that are applicable to
that particular building as certain categories of building have different designing requirements and
challenges, but basic principles are common in most situation.
The basic principles requiring considerations during design of power distribution and control
system includes but not limited to the following: functions of structure for present and future, life
and flexibility of the structure, location of service entrance and the distribution equipment,
locations and characteristics of the loads, location of unit substations, demand and diversity factors
of the loads, source of power including normal, standby and emergency, distribution equipment
and motor control, type of lighting systems, installation methods, power monitoring, efficiency
and management, and finally electric utility requirements.
With emergence of communication and information technology in modern electric power and
home automation, the designer of building installation must take into consideration the operations
of smart devices both in energy data and system operation information. In general designing of an
electrical system for a given facility safety and cost are the overall goals with maximum power
quality and efficiency.
Service main
An electrical circuit is the whole path along which an electric current may flow. This path may
be divided into three parts:
1- The source of electricity (e.g. generator, transformer or battery), which supplies energy to the
supply terminals of the circuit.
2- The consuming devices, which convert the electrical energy into the desired form, such as
heat or light.
3- The wires and control gear, which convey the electricity from the supply terminals on the
premises to the consuming devices.
Power supplies to towns and villages are provided from the power stations all over the country,
via a system of overhead and underground mains and transformers which reduce the voltage in
steps from the transmission voltage to the normal mains voltage at the consumers. The National
Grid Company is responsible for the transmission of power in bulk, at 400 kV, on the Super Grid
System. The local Electricity Boards are responsible for the distribution of power from the grid
stations to domestic and industrial consumers. This is done by using a network of overhead lines
and underground cables (usually at 132 kV and 33 kV) to take the power to the main load centres,
and 11 kV overhead lines and underground cables to distribute the power to individual load centres,
where secondary sub-stations reduce the voltage to mains potential. From these sub-stations
(which can consist of pole-mounted transformers and isolating gear or ground-mounted
transformers and switch-gear), low voltage overhead and underground mains are taken to the
consumer's supply terminals (Figure 11).

Figure 12: Distribution of electricity

A.C. power is distributed mainly on three-phase networks, although in some rural areas single-
phase supplies only are available. Thus, on the low voltage side of most local transformers we
have four terminals: red, yellow and blue phases and neutral. Between each phase and the neutral
there is a voltage of 240 V (the standard voltage in Britain); between the phases the voltage is 415
V. For this reason, the secondary output voltage of transformers is given as 415/240 V. The supply
authorities are required to maintain the voltage at the consumer's supply terminals within plus or
minus 6 per cent of the nominal voltage, i.e. a 240 V single-phase supply must be kept between
224 and 256 V.

