International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 4, Issue 4, December 2013

Philosophical Relevance of a Rational - Empiricist’s Epistemology for

Education

Muhammad Inuwa Usman

Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aliero, Nigeria

Abstract practice by postulating a philosophical principle

for facilitating knowledge acquisition.
Empiricism has been established as a
foundational approach to knowledge. This is
based on the fact that empiricism focuses on the 1. Introduction
sources of knowledge rather than what is known.
In assuming the modern day empiricism, we would It is often said that experience is the best
want to know to what extent empiricism justifiably teacher, or that man learn from experience. This
forms basis of knowledge and experience. This saying about men and experience provides a
paper therefore, critically examined three basic starting point for an examination of the concept of
concepts that are crucial to empirical discussions experience and its importance in man’s ability to
on education. These concepts are knowledge, learn and if necessary to teach. Such an
experience and perception. The paper examines examination into the nature of experience can be
the foundational role of empiricism in these considered relevant to education in as much as it is
concepts. The emphasis is on the concept of linked with teaching and learning. The practice of
experience and its importance in man’s ability to education borders on these two activities. The
learn and if necessary to teach. Such an study employs the approach of philosophical
examination into the nature of experience can be analysis to analyse the concept of experience and
considered relevant to education in as much as it its place in knowledge acquisition. A major goal
is linked with teaching and learning. The practice of education is the acquisition and dissemination
of education borders on these two activities. Our of knowledge. This is not to overlook other
notion of relevance lies in our contention that outcomes of the educational process such as
education must focus on the content of knowledge development of skills, attitudes and personality,
which the learners acquire, how they acquire it, among others. Notwithstanding the various facets
and as well, how to convert learning into useful to self development that may arise from an
action. The paper summed up its findings in some educational system, one salient point to bear in
postulates reflecting the empirical nature of mind is that knowledge is a principal stock in trade
knowledge and has inevitably bind knowledge for educators. The educator makes use of
acquisition with experience. The focus is on knowledge to impart further knowledge. The
rational dimension of experience in theory and practice of education involves
contradistinction to the sensual dimension that has knowledge of man and his environment since it is
been recognized by empirical thinkers over the man that carries out the planning and
year. This is because man needs to be rational in implementation of education and it is for the sake
order to work meaningfully in the world. The of man that education takes place. This paper is set
paper is on both philosophy and education. On the basically to examine the empiricist concept of
philosophical note it has examined empiricism as knowledge and its philosophical relevance to
a theory in philosophy and has adopted a rational education.
approach to it because philosophy by its nature is
a rational activity. On the educational note the
paper examined how rational empiricism could be
a useful philosophical foundation for educational

