Hindawi

International Journal of Food Science

Volume 2019, Article ID 2520179, 8 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/2520179

Review Article
Induced Ripening Agents and Their Effect on Fruit
Quality of Banana

S. D. T. Maduwanthi and R. A. U. J. Marapana

Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka

Correspondence should be addressed to S. D. T. Maduwanthi; [email protected]

Received 9 January 2019; Revised 4 March 2019; Accepted 31 March 2019; Published 2 May 2019

Academic Editor: Amy Simonne

Copyright © 2019 S. D. T. Maduwanthi and R. A. U. J. Marapana. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original work is properly cited.

Ripening is a genetically programmed highly coordinated irreversible phenomenon which includes many biochemical changes
including tissue softening, pigment changes, aroma and flavour volatile production, reduction in astringency, and many others.
Banana is one of mostly consumed fruit crops in the world. Since banana is a climactic fruit, induced ripening is essential in
commercial scale banana cultivation and distribution to assure good flavour, texture, and uniform peel colour. Ethylene gas,
acetylene gas liberated from calcium carbide, and ethephon are some of the commercial ripening agents used successfully in the
trade and they have been widely studied for their effectiveness on initiating and accelerating the ripening process and their effect
on fruit quality and health related issues. Lauryl alcohol was also shown as a ripening agent for bananas. Most studies suggest
that there is no difference in biochemical composition and sensory quality in bananas treated with chemicals that induce ripening
from naturally ripened bananas. However volatile profiles of artificially ripened bananas were shown to be considerably different
from naturally ripened bananas in some studies. This review discusses induced ripening agents and their effect on fruit quality of
bananas.

1. Ripening Physiology a phytohormone that can trigger initiation of ripening and

senescence. Based on regulatory mechanisms leading to fruit
The life of a fruit can be divided into three phases: fruit ripening, fruits can be divided into two groups: climacteric
set, fruit development, and fruit ripening. Fruit ripening and nonclimacteric fruits. Table 1 depicts classification of
is the initiation of fruit senescence which is a genetically fruits as climacteric and non climacteric fruits. In climacteric
programmed highly coordinated process of organ transfor- fruits, as ripening proceeds there is a strong respiratory peak
mation from unripe to ripe stage to yield an attractive edible with high level of ethylene production. While in noncli-
fruit [1]. It is an irreversible phenomenon involving a series macteric fruits respiration rate is almost constant or shows
of biochemical, physiological, and organoleptic changes [2]. a steady decline until senescence occurs, with little or no
These changes include changes in carbohydrate content, increase in ethylene production [4]. Therefore, climacteric
increment of sugar content, changes in colour, texture, fruits are referred to as ethylene dependent fruits and they
aroma volatiles, flavour compounds, phenolic compounds, have the capability to ripen after the harvest, often with the
and organic acids. help of exogenous ethylene. However it is generally claimed
Respiration is a process of breakdown of complex mate- that nonclimacteric fruits ripen only if they remain attached
rial in cells to simpler molecules giving energy and some spe- to the parent plant [5]. Respiratory pattern during ripening
cific molecules which are used in different cellular reactions. of several climacteric and non climacteric fruits are shown in
Thus respiration is a good indicator of cellular metabolic the Figure 1.
activity, and respiratory pattern is characteristic of the stages The relationship between ethylene and fruit ripening
in the life cycle of a fruit such as development, ripening, and has been studied for many decades. Although climacteric
senescence [3]. Fruit ripening is closely linked to ethylene, fruits are considered as ethylene dependent, it has been
 1796, 2019, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2019/2520179 by Cochrane Oman, Wiley Online Library on [18/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2 International Journal of Food Science

Climacteric fruit Non-climacteric fruits

180 Breadfruit

Cherimoya 30
160
Strawberry
ml ／2 or ＃／2 /kg-hr

ml ／2 or ＃／2 /kg-hr
140

120 Grape
20
100 Pineapple
Mango
80
Cherry
60 10
Fig
40

20 Tomato Lemon
Apple
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time units Time units

Figure 1: Respiratory pattern during ripening of climacteric and nonclimacteric fruits (source [10]).