Figure 13: Three-phase, four-wire system of AC. supply

The phases are star connected, with the neutral point earthed. The voltage between any phase and
neutral is 240 V, while the voltage between any two phases is 415 V. Most domestic consumers
are provided with a single-phase supply, unless exceptionally heavy loading is anticipated. Many
industrial premises have a three-phase supply since the load may be high and heaviest machinery
is powered by three-phase motors. Direct-current (DC) is hardly ever used for distribution
purposes, although there are still a few isolated DC systems. Usually, if a DC supply is required
for particular equipment, e.g. for traction purposes, a rectifier is used to convert the alternating
current (AC). Supply to DC Special switchgear must be employed to control direct current, which
is more susceptible to switching arcs. Where DC systems still exist, they are usually transmitted
on 3-wire cable networks.
Diversity Factor: in most time the total loads determine the cable size of service main, but its
common experience that the simultaneous operation of all installed loads of a given installation
never occurs in practice, in that regards there is always some degree of adjustment to components
of loads and this fact is considered for estimating purposes by the use of a factor. It depends on
what percentage of the connected load is likely to be operating at any one time, or the 'diversity
factor' details later.
Goal of system design electrical wiring system
When considering the design of an electrical system for a given customer and facility, the
electrical engineer must consider alternate design approaches that best fit the following
according to IEE regulation.
1. Safety
2. Cost of investment
3. Service delivery
4. Flexibility and expandability
5. Maintenance cost
6. Power quality
In order to design a distribution system as basic principles the design engineer must have
information concerning the loads and knowledge of the various types of the distribution system
that are applicable. As the various categories have many specific design challenges, but certain
basics are common to all.
CABLES AND CONDUCTORS
Cables: Cables form the necessary connections between the machines which generate electricity
and apparatus which uses it. They comprise a very wide range of sizes and types. The necessary
requirements of a cable are that it should conduct electricity efficiently, cheaply and safely. A
cable should not be too small as to have a large internal voltage drop or too big so as to as cost too
much originally leading to higher costs of joints boxes etc. Its insulation should be such as to
prevent leakage of current in unwanted directions and thus minimize risk of fire and shock.
Most cables can be considered to be constructed in three parts:
• the conductor, which must be of a suitable cross-section to carry the load current;
• the insulation, which has a color or number code for identification
• and the outer sheath, which may contain some means of providing protection from
mechanical damage. Some cables have mechanical protection added on them.
Conductors: A conductor may be defined as the conducting portion of a cable, which consists of a
single wire or group of wires in contact with each other. Copper and aluminum are the material
used as conductors in power and lighting cables. Copper has lower resistivity than aluminum. On
the other hand, aluminum has about one-third the weight of copper for the same current capacity.
• Copper conductors may be annealed or hard-drawn. Annealed copper conductors are
comparatively soft and pliable and are most suitable for indoor and outdoor wires and
cables laid or fixed in position. Hard drawn copper conductors, which have a very high
tensile strength, are used as overhead wires mainly in the bare form.
• Aluminum conductors are made in all standard sizes but are used at present only in the
larger sizes. IEE Reg. 521-1 lays down that all cable conductors of cross – sectional areas
of 10mm2 or smaller shall be of copper or copper-clad aluminum.
A Solid conductor are either circular or rectangular in cross section and are used for fixed wiring.
Circular solid conductors are restricted mainly to cable cores up to 2.5 mm2, although cross-
sectional are of up to 25 mm2 are sometimes used in trunking, from the ground floor to the top
floor of a block of flats, to provide a supply point for each floor. To ensure flexibility and ease of
handling, conductors are stranded i.e a number of small wires are twisted together spirally forming
a core equivalent to a single wire of the required size. The numbers of strands are 1, 7,19,37,61,127.
The sizes of conductors range from 1.0mm2 (1/1.13mm2) to 630mm2 (127/2.52mm2). The latter
conductor, for example consists of 127 strands of circular conductor, each strand of 2.52mm2
diameter, with a total cross-sectional area of 630mm2.
 Figure 14: Sample of wiring cable

Armoured Cable: for the armoured cable which is normally for distribution network, the insulation
immediately surrounding a cable conductor is designed to withstand the cable’s working voltage
in order to prevent danger. The additional sheathing and/ or armouring is added to protect the
insulated conductors from mechanical damage. The inner sheathing works as a binder for insulated
conductors together in mult-core power cables and provides bedding to armour. Some
environments are more hazardous than others, and cables must be chosen carefully to suit those
environments; for example, a PVC-sheathed steel wire armoured cable would be used for running
underground for house services, the figure below depicting armoured cable with main part level.

Figure 15: Armoured Cable

Flexible cables and cords: Flexible wire varying in size from 0.5mm² (16/0.20) to 4mm² (56/0.30)
are called flexible cords. Flexible wires of larger sizes from 6mm² (84/0.30) to 630mm²
(2257/0.60) are called flexible cables. Flexible cords and cables are so made of fine gauge of wire
as to be much more flexible than ordinary wiring cables and are used for such purpose as from
ceiling rose to lamp holder, butyl rubber for supply to water heaters or from socket outlets to
portable apparatus.
• Cable design Procedure: The following are basic cable designs procedure:
1. Assessment of general characteristics
2. Determination of design current Ib
3. Selection of protective device having nominal rating or setting In
4. Selection of relevant rating factors
5. Divide In by the relevant rating factors (CFs) to give tabulated cable current carrying capacity
It. In cases where overloads are not likely In = Ib
6. Selection of suitable conductor size to suit It
7. Check voltage drop
8. Evaluation of shock risk
9. Evaluation of thermal risks to conductors.

