Abstract:

Migration has been a historical process shaping human history, economy and culture. It re-
emerged as a strong force shaping cities and urbanization since the time of industrial revolution
in western countries, and is closely associated with urban transition influencing the demand and
supply of labour, economic growth and human wellbeing (McKeown 2004; Skeldon 2008) Rural
to urban migration is a phenomenon that has significant implications for human development,
particularly in countries like Bangladesh, where the majority of the population resides in rural
areas. This assignment explores the multifaceted impact of rural to urban migration on various
aspects of human development in Bangladesh.It examines human development index associated
with the rural urban migration. It examines economic, social, and environmental dimensions,
along with policy implications to address challenges and harness opportunities associated with
this demographic shift.
Introduction:
Bangladesh, with its densely populated rural areas, has been witnessing a steady influx of people
into urban centers in search of better livelihood opportunities, education, and improved living
standards. This rural to urban migration trend has profound implications for human development,
affecting not only the migrants themselves but also the communities they leave behind and the
urban areas they settle in. Rural to Urban migration is a response to diverse economic
opportunities across space. Historically it has played a significant role in the urbanization process
of several countries and continues to be significant in scale, even though migration rates have
slowed down in some countries (Lall, Selod and Shalizi, 2006). In Bangladesh, though rural-
urban migration has been found to be modest (accounting for around 30%of the total urban
growth), in the context of urban poverty, urban slums and informal sector employment a great
deal has been talked in reference to rural-urban population mobility. In other words, much of the
urban ills are attributed to the rural-spills. This paper is an attempt to understand the rural-to-
urban migration flows for males and females. Given the diverse spatial characteristics of the
country it is quite natural to expect that rural-urban migration rates will be varied across states
and even within the divisions of our country. rural migrants in the urban areas of a specific
district have originated from different districts located within the country. In other words, in
relation to one observation, i.e., rural-to-urban migrants in a specific district there is a spectrum
of socio-economic characteristics, which then becomes difficult to analyze.

Literature Review:
Mitra et.al (2013) in their article examines the rates of rural-to-urban migration at the district
level for both males and females, based on data from the most recent census. This would imply
that women typically accompany men when they migrate. Short-distance migrants frequently use
social networks, which are crucial in the context of migration. According to the study's findings,
intra-state rates are significantly higher than inter-state rates. Second, regardless of whether they
migrate from rural areas inside the state or outside of it, the rates of migration for men and
women are closely related. Here both primary and secondary data are used. Some policy also
recomended for solving the problem of migration from rural to urban.
Ochuko et.al (2016) analyzed in their study and the term used to describe the temporary or
permanent migration of people from one geographical area to another. This study evaluated the
effects of migration from rural to urban areas on the Ughievwen clan's home territory in Ughelli
South Local Government Area. The study region was divided into four (4) zones using the
stratified sample technique based on the geographical wards that are currently in place. Both
primary and secondary sources provided the data. moving declines with age, maybe because
older individuals have a larger psychological cost of moving. The study found that
socioeconomic, demographic, and cultural factors all have an impact on migration. It was
suggested that the best way to stop rural-urban migration would be to offer basic social amenities
like pipe-borne water and electricity in rural areas.
According to Mubarakat et.al (2019) the study used questionnaire as the tool used to collect the
data. The results indicate that there are disparate effects of rural-urban migration on Ibarapa East
Local Government development and education, which results in a shortage of labor, a lack of
qualified workers, and low productivity, particularly in the agricultural sector. Migration from
rural to urban areas is a factor in the high unemployment rate. It affects the educational
advancement of the study area and raises the incidence of juvenile delinquency crimes and other
social vices in the community. A recommendation was made, based on all the findings, that the
government should offer social and infrastructure services to rural residents, like a reliable
supply of energy and a well-maintained road network.
According to Sennuga et.al (2023) migration from rural to urban areas is a recurring problem in
the study field. Thus, the purpose of this study was to ascertain the causes of and consequences
associated with rural-urban migration in Kuje Area Council, Abuja. Descriptive statistics such as
frequency, percentage, mean scores, and standard deviation were used to aggregate the study
data. Migration has been shown to have a significant negative influence on agricultural
productivity, which lowers revenue and reduces food production. Authors used analytical
method here. According to the report, it is essential to creating innovative and appealing job
opportunities in areas that are accessible to rural dwellers, landless individuals, and poor
populations.
Cheng et.al (2015) describe in their paper about the situation of rural-urban migration. The
primary source of data for this study was the population that moved to Antananarivo, the nation's
capital, from all throughout Madagascar for various reasons. A haphazard sampling technique
was employed to choose the accused. The movement of people from one geographical area to
another for either temporary or permanent settlement is known as migration. More than ninety
percent of urbanization occurs in emerging nations, primarily affecting young adults. This
research has led to the conclusion and recommendations made at the end of the paper. The
research is based on primary data.