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 4, Issue 4, December 2013

2. Appraisal and analysis of knowledge Thus, justification based on consistency of

evidence for the truth of a belief is an important
The concept of knowledge could be given factor that unifies belief and truth as knowledge.
various interpretations, while one could interprete A.J. Ayer also stated the criteria for knowledge as
knowledge to mean recognition as for instance truth and certainty [3]. These two are more or less
when one claims to know a person whom he had the same thing because for none idea to be true is
met before, one can also interprete knowledge to for one to be certain of it and one is certain of
mean discovery, as for instance when one claims anything only when one possess true idea about it.
to know a person’s secrets. Also one can interpret The notion of certainty therefore connotes
knowledge as experience of truth of facts or skills. awareness since one cannot be certain of what he
Those are among possible interpretations. In any is not aware of. This theory is built on Plato’s
discussion of knowledge three things come to theory of knowledge. A close examination of some
mind. These are; the knower (the person that other scholars’ theory of knowledge also revolves
possess knowledge), the phenomenon known and around these criteria. Gilbert Ryle, defined
the assurance that the knower actually knows. knowledge on what it consists of by classifying
Many scholars have based their theories of knowledge into what he termed ‘Knowledge-How’
knowledge on these three elements. When a and ‘Knowledge-that’ [4]. This distinction is made
person shows a desire to know, there develops in between knowing how to do something and
him an inner curiosity over a particular knowing that something is the case. The first one
phenomenon. The phenomenon constitutes his centers on action while the later one centers on
object of inquiry, and such object of enquiry often belief or fact. Both are Concomitant in the sense
comes about through sensory or cognitive contact that the later is stepping stone of the first. In either
with things in the world. The inquirer claims to of the two classifications one would rightly argue
know when he experiences a feeling of certainty that knowledge is portrayed as experience that is
about the reality of his object of inquiry. This is a verified and justified in truth. This also stresses the
condition of mind that knowledge entails. Plato place of experience in knowledge acquisition. One
explains knowledge as “justified true belief” [1]. may ask how does the activity of knowing takes
The terms; belief, truth and justification are place? To this, Bamisaiye provided a clue for
considered paramount to the understanding of answering this question. She defined the activity
knowledge. This definition admits that knowledge of knowing as a ‘cognitive encounter by a learner
is essentially belief and that truth is crucial to with an object of learning and internalization of
accepting a belief as knowledge. The point of such an encounter’ [5]. This definition says that
examination in this definition is the notion of knowledge is obtained through an encounter a
‘justification’. Justification of one’s belief goes person makes with an object of inquiry but leaves
beyond mere provision of evidence. The evidence one question; whether it is the encounter that
must constantly justify what it stands for, because learner (or knower) internalizes or it is the object
it is possible to base one’s belief with regard to a of inquiry. It also raised an important question as
phenomenon on a circumstantial evidence while to whether every cognitive encounter brings about
such evidence does not justify the truth of the knowledge. To these questions one would assert
reality of such phenomenon. Bertrand Russell that every cognitive encounter exposes the mind to
attests to this when he wrote: “It is very easy to an object of inquiry not the activity of inquiry as
give examples of true beliefs that are not such, hence not every cognitive encounter
knowledge. There is the man who looks at a clock guarantees knowledge unless the truth of such
which is not going, though he thinks it is, and who encounter is internalized. Educational institutions
happens to look at it the moment when it is right, for example, function to take learner through
this man acquires a true belief as to the time of the various cognitive encounters but not all that makes
day, but cannot be said to have knowledge” [2]. the encounters actually come to know. For
According to this assertion, the man acquires a example, the teacher in the classroom adopts
true belief as to the working condition of the clock pedagogical strategies to expose the minds of the
but does not possess knowledge of it. To justify a pupils to certain objects of inquiry. This is a
belief as knowledge therefore requires not only cognitive encounter. When he evaluates his pupils
that the evidence for the belief must be true, but at the end of the lesson, he may discover that
that it must be constantly true to what it stands for. while some of his pupils know what they were