LIGHTING AND POWER INSTALLATIONS

A wiring system consists of the conductor, its insulation, its mechanical protection, and the
various accessories such as joint boxes etc. The systems are named mainly in the terms of the
mechanical protection used. In considering the use of any particular wiring system, it should be
realized that no system can be ideal under all conditions. The method for wiring final circuits
may be either the loop in, three plates or the joint – box method.
• The loop-in method enables all joint or terminations to be made at ceiling roses,
luminaries’ switches, or other accessories.
– Hence all such joint remains accessible for the purpose of alterations, additions or
for testing.
– The loop-in method is used with conduit or trunking installations and although
more cable is used, the avoidance of jointed conductors in boxes is seen as a big
advantage.
• The three-plate method avoids the greater use of cable, as joints are made in the ceiling
roses which have shrouded terminals.
– The phase conductors are joined here rather than ‘looping in’ at the switch
positions.
– This method is widely used in domestic lighting installations employing wiring
such as P.V.C. sheathed P.V.C. insulated twin or 3-core cables.
The power installation involves the electrical applications that are normally supplied with high
current (3.k.w of power and above). Examples include water-heaters and cookers and electric
motors of high power. As the requirement of power are larger than those of lighting and socket
outlets as far as individual loads are concerned, each circuit must be treated individually and the
same considerations of fault level and earth protection given to each. For the wiring of motor
circuit, it is permitted to consider only the full load current of the machines but as for direct on line
starting of large motors, the starting current may be up to seven times the full load current, the
resulting drop in voltage at the time of switch-on may be sufficient to prevent starting, and
consequently heavier cable may be required to reduce the voltage drop. To avoid this problem
other starting methods may have to be considered.
Final Circuits for Socket Outlets: Sockets outlets are used for appliances that are portable or may
need to be move only occasionally. At present, two types are predominant: ring final circuits and
radial final circuits.
 Ring final socket outlets
In this system the phase, neutral and circuit protective conductors are connected to their respective
terminals at the consumer unit, looped into each socket outlet in turn and then returned to their
respective terminals in the consumer unit, thus forming a ring. Each socket outlet has two
connections back to the mains supply. The requirements for a standard domestic ring circuit are as
shown in the bullet points below. An unlimited number of socket outlets may be installed provided
the following points are considered: each socket outlet of twin or multiple sockets is to be regarded
as one socket outlet the floor area served by a single 30 A or 32 A ring final circuit must not exceed
100 m2 in domestic installations consideration must be given to the loading of the ring main,
especially in kitchens and utility rooms, which may require separate circuit(s).
when more than one ring circuit is installed in the same premises, the socket outlets installed should
be reasonably shared among the ring circuits so that the assessed load is balanced diversity between
socket outlets and permanently connected equipment has already been taken into account, and no
further diversity should be allowed immersion heaters, storage vessels in excess of 15 litres
capacity or permanently connected heating appliances forming part of a comprehensive space-
heating installation, are supplied by their own separate circuit.
 Radial Final Socket outlets
In a radial circuit the conductors do not form a loop but finish at the last outlet. As with the ring
circuit, the number of outlets in any circuit is unlimited in a floor area up to the maximum allowed.
In each case this will be determined by the estimated load and shock protection constraints. In a
radial circuit each socket outlet is fed from the previous one. Live is connected to live, neutral to
neutral and earth to earth at each socket outlet. The fuse and cable sizes are given in Appendix 15
of the IEE Regulations but circuits may also be expressed with a block diagram. The number of
permitted socket outlets is unlimited but each radial circuit must not exceed the floor area stated
and the known or estimated load.

Tests and inspections: Before any completed installations, or addition / alteration to an existing
installation may be connected to the supply, all such installation work must be inspected and tested
in order to comply with part 6 of the IEE wiring regulations. Prior to such test, full knowledge of
the installation must be established through charts, tables, etc. in order to know which tests are
required. It is then necessary to determine that:
 o All electrical equipment installed complies with the applicable standard.
o Each item of equipment, every appliance and all the installation have been correctly
selected (designer’s responsibility) and erected / installed in order to comply IEE
Regulations.
o All installed equipment and parts of the installation are not visibly damaged.

ILLUMINATION: PRINCIPLE OF ILLUMINATION.