Table 1: Classification of fruits as climacteric and nonclimacteric fruit and is an autostimulated process which is responsible for
fruits (source [4, 11]). high levels of ethylene production [6].
The ethylene biosynthesis pathway in higher plants has
Climacteric fruits Nonclimacteric fruits
been well studied. Briefly, ethylene is synthesized from
Apple Cashew
methionine. First methionine is converted to S-adenosyl-L
Apricot Cherry methionine (SAM) which is catalyzed by SAM synthetase.
Avocado Cucumber Then SAM is converted to 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic
Banana Grape acid (ACC). This conversion is catalyzed by the enzyme ACC
Blueberry Grapefruit synthase and then ACC is converted to ethylene catalyzed by
Durian Lemon ACC oxidase. Methionine is regenerated from ACC through
Guava Lime the Yang cycle [1]. Figure 2 shows the mechanism of ethylene
biosynthesis from methionine.
Kiwifruit Litchi
The Arabidopsis model system was used to study the
Mango Mandarin mechanism involved in ethylene perception and signal
Papaya Melon transduction. However, more efforts in understanding the
Passion fruit Orange ethylene response during fruit ripening have focused on the
Peach Pineapple characterization of tomato homologs. In summary, ethylene
Pear Pomegranate is perceived by receptors (ETR) in endoplasmic reticulum
Persimmon Rambutan (ER). Ethylene receptors are multigene families encoding
Plum Raspberry
two types of closely related proteins, one subfamily with
a histidine kinase domain and the other subfamily with a
Sapodilla Strawberry
serine/threonine kinase function [7]. The receptors are neg-
Tomato Watermelon ative regulators and in the absence of ethylene, constitutive
Triple Response (CTR1) gets activated. CTR1 suppresses the
ethylene response via inactivation of Ethylene Insensitive 2
(EIN2) [8]. This activates a transcriptional cascade, involving
Ethylene Insensitive 3 (EIN3)/Ethylene Insensitive 3 like 1
shown that in climacteric fruits some ripening changes occur (EIL1) as the primary transcription factor and then ERFs,
independently of ethylene; also there are some changes in which in turn regulate genes underlying ripening related
nonclimacteric fruits which are ethylene dependent. There behavior [8, 9].
are two systems of ethylene biosynthesis. System 1 represents
ethylene biosynthesis during the preclimacteric stage of
climacteric fruits as well as during the whole ripening process 2. Changes during Ripening
of nonclimacteric fruits. This is responsible for very low levels
of ethylene production and is regulated in an autoinhibitory Compositional and structural changes occur during ripening
manner. System 2 operates during the ripening of climacteric leads to the fruit being desirable and edible. Among these
 1796, 2019, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2019/2520179 by Cochrane Oman, Wiley Online Library on [18/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
International Journal of Food Science 3