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 4, Issue 4, December 2013

taught, some do not know it even though the knowledge is experience but not every experience
pupils were involved in the cognitive encounter. is knowledge since not every experience is
accompanied with the possession of truth of the
3. Analysis of knowledge as experience reality of what is experienced. It is the search for
the truth of experience that places the knowledge
The Cartesian method of doubt provides a seeker on the place of the skeptic. Thus skepticism
beginning for our comparable analysis of these is the first experience for a knowledge seeker and
concepts. In his “Meditation” Descartes expresses such truth is realized through sensation and reason.
doubt about everything he once believed and This is to say that knowledge as experience
through his method of doubt, he establishes depends on perception in its realization of truth.
certainty of knowledge. He warns that ordinary Thus, perception is crucial to acquisition of
claim to knowledge may prove mistaken because knowledge and experience.
according to him the senses cannot be trusted since
they are sometimes deceptive [6]. It follows 4. Research rationale
therefore that sensation on its own does not
guarantee knowledge. But does it guaranty The concept of experience has been chosen as a
experience? We can assert that sensation brings point of departure in this paper because of various
about experience. Through sensation a person interpretations that could be given to it. While
becomes aware of the existence of certain some people may interpret experience as
phenomena but he may not claim knowledge of knowledge, which is the degree of knowledge that
them until he ascertains that the reality of what he a person has, some may see it purely as activity of
perceives is true to what they are. Knowledge of a the senses, which is for instance, when you
phenomenon therefore depends on the truth of the describe somebody as experiencing a fire burn.
reality of the phenomenon. One important point to Others too may interpret the concept as a function
bear in mind is that knowledge and experience are of time, as when we talk of a person’s years of
features of man’s intellectual contact with the experience at work. These and many more
world. They are interrelated terms. The Kantian possible interpretations of experience provided a
understanding of the relationship between starting point for a critical examination of the
knowledge and experience is more edifying. concept in relation to knowledge and education.
Knowledge, for Kant begins with experience as he Experience as defined by the Oxford Dictionary of
himself described it: “That all our knowledge Current English is a ‘knowledge based on personal
begins with experience there can be no doubt… in observation or contacts’. Other dictionaries define
respect of time therefore, no knowledge of ours is experience either as knowledge or as a process of
antecedents to experience but begins with it” [7]. gaining knowledge. Each of the possible
Knowledge from this passage is preceded by, and definitions makes a connection of experience with
generated from experience. This implies that there knowledge either in itself knowledge or as a
is no knowledge outside experience. But Kant’s process of knowledge acquisition. Experience is
classification of knowledge into ‘A priori’ basically a behavioral term. Even when an
(knowledge outside experience), and ‘A posteriori’ experiencer engages in mental activity such an
(knowledge that has its source in sense experience) activity depicts the behavior of the time of the
seems to indicate a contradiction by ascertaining activity. Experience therefore is the totality of
knowledge outside experience. In his explanation, man’s response to the stimulus situation. Stimulus
he takes the term ‘A priori’ as absolutely related to situation can be understood in a broad sense to
all experience. This type of knowledge could be mean all that happens within the scope of man’s
understood as pure in the sense that there is no awareness, since whatever attracts man’s attention
admixture of anything empirical in it. This stimulates him to further inquiry about himself and
provides a blend with the other term ‘A posteriori’ his environment.
which is empirical, for he contended that time and John Dewey defines experience as “trying to
space are too sources of knowledge form which ‘a something and having the thing perceptibly do
priori’ and its relation forms the basis for something to one in turn” [8]. This definition says
mathematics. For anything known, there is nothing more on experience as a concept than
contiguity in space and extension in time. One assert the point that it encompasses perception and
would deduce from these explanations that all concept formation. William James identifies