The usual method of producing artificial light consist of rising a solid body or vapor incandescence.
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. It is basically the same thing as the radiations used in
radio and television, as radiant heat and as ultraviolet radiation and the still shorter X-rays, gamma
rays, etc. Visible light is radiation in that part of the spectrum between 380 and 760nm, to which
the human eye is sensitive. This radiation travels through space at a constant velocity of
approximately 3x108 m/s.
Definition of terms and the inverse square law.
There is some term and definition associated with basic of light; The total amount of light emitted
by a light source is called the luminous flux, measured in lumen (lm, symbol F).
1 lumen = 0.0016 watt. When this light falls on to a surface its effects depends on the
concentration of the flux, i.e. the intensity of illumination or illuminance is dependent on the
number of Lumens falling on every square meter. Illuminance is measured in Lux (symbol E) i.e.
𝐹(𝑙𝑚)
𝐸=
𝐴(𝑚2 )
The apparent brightness of a light source was originally measured by comparison the brightness
of a standard candle. The apparent brightness is called the luminous intensity or Candle-power
of the source, measured in SI unit in Candela (symbol I, cd). It is defined such that the
illuminance of a surface placed one meter from a point source of luminous intensity one candela,
in all direction is one lux. Another term is lumen-hour is the quantity of light delivered in one
hour by a flux of one lumen, is similar to watt-hour. Table I summarize the terms
Table I. Summary of illumination quantities along with their units and symbol
Name of quantity Symbol Unit
Luminous flux Lumen F
Luminous intensity Candela I
Illumination or Illuminance Lm/m2 or Lux E
Luminance or Brightness Cd/m2 L or B

Laws of illumination
1. Luminous Flux Emitted by Point Source
This can be found by considering the result of enclosing the source of luminous intensity I cd in
a sphere one 1m radius as shown in Figure 15

A = 4m
E = I lux

1m

Figure 16: Illumination emitted by point source

Since each part of the surface of the sphere is 1m from the source, it receives an illuminance = I
lux. Now total surface area of sphere = 4π m2
F= E x A
= I x 4π = 4πI lumen.
Therefore, for a uniform point source, the total luminous flux emitted is 4πI lumens.
2. Inverse Square Law
If a point source of light having a luminous intensity of I cd is placed at the center of a sphere of
radius d meters as shown Figure 16.

Figure 17: Illumination from surface of the sphere

Then each point of the surface of the sphere is d meters from the light source. The total luminous
flux emitted by the light source is 4πI lm and it falls on to an area of 4πd². Therefore, illuminance
on the surface.
E = lumens per square meter = lumens / surface area illuminated
 4𝜋𝐼 𝐼
𝐸= 2
𝑜𝑟 2 𝑖𝑛 (𝑙𝑢𝑥)
4𝜋𝑑 𝑑
This relationship is known as Inverse Square Law of Illumination.
3. The cosine rule
The illumination of surface A in figure below, will follow the inverse square law described
above.

If this surface were removed, the same luminous flux would then fall on surface B.
Since the parallel rays of light falling on the inclined surface B are spread over a larger surface
area, the illuminance will be reduced by a factor θ, and therefore, of the cosine rules this
equation is known as the cosine law known Lambert’s cosine rule.
𝐼 cos 𝜃
𝐸=
𝑑2
Example 1.
A lamp of luminous intensity 1000 cd is suspended 2 m above a laboratory bench. Calculate
the illuminance directly below the lamp:

solution
using inverse square law
I= 1000 cd
d= 2m
𝐼 1000𝑐𝑑
𝐸= 2
= = 250𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝑑 (4𝑚2 )
Example 2
A street lantern suspends a 2000 cd light source 4 m above the ground. Determine the
illuminance directly below the lamp and 3 m to one side of the lamp base.

Solution

From the figure

 At point A
𝐼 2000
𝐸= = = 125𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝑑 2 (4𝑚)2
At point B
𝑥 =?
Using Pythagoras theorem
𝑥 = √42 + 32 = 5𝑚

Now
𝐼 cos 𝜃
𝐸= 𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝑑2
4
cos 𝜃 =
5
2000 4
𝐸= × 𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 64𝑙𝑢𝑥
(5𝑚)2 5

DESIGN OF LIGHTING SCHEMES

a. Lumen Method of Calculation

The point-by-point method becomes even more complicated to apply when finding the
illumination at a point where the light is received other than a direct path. (e.g. in a room, the
illumination is not only due to the light source, but also to light reflected from the walls and
ceiling). In many cases, it may be possible to assume that the light is evenly spread over the area
to be illuminated and then a simplified method of calculation is possible. If F is the total luminous
flux produced by all the light source in use, and A= the area to be illuminated (often called the
working plane) Then if all the light emitted eventually falls on to the area concerned, the
illuminance is given by

𝐹(𝑙𝑚)
𝐸= 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝐴(𝑚2 )
b. Lumen method
Coefficient of utilization (CU): In practice, not all the light emitted by the light sources will fall
on to the working plane. The coefficient of utilization of a lighting system is defined as:

𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑠 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