Objectives of the Study:

1.Impact of rural urban migration on human development
2.Economic and social impact
3.Environmental impact

Methodology:
This methodology outlines a structured approach to studying rural-urban migration and its
impacts. In this study used secondary data for research approaches to gain a comprehensive
understanding of rural-urban migration and its results. To collect information about rural urban
migration academic journals, books, government reports, and credible online sources are used.
The literature has assigned a great deal of importance to the factors at the place of origin we find
difficulty to include them while dealing with the secondary data on migration. To provide a
theoretical framework and context for the study by reviewing existing literature on rural-urban
migration. To investigate the factors driving rural-urban migration and to analyze its social,
economic, and environmental impacts on both rural and urban areas. It is properly maintained the
confidentiality of data and securing all collected information.

Causes of rural urban migration on human development:

Here are some key causes of rural-urban migration and their impacts on human development
1. Employment Opportunities: Cities typically offer more job opportunities, higher wages,
and better career prospects compared to rural areas.
2. Education: Urban areas often have better educational facilities, including schools,
colleges, and vocational training centers, which attract families seeking quality education
for their children.
 3. Healthcare: Access to superior healthcare services, including hospitals and specialized
medical treatment, draws people to urban centers.
4. Infrastructure: Urban areas generally have better infrastructure, such as reliable
electricity, clean water, and improved sanitation, which enhances the quality of life.
5. Living Standards: Higher living standards, including better housing, modern amenities,
and improved social services, make urban life more attractive.
6. Social Mobility: Cities often provide greater opportunities for social and economic
mobility, allowing individuals to improve their socioeconomic status.
7. Technology and Connectivity: Greater access to technology and better connectivity in
urban areas can lead to enhanced communication, information access, and economic
activities.
8. Economic Diversification: Urban centers offer diverse economic activities beyond
agriculture, including manufacturing, services, and technology sectors, providing a
broader range of employment options.
9. Climate and Environmental Changes: Environmental factors, such as droughts or floods
affecting rural livelihoods, can push people towards cities in search of stability.
10. Cultural and Recreational Activities: Urban areas often provide more cultural,
recreational, and entertainment options, attracting individuals seeking a more vibrant
lifestyle.

Findings and Discussion:

In an effort to obtain employment or support themselves, migrants have fled their country of
origin and sought safety in cities. Age is widely regarded as one of the most important variables
influencing decisions to migrate from rural to urban areas. The following table demonstrates that,
as of 2019, the average immigrant's age is 44 years old, with a maximum age of 75 and a
minimum age of 21. In contrast, the average age of migrants in 2012 was 37 years old. People's
decisions to relocate are influenced by their educational attainment. The vast majority of
respondents have obtained a secondary education. It has been discovered that every family
consists of three people on average. There is at least one wage earner in every family.
Table-1: Socioeconomic Characteristics of the Migrants

Source: Jnu Journal of Economics, 2012

Purpose of Rural Migration:

People relocated to cities for a variety of reasons, such as to pursue higher education, earn more
money, or have a better quality of life (Ebrahim et al., 2010; Reda et al., 2012). More than half of
migrants, according to this study's figure, go to cities in order to find work. However, 25% of
them moved from rural areas to urban ones in order to seek higher education. In addition, almost
20% of them moved to the city in search of a better quality of life.

Figure 01: Purpose of migration from Rural to urban area

 Source: Basu and Islam (2013)
Economic Condition Changes in Migrants Household:
One strategy for rural households to obtain better economic prospects is to migrate from rural to
urban areas (Howell, 2017). However, the money that migrants make suggests that their ability
to support themselves financially after moving affects their ability to make more money. The
following table shows the shift in the financial situation of migrant households from neighboring
villages that moved to the city after 2012.
Table: Economic Condition changing of Migrants

Source: Jnu Journal of Economics, 2012

According to the data presented in the previous table the average monthly income for migrant
households was roughly BDT 8,000. In 2019, the average household income was BDT 19,000
per month. The estimate of the mean monthly income difference is around BDT 11,000, and at
the 1 percent level, it is statistically significant. According to this result, the moved household's
income increased after migration, which is consistent with previous research (Reda et al., 2012;
Uddin & Firoj, 2013). We can say rural urban migration positively effect here.
Rural Urban Migration and Human Development Index:

Rural-urban migration has significantly impacted the Human Development Index (HDI) in
Bangladesh, reflecting both positive and negative consequences. On the positive side, this
migration has contributed to economic growth and human development improvements in urban
areas. Migrants often move to cities like Dhaka, Chattogram, and Gazipur seeking better
employment opportunities, particularly in the industrial and informal sectors (The Financial
Express) (PLOS). This movement has supported higher income levels and better access to
education and healthcare services in urban centers, which has positively influenced the overall
HDI of the country. For instance, Bangladesh's HDI improved from 0.394 in 1990 to 0.632 in
2019, indicating significant progress in human development indicators. And on many human
development fronts, its progress has been better than its neighbors. Bangladesh has achieved a
life expectancy at birth of nearly 73 years, compared to nearly 70 years in India and 67 years in
Pakistan. In 2019, the under-5 mortality rate per 1,000 live births was 31 in Bangladesh, 34 in
India, and 67 in Pakistan respectively. Its mean years of schooling at 6.2 years is better than that
of Pakistan (5.2 years) and Nepal (5.0 years). (The Daily Star) . However, this rapid urbanization
has also led to several challenges. The influx of rural migrants has strained urban infrastructure,
resulting in overcrowded living conditions, inadequate sanitation, and increased demand for
services such as healthcare and education, which often remain unmet (The Financial Express)
(Jagannath University) . These challenges can exacerbate urban poverty and inequality,
potentially offsetting some of the gains in human development. Additionally, while urban areas
have seen improvements, rural regions often continue to lag, creating a pronounced rural-urban
divide in terms of access to services and economic opportunities (The Daily Star).
Circular Flow of Rural-Urban Migration:

Figure: Flow of Migration

Impact of Rural to Urban Migration on Human Development in Bangladesh:

Rural-urban migration, the movement of people from countryside to cities. It has significant
impacts on both rural and urban areas. Here key points are regarding these impacts:
Economic Opportunities:
Job Creation: Migration to urban areas provides access to better employment opportunities and
higher wages, boosting individual and family incomes.
Industrial Growth: Concentration of labor in cities supports the expansion of industries and
services, driving economic growth.
Education and Skills Development:
Access to Education: Migrants and their families often gain better access to educational
institutions, improving literacy and skill levels.
Skill Enhancement: Urban areas offer more opportunities for vocational training and higher
education, contributing to human capital development.
Health and Wellbeing:
Healthcare Access: Urban areas typically have better healthcare facilities and services, leading to
improved health outcomes for migrants.
Public Health Awareness: Exposure to urban lifestyles can enhance awareness of health practices
and sanitation, reducing disease incidence.
Social and Cultural Integration:
Diverse Interactions: Urban migration promotes social and cultural integration, fostering
tolerance and broader social networks.
Gender Empowerment: Women in urban areas often have more opportunities for employment
and education, leading to greater gender equality.
Infrastructure and Services:
Improved Living Standards: Access to better infrastructure, such as transportation, housing, and
utilities, enhances the quality of life.
Public Services: Urban migration increases access to public services, including water supply,
sanitation, and electricity.
Environmental Impact:
Urban Congestion: Increased migration can strain urban infrastructure, leading to congestion and
environmental degradation.
Resource Pressure: High population density in cities puts pressure on natural resources,
impacting sustainability.
Rural Development:
Remittances: Migrants often send remittances back to rural areas, supporting families and local
economies.
Policy Recommendations:
Rural Development Programs: Implement targeted development programs in rural areas to create
job opportunities and reduce economic disparities that drive migration. Here some important
factors are attached to reduce excess migration:
 Encourage investment in local industries, particularly in economically disadvantaged
regions, to create sustainable livelihoods.
 Introduce structured work permit programs and temporary visas to regulate and manage
labor migration efficiently.
 Enhance skill development programs to align the workforce with domestic and
international labor market needs.
 Provide comprehensive support, including healthcare, education, and housing, for
refugees, particularly Rohingya refugees from Myanmar.
 Migration can lead to labor shortages in rural areas, impacting agricultural productivity
and development so authorities should make alternative plan for it.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the phenomenon of rural to urban migration in Bangladesh has multifaceted
implications on human development. While urban areas offer greater economic opportunities,
access to better healthcare, education, and overall improved living standards, the rapid influx of
rural migrants has also strained urban infrastructure and resources. This migration has
contributed to the growth of informal settlements, exacerbating issues related to housing,
sanitation, and public health in cities like Dhaka and Chittagong. Moreover, the departure of a
significant portion of the rural workforce has led to labor shortages in agricultural sectors,
potentially threatening food security and rural economic stability. However, remittances from
urban migrants can play a crucial role in improving the living standards of rural families, thus
contributing positively to human development in rural areas. Addressing the challenges and
harnessing the opportunities presented by rural to urban migration requires comprehensive policy
interventions. These should focus on sustainable urban planning, investment in rural
development, and the creation of employment opportunities across both urban and rural settings.
Only through balanced and inclusive development strategies can Bangladesh ensure that the
benefits of migration contribute to the overall human development of the nation.
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