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 4, Issue 4, December 2013

experience with consciousness and distinguishes it judgment based on sensation of the object in
from conception, reasoning or thought and relation to the perceiver. This shows that sensation
associates it mainly with sensation and feeling [9]. is causally related to perception.
This is one-sided view of the concept of
experience because sensation and feeling cannot 5. Perception as related to knowledge
be dissociated from their accompanying and experience
conception, reasoning or thinking during the
process of acquisition of experience. It follows In view of the possible interpretations of
therefore that; conception, reasoning and thought knowledge and experience we decide to examine
are associates of experience too. the concepts from the empiricist’s perceptive and
Experience is a behavioral term because man’s have therefore focused on experience as
response to stimuli situation is the mark of having perception since empiricists establish a
experience. As a behavioral concept experience relationship between knowledge and experience
can be understood in terms of memory which through perception. Perception as we shall see
entails the activity of thinking and remembering, comprises of sensation and reason. As we shall see
among others, again all these phenomena bear sensation and reason constitute the core of
upon perception and concept formation. Some educational activity which takes place in the
philosophers construe memory as a source of process of teaching and learning. Perception is an
experience and knowledge. This is understood in experiential phenomenon based primarily on
the sense that some experiences are stored in sensation. It is a ‘process’ and ‘product’ word. As
memory to generate other experience. One a process word, it is instrumental to knowledge
pertinent point to bear in mind is that the concept acquisition. While as a ‘product’ word, it is the
of memory bears upon experience and is overtly culmination of every sensual activity. Knowledge
manifest in perception and concept formation, and too is essentially experiential. Perception could be
it is these that knowledge consists of. Thus, interpreted as a criterion for knowledge in the
perception is crucial to acquisition of knowledge sense that it is indisputable to having experience.
and experience. Knowledge and experience have their basis in it
The verb ‘perceive’ from which the noun and our knowledge or experience often make
‘perception’ derives, is taken from the Latin word reference to some perception. One would assert
‘perciperi’ which means ‘to attain awareness or that perception as a ‘process’ would constitute a
understanding’. Awareness and understanding are necessary first step in the process of acquisition of
two key terms that explain the concept of knowledge and experience. The second and
perception. Perception as an activity involves: complementary would be term as conception. For
person, who is a perceiver; the object of perception instance as child grow up through the use of
and; the process of awareness that perception language, he learns to give names to thing that
entails. Perception is a behavioral phenomenon constitute his perceptual data and he learns to
that involves primarily the use of the senses. It is differentiate between objects in terms of their
either limited to sensation or it incorporates reason appearances and utility and by so doing learns to
with sensation. Thomas Reid upholds that there know the relationship between them. This is
are sensations, and that whenever some instance of beginning of concept formation. His conception of
perception occurs then some sensation is height, weight, length and other qualities is
experienced. Sensations are understood by Reid as derived from his perception of objects that possess
affections or feelings which exhibit in the mind these qualities is derived from his perception of
while perception is always directed to something objects that possess these qualities. He learns to
external [10]. This can be faulted on the fact that conserve such ideas and later on use them as basis
sensation cannot be distinguished from perception for other ideas. The interrelationship of perception
in this way. We need to bear in mind that both and concept formation would be understood
sensation and perception express conditions of through a brief analysis of man’s cognitive
mind with regards external object. The first make a development, using Piaget’s analysis of the child’s
representation of object in the mind while the later intellectual development for a guide [11]. From
interprets the representations. Thus, it is the birth, a child is aware of his own existence trough
description of sensation that leads to perception. sensation and gradually begins to appreciate the
The perception built on sensation arises in existence of people and objects around him. This

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 4, Issue 4, December 2013

is overtly the beginning of his perceptual true belief form a stepping stone for our theory of
experience. This experience is primitive and knowledge. The key concepts for knowledge in
subjective. When the child begins to develop, he Plato’s theory are belief, truth and justification. It
learns to differentiate between various existents. In is on justification of belief as truth that knowledge
this way he learns to acquire knowledge of these rests and this is our point of focus. Such
various existents. This knowledge is mainly justification is based on the consistency of
subjective. As the child further develops between evidences. Akin to this is the Ayerian theory that
the ages of two to seven years, he learns the the criteria for knowledge are truth and certainty.
language and culture of the people around him. Again the notion of certainty as a criteria for
Through the use of language he learns to give knowledge buttresses Plato’s notion of
names to things that constitute his perceptual data justification as necessary for knowledge and both
and he learns to differentiate between objects in have empiricism as their foundations this is much
terms of their appearances and utility and by so more so of the notion of certainty in the sense that
doing learns to know the relationship between to ascertain a truth requires observation of facts.
them. This is the beginning of concept formation. Such observation could be made externally or
At the ages of seven to twelve, according to internally. Also Ryle’s categorization of
Piaget, the child develops capability for logical knowledge as knowledge ‘of facts’ and knowledge
thinking. He learns to organize within himself his ‘of skills’ clearly postulates knowledge as
perceptual data in order of importance and in experience since facts or skills are occurrences of
relation to which concept he takes as the mode of human experience. From these theories one would
operation. Later as the child continues to grow, he make some assumptions that: truth and experience
gradually learns to develop abstract thinking on are components of knowledge, that verification
concepts such as space, colour, time and others. and justification are essential to ascertaining the
These are actually metaphysical realities in the truth of knowledge, that knowledge is derived
sense that conceptual knowledge of them from the mental function of sorting the truth of
progresses from thinking on perceptual data in experience. These assumptions form the basis of
which they subsist to abstract thinking on the our theory of knowledge.
concepts themselves. For example, the concept of As postulated earlier, our working definition of
weight remains what it is irrespective of what is knowledge is the encounter of mind in which a
weighted since a weight consistently remains a person becomes aware of the truth of an
property of gravitation of an object especially experience. The definition is based on these
towards the centre of the earth. Both perception submissions: That knowledge is an encounter of
and conception are inclusive in the process of the mind; that truth is a condition for knowledge;
knowledge acquisition. That is to say, all that knowledge is essentially experience. First we
knowledge makes connections with some shall examine mind in relation to knowledge to
perception and in turn entails conception. analyze the submission that knowledge is an
Knowledge as experience entails perception of the encounter of the mind. In functioning through the
knower, the phenomenon known, as well as the body the mind perceives from within and outside
internalization of the truth of what is perceived. the body, under the control of the brain. Perception
from outside the body requires the agency of
6. A Theory of knowledge sensory modalities and application of reason to
interpret the sense data received. During
At his juncture we need to consider the salient perception the sense of sight for instance brings
points that emerge from various theories of upon the mind some visual images. The mind in
knowledge, experience and perception so far turn receives and interprets them to give meaning
examined. With this point we shall proffer some to them. In addition it retains the memory of these
theories of knowledge that would highlight the percepts. Similarly the auditory organ brings the
place of empiricism in any cognitive encounter sounds upon the mind. The mind again serves in
since knowledge is understood and defined in the capacity of receiving, interpreting and
terms of experience and perception and these are retaining these sounds. A similar occurrence takes
empirical phenomena. To begin with, let us place through the other sensory modalities. On the
remind ourselves with earlier theories considered. other hand perception from within the body
The Platonic theory that knowledge is justified requires that the mind makes use of some internal