Total light flux produced by all light sources

Therefore, allowing for the coefficient of utilization, the average illuminance E, over the working
plane is given by:
 F (total flux in lm) x coefficient of utilization)
A (area of working plane in cm²)
The coefficient of utilization depends on the colour and the nature of the surface of walls and
ceilings, and type of lights fittings used. Even the shape of the room and arrangement of light
sources affects its value.
Maintenance factor (Light loss factor): The lumen method of calculation can be used to calculate
the total lamp power required to illuminate a green area. However, as the output of a light source
gradually falls, due to aging of the lamps and dirt collection on the lamps and fittings, it is usual
to allow for a maintenance factor or depreciation factor when estimating the number of lamps
required.
Average light output obtained in practice
𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑀𝐹) =
Light output of new lamp

1
Depreciation factor =
Maintenance factor

E×A
Total lumens required =
(Coefficient of utilization x maintenance factor)

Values between 0.7 to 0.8 are typical for CU and MF, Knowing the total lumens and the lumen
of one lamp (selected), the number of lamps can be calculated

c. Space to Height Ratio

To obtain an even level of illumination the light sources must be evenly spaced over the
illuminated area.
The evenness of the illumination will depend to a large extent on the ratio between the height of
lamps above the working plane and the spacing between the lamps.
The space-to-height ratio also contribute to the reduction of glare- a condition of vision in which
there is discomfort and/or reduction in the ability to see significant objects, due to unsuitable
distribution or range of brightness or extreme constraints.
The space – height ratio is defined as:
Distance between lamps
Space – height ratio =
Height above working plane

Efficacy: The efficiency of a light source is often quoted in Lumens per watts. Thus:

Total light flux (Lm) = Total power (watts) x efficiency (Lm/w)

 S/2 S

S/3 if work is done

Near the wall H

Working surface level

0.85m

Figure 18: Description of space to height ratio

The working plane is often taken to be 0.85m above finished floor level. The spacing – height
ratio is taken as 1.5 if dispersive and diffusing type of fittings are used. It is taken as 1.25 for
concentrating or louvre types of fittings are used. The space between the center of a lamp and a
wall of a room is usually taken to be half the spacing between the lamps, but if a lot of work is
done near the wall, it is taken as one third of the spacing of the lamps.

Example 3
It is desired to illuminate a drawing hall with an average of 200 lux. The hall is 30m x 20m x
4m. The lamps are to be fitted from ground floor. Find the number of lamps and the wattage per
lamp for the lighting scheme. Given efficiency of the lamps as 25 lumens per watt, depreciation
factor 0.8 and coefficient of utilization 0.75, space-to height ration between 0.8 and 1.2. Draw a
suitable drawing of the arrangement.

Solution

E = 200 lux or lumens/m2

Floor area = 30 x20 =600 m2
Total flux, F = E x A = 200 x 600
= 120,000 Lumens

Desired light output = 𝐹/(𝐷𝐹 𝑥 𝐶𝑈)

= 120,000/(0.8 𝑥 0.75)=200,000 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠

Wattage per lamp = 𝐹/𝜂=200,000/25 = 8,000 W

If we take 200 W lamps, then
Number of lamps = 8000/200 = 40
Taking five rows of eight lamps, we have total distribution as shown.
Now, length of spacing comes to be 30/8=3.75 𝑚

Widthwise, spacing comes to be 20/5=4 𝑚

The lamps near the walls are kept at half the calculated spacing to keep uniformity of light
If for example, this distance is kept equal, then the light between adjacent lamps will be more as
compared to the illumination at the walls, as shown in the Figure 18.
30m

2 m

4m

4m

4m

4m

2m

3.75m/2 3.75m 3.75m 3.75m 3.75m 3.75m 3.75m 3.75 m 3.75m/2

Figure 19: Lamps spacing

New space to height ratio = 3.75/4=0.94

Widthwise space to height ratio = 4/4=1

If we now choose 80 lamps of 100W, we proceed as follows:

Widthwise space = 20/8=2.5 𝑚

Space to height ratio = 2.4/4=0.625

Length wise space comes to 30/15=3 𝑚

Space to height ratio = 3/(4 )=0.75

This scheme does not satisfy the requirements, then the process will start all over again

LAMP TECHNOLOGIES

Artificial luminous radiation can be produced from electrical energy according to two principles:
incandescence and electroluminescence.
Incandescence is the production of light via temperature elevation. The most common example is
a filament heated to white state by the circulation of an electrical current. The energy supplied is
transformed into heat by the Joule effect and into luminous flux.