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 4, Issue 4, December 2013

sense organs located in the muscles, for instance, One would believe that every school subject
to bring about information on emotional condition requires the use of reason to teach and learn. Such
of the perceiver to interpret the data received reasoning is based on date received through
accordingly. For example a person who empirical or rational means. For learning of these
experiences a hunger and his stomach rumble, the subjects to facilitate self and technological
sensation of hunger comes from within the person developments much would depend on the use of
and the reaction of the stomach is registered in the sensation and reason to teach and learn them. This
mind which in turn interprets it as a reaction to emphasizes the place of rational empiricism in
lack of food. Also let us consider a situation in education. At this juncture, we need to examine
which student experiences a feeling of discomfort the philosophical relevance of our restructured
as a result of the anxiety about his forthcoming theory to the practice of education.
examinations. The sensation o0f discomfort is
generated within the student and comes about as 8. Teaching-learning and perception
the student perceives probability of failure in the sharing
forthcoming examination. This sensation of
probability of failure is received by the mind and It has earlier been established that knowledge
interpreted along the lines of discomfort. So far we and experience entails perception. Again, teaching
have established the mind as receptor and as an experiential activity has knowledge as its
repository of knowledge. The reception and basis. One would then hold that teaching, to begin
repository of knowledge can also be functionally with, has its central focus on development of
attributed to the intellect. Apparently one may be perceptual abilities and skills. When a teacher
inclined to assume that mind and intellect are the engages in the activity of teaching he applies his
same on the ground that both of them receives and sense organs and reason to perceive certain
reorganizes ideas among their other cognitive phenomena and share his perceptions of these
functions. But the concept of mind differs from phenomena with his learners. His teaching strategy
that of intellect in the sense that the first refers to involves receiving some perceptual data and at the
the forum for reception, reorganization and same time communicating these percepts to the
preservation of ideas, while the later concerns the learners, and also provide useful guides for
level of activity of these cognitive functions. learners to internalize them and use the percepts to
generate further perceptions. Teaching as one
7. Restructured theory of knowledge, would say, is not one sided affair going on from
experience and perception the teacher to the learner. It may not be likened to
filling the learners’ intellects with ideas as one
We would summed up our restructured theory in would fill a jar with water. Rather it calls for a
the following postulates: Knowledge results from simultaneous involvement of the teacher and the
the encounter of the mind on the truth of learner in the exchange of the stimulation of
experience; knowledge requires the mind to be and perceptual growth. But there could be variations in
doesn’t exists outside the mind; truth is a the perception of the teacher and the learner. This
necessary condition for knowledge and it is would border on the level of understanding of each
attained through perception; experience is the of them and it depends on the diversity of thinking
essence of knowledge and is attained through engaged by the two parties. For example, it is
perception; perception is the core of experience possible for the learner to be carried away to some
and, like experience, it is a ‘process’ and ‘product’ distractions coming from the environment and
word; perception entails sensation and reason. make different perceptions of some phenomena
These postulates reflect the empirical nature of other than those intended by the teaching. It is also
knowledge and they inevitably bind knowledge possible for the learner to perceive the object of
acquisition with experience. They also bind the teaching differently from the teacher
two dimensional nature of empirical thought, viz; One central point to bear is that both the teacher
the sensual and rational. This paper focuses on the and the learner in any teaching and learning
rational dimension of empiricism in situation engage in sharing of perception. It is
contradistinction to the sensual dimension that has believed that they either share a similarity or
been emphasized by empirical thinkers over the dissimilarity of perceptions. They share a
years. similarity of perception when both the teacher and

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 4, Issue 4, December 2013

the learner perceive in the same way. They share Whatever method of teaching adopted, teaching
dissimilarity of perceptions when the teacher and and learning centres on sharing of perception
the learner perceive the same phenomena between the teacher and the learner. This emphasis
differently. Such similarities or differences in the need for a principle of teaching that would lay
perception could be at various levels. For example, emphasis on perception sharing as a key factor to
imagine a teacher at an elementary school teaching teaching and learning. This principle should not be
his pupils who a soldier is. On his own the teacher understood as interchangeable with method, plan
perceives a soldier as a member of the armed or structure of teaching. Rather, it should be
forces whose function is to protect the integrity of conceived as a philosophical principle for
the nation. In trying to share his perceptions he teaching. The focus is therefore on organization of
makes use of stories, pictures and illustrations to thinking and experience for sharing of perception
teach his pupils. Some of his pupils may share his between the teacher and the learner, particularly in
views that a soldier is a defender of the nation’s the classroom situation. The principle would
interest and integrity while it is possible for some advocate a democratic approach to teaching and
to centralize their perception of a soldier on the learning since it would call for a teacher and
notion that he belongs to the armed forces and learner perceiving together. The teacher’s role
therefore see him as a treat to the common man. It consists mainly in introducing sensual stimuli to
is also possible for some pupils to perceive a the learners and coordinating perceptions to make
soldier as a candidate for coup plotting and meaning out of them. By reasoning together on
political posts in the country, especially in the these perceptions he may induce them to further
African countries. Such perception could be so perception, which may be externally or internally
influenced if the government of the country is made. Such perceptions would embrace the
controlled by the military. These perceptions application of knowledge acquired from the lesson
would inevitably influence the perceiver’s ideas to daily living. This is hoped would foster self-
about soldiers and attitude to the military in awareness a basis for self development and would
general. One could see that it is possible for enhance knowledge of the environment as basis
various perceptions to emanate from the same for technological development. The use of
teaching. These perceptions may not always be sensation and reason to teach would therefore be
intended by the teacher. This therefore emphasises the constant feature of this principle I teaching.
the need for a principle of teaching that would This should reflect in the statement of lesson
guide the perception of learners and ensure objectives as well as in the method and evaluation
perception sharing between the teacher and the of teaching and learning. This would be based on
learner. the philosophical assumption that teaching and
learning particularly within a classroom situation
9. The relevance of a rational entail sharing of perception between the teacher
empiricist’s theory to education and the learner. The sharing of perception is both
empirical and rational since perception has
It is believed that no single method of teaching empirical and rational facets. Any teaching
may be considered must appropriate for teaching approach that would facilitate effective sharing of
and learning. Much depends on the nature of perception would necessarily be philosophical
subjects and subject matters among other factors. since philosophy is a rational activity that involves
While some subject could be better taught using a the use of sensation and reason to do.
particular method other subjects may require a
combination of methods for effective teaching and
learning. In terms of perception sharing, the 10. Conclusion and implications
problem solving method would create a better
forum for sharing perception between the teacher The paper was two dimensional in scope.
and the learner in the sense that both of them Firstly, it seeks to explore the epistemological
reason together to identify problems and seek theory of empiricism and incorporates in it a
solution to these problems. Other methods of rational dimension, because formal teaching and
teaching, like lecture, discussion and learning have both empirical and rational facets.
demonstration methods, would exhibit some Secondly, the paper examines the relevance of this
degrees of proneness to perception sharing. theory of knowledge to educational system. It