Luminescence is the phenomenon of emission by a material of visible or almost visible luminous

radiation. A gas (or vapors) subjected to an electrical discharge emits luminous radiation
(Electroluminescence of gases). Since this gas does not conduct at normal temperature and
pressure, the discharge is produced by generating charged particles which permit ionization of the
gas. The nature, pressure and temperature of the gas determine the light spectrum.
Photoluminescence is the luminescence of a material exposed to visible or almost visible radiation
(ultraviolet, infrared). When the substance absorbs ultraviolet radiation and emits visible radiation
which stops a short time after energization, this is fluorescence.

• Incandescent Filament Lamps

The incandescent lamp has a filament which is heated to white heat by the passage of electric
current. The filament is normally made of tungsten. The bulbs of smaller lamps are evacuated to
prevent oxidation of the filament, but in many cases, an inert gas such as argon is introduced. This
enables the filament to be operated at higher temperatures without undue deterioration (tends to
occur in vacuum due to oxidation). The efficiency of incandescent lamps is normally about
12lm/w, larger size having higher efficiencies than smaller sizes. A recent development applied
mainly to situations where a high intensity light source is needed, such as projector or car head
lamp is the tungsten halogen lamp.

• Discharge Lamps
When an electric current is passed through certain gases visible light is produced. The gas is
normally contained in a large tube fitted with an ‘electrode’ at each end. A fairly high voltage is
required to maintain the discharge although the current is small. For most discharge lamps; the
‘striking voltage’ required is higher than the ‘running’ voltage and so some means of limiting the
running current is required. An inductor is sometimes used this for purpose or a special
transformer which provides a high striking voltage at first, and then progressively lower voltage
as the tube current increases. The colour of the light emitted depends upon the type of gas used. If
the tube of a discharge lamp containing mercury vapour is coated internally with an even layer of
fluorescent material, a considerable proportion of the ultra – violet caused by the discharge lamp
is converted into visible light. In some type of lamps, the electrodes are not heated, and are
therefore known as “cold cathode” lamps. In other types, the electrodes are heated, as this reduces
the voltage required to strike and maintain the discharge. Lamps using heated electrodes are known
as ‘hot cathodes’ lamps, a typical example being the ordinary florescent lamp.

• Fluorescent Lamps
This lamp uses a phenomenon of fluorescence to emit visible light. It is known as that certain
materials emit visible light whenever they absorb ultra-violet light, and they may be used to
produce a very efficient lamp. When the supply is switched on with the starter switch (s) closed, a
current flow through inductor (L) also known as choke and through the lamp electrodes. This initial
current heats the lamp in readiness for striking the lamp. The starting switch is opened making a
sudden interruption in the current flowing through the inductor and so causing a high voltage to
be momentarily induced. This voltage starts a discharge between the two electrodes and the current
rapidly rises to a value determined mainly by the inductance of the inductor. The starter switch is
left open while the lamp is alight, the electrodes maintaining the operating temperature as long as
they continue to pass the discharge current. In practice, the starter switch is an automatic type,
switching on when the supply is first switch on, then switching off to strike the lamp and remaining
off all the time that the lamp is alight. There are 2 types in general use, the glow type and the
thermal type.

• High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp

This type of lamp is often used for street lighting and flood lighting because it provides an efficient
and compact source with a high light output. The starting of this type of lamp is dependent on the
fact that when the lamp is cold the pressure in the tube is fairly low so that, when the supply is
switched on, a small discharge occurs between the starting electrode and the adjacent main
electrode. This discharge spreads along the tube until it reaches the other end electrode and the
main discharge starts. The tube now heats up so increasing the internal pressure which give rise to
a big increase in light output. After the lamp is switched off, it cannot be restored immediately
because the unilateral pressure is too high until the lamp cools dawn.

• Sodium Lamp
This type of lamp is also used for street lighting and similar purposes. To start this lamp, an auto
transformer is used to provide high voltage between the lamp electrodes; the transformer being
designed to have a high leakage reactance so that separate reactance is not required. The ‘U’ tube
contains a mixture of neon gas and sodium vapor and, when the lamp is cold, some of the sodium
vapor condenses to form globules of metallic sodium on the glass of the ‘U’ tube. When the lamp
is first switched on the high voltage applied causes a discharge through the neon gas. As the lamp
warms up the globules of metallic sodium vaporize, causing the pressure of the vapor to rise, and
the discharge transfers to the sodium vapor in preference to the neon gas, the light output increasing
as it warms up, until the full vapor pressure is attained. Mounting is very important to avoid
condensed sodium vapor falling on to the electrodes.