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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Volume 4, Issue 4, December 2013

submitted that empiricism and rationalism are not

diametrically opposed theories of knowledge; both [2] Russell, B., Human Knowledge: Its Scope and
theories can be synthesized in the sense that Limits, Allen and Unwin, London, 1948.
experience cannot be a source of knowledge unless
[3] Ayer A.J., The problem of knowledge, Harmond
it is accompanied by the use of reason neither can Sworth, Penguin Books, London, 1956.
reason alone be a source of knowledge unless it is
based on data received through sense experience. [4] Ryle G., The Concept of Mind, Harmond Sworth,
This paper is on both philosophy and education. Penguin Books, London, 1949.
On the philosophical note it has examined
empiricism as a theory in philosophy and has [5] Bamisaiye R.A., Practical Approach to Philosophy
adopted rational approach to it because philosophy of Education, A.M.D. publishers, Ibadan, 1989.
by its nature is rational activity. On the
educational note the paper examined how rational [6] Descartes, R., in E. Haldane and G.R.T., Ross,
empiricism could be a useful philosophical (trans.), The Philosophical Works of Descartes, Vol. I,
Cambridge University, London, 1979.
foundation for educational theory and practice.
Contemporary education places emphasis on [7] Kant I., Norman Kemp Smith (trans.), Critique of
technological as well as self development. These Pure Reason, Macmillan, London, 1929.
aspirations are believed to be attainable through
the study of school subjects since these subjects [8] Dewey J., Democracy and Education, Free Press,
represent various aspects of knowledge. Such a New York, 1916.
study largely takes place formally through
teaching and learning in a classroom setting. It [9] Reid T., Sir William Hamiltin, (ed.), Inquiry into the
appears that since great emphasis are placed on Human Mind, in the works of Thomas Reid, vol. 1, 6th
ed., Machachlan and Stewart, Edingburg 1963.
self and technological development as desired
outcomes of education; present day education [10] James W., in R.M. Hutchins (ed), The Great Ideas:
focuses on both rational and empirical knowledge. A Synoptic of Great Books of the Western World,
But in as much as science and technology are University Press, Chicago, 1952.
essentially for man and his development in the
world, the empirical knowledge derived from the [11] Piaget, J., The origins of Intelligence in Children,
sciences cannot be under estimated, but such University Press, New York, 1952.
knowledge would necessarily entail rationality,
since man needs to be rational in order to function
meaningfully in the world. Self development and
techno logical development among other forms of
development are achievable through the
application of lesson experiences to daily and
techno logical living. The under laying factor for
such application is the development of perceptual
abilities. This is said to be achieved through a
philosophical principle of teaching which would
teach learners to think analytically upon
information acquired and hoe to drive general
knowledge from the particular knowledge, within
the classroom, through inductive or deductive
reasoning. In general this paper has focused on
rational dimension of empiricism to emphasize the
place of reason in experience and consequently in
knowledge.

11. References
[1] Plato, Corn ford F.M., (trans.), The Republic,
University Press, Oxford, 1974.

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