plant as a model. Carotenoids are derived from terpenoids

Methionine and are synthesized in fruit at a high rate during the
transition from chloroplast to chromoplast [4]. Anthocyanins
SAM synthetase are responsible for orange, red, pink, blue and purple colours
in fruits and can be classified in to two groups as flavonoids
and phenolic compounds [17]. They are synthesized in the
S-adenosyl-L cytosol and localised in vacuoles and synthesized via the
methionine (SAM) phenylpropanoid pathway. Two classes of genes are required
for anthocyanin biosynthesis, the structural genes encoding
the enzymes that directly participate in the formation of
ACC synthase
anthocyanins and other flavonoids and the regulatory genes
that control the transcription of structural genes [18]. It has
1-aminocyclopropane-1- been reported that ethylene is involved in regulation of genes
carboxylic acid (ACC) related to anthocyanin biosynthesis [19].
Many fruits emit volatile compounds which are responsi-
ble for flavour and aroma of the certain fruit. The metabolism
ACC oxidase of fatty acids and branched amino acids act as precursors
of aroma volatiles in fruit [20]. Aroma and flavour volatile
profile of fruits mainly consist mainly of esters, alcohols,
Ethylene
aldehydes, ketones, and terpenes. Many studies have been
done to explain the association between volatile synthesis and
Figure 2: The mechanism of ethylene biosynthesis from methion- ethylene production. Ethylene treatments can enhance the
ine. aroma volatile production in mangoes and honeydew melons
[21, 22]. Further [23, 24] showed that aroma production is
reduced when ethylene biosynthesis is inhibited by using
changes, textural change is very important and a major aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) or 1-methylcyclopropane (1-
event in fruit ripening. These textural changes differ with MCP) indicating that aroma synthesis is correlated with
species where some fruits such as banana, mango, and ethylene production and action in fruits.
papaya undergo substantial softening and fruits such as Astringency which arises due to tannins in fruits shows
apple normally exhibit less softening. Textural changes and a decreasing trend during ripening of many fruits. It is
fruit softening are due to depolymerization and solubi- reported that astringency depends on the molecular structure
lization of cell wall components and loss of cell structure of tannin which determines cross linking with proteins
[12]. Change in turgor pressure and degradation of cell and glycoproteins [25]. Therefore tannins give astringent
wall polysaccharides and enzymatic degradation of starch taste when they are dissolved in saliva. An increase in the
are determinant mechanisms of fruit softening. Cell wall molecular weight of tannin by polymerization which occurs
polysaccharides such as pectin, cellulose, and hemicellulose during ripening causes a lack of astringency due to the
undergo solubilization, deesterification, and depolymeriza- insolubility of tannins [26].
tion during ripening [13]. Cell wall degrading enzymes, such
as pectin methylesterase, polygalacturonase, 𝛽-galactosidase,
endo-1,4-𝛽-d-glucanase, and many others, are involved in 3. Introduction to Banana
this mechanism. Further loss of neutral sugars and galactur-
onic acid followed by solubilization of the remaining sugar Banana (Musa spp.) is one of the most widely cultivated and
residues and oligosaccharides are also included in cell wall widely consumed fruit crops in the world. It is said to be
modifications [14]. According to gene expression analysis it as one of the earliest fruit crops which is cultivated at the
has been revealed that ethylene directly regulates the tran- beginning of the civilization. Bananas are native to South
scription of both a softening-related PpPG gene that encodes East Asia and it is cultivated in over 130 countries throughout
an 𝛼-L-arabinofuranosidase/𝛽-xylosidase (PpARF/XYL) and the tropical and subtropical regions of the world [27]. It is
an expansin (PpExp3) [15]. In some fruits such as bananas recorded as the fourth largest food crop of the world after
which contain high level of starch in the fruit flesh, enzymatic rice, wheat, and maize [28]. The annual world production of
hydrolysis of starch is a major factor in fruit softening. In bananas is around 114 million metric tons from an area of 5.6
citrus fruit, softening is mainly associated with change in million ha (FAO 2018). From this total banana production
turgor pressure, a process associated with the postharvest about 50% is consumed in cooked form which is often term
dehydration and/or loss of dry matter [11]. plantains while the rest is dessert types [29]. Brazil, India, and
Colour development is an important maturity index of Philippines are the principal countries in terms of production
many fruits and associated with ripening. In many cases the of bananas.
colour change during fruit ripening is due to the unmasking Bananas grow in a large range of environments and can
of preexisting pigments by degradation of chlorophylls and produce food all year round. In Sri Lanka, nearly 60,000 ha
synthesis of anthocyanins and carotenoids [16]. Carotenoid (20,000ha and 40,000ha in wet zone and dry and interme-
biosynthesis during ripening has been studied using tomato diate zones respectively) of land is under banana cultivation.
 1796, 2019, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2019/2520179 by Cochrane Oman, Wiley Online Library on [18/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
4 International Journal of Food Science

It covers about 54% of the total fruit lands. 13,000ha is used effective than 6 hours treatment. Lohani [38] noted 11-fold
to cultivate plantain (for curries) and other 47,000ha is used decrease in fruit firmness which occurred within two days
to cultivate dessert type [30]. There were twenty-nine banana after exogenous ethylene treatment. Further it was recorded
cultivars and two wild species in Sri Lanka [31]. According that ethylene treatment regulated up the activity of four cell
to a case study in Sri Lankan crop sector [32] currently wall hydrolases, pectin methyl esterase, polygalacturonase,
there are 55 local cultivars in Sri Lanka. Some plantain types pectate lyase, and cellulose in “Dwarf Cavendish” bananas.
of bananas identified in Sri Lanka include Alukesel (ABB),
Mondan (ABB), ElaMondan, Atamuru, and Kithala. The most
.. Acetylene. Calcium carbide when hydrolysed produces
popular dessert type bananas in Sri Lanka are Embul or
acetylene which is an ethylene analogue. Mostly in develop-
Ambul (Mysore AAB), kolikuttu (Silk AAB), Anamalu (Gros
ing countries including Sri Lanka, calcium carbide is widely
Michel AAA), Binkehel (Dwarf AAA), Rathambala (AAA),
used for artificial ripening of bananas, though it is prohibited
and Ambon (AAA) [33]. According to the Department of
by the government regulations. Hartshorn [39] conducted
Agriculture, many banana varieties grow freely all over Sri
a series of experiments to identify effects of acetylene on
Lanka, all year round. They are cultivated in large, medium,
ripening process of bananas. It was shown in this study
and small-scale orchards, and in home gardens. According to
that acetylene emits from calcium carbide can enhance
Agricultural statistics in Sri Lanka, 2015, the total production
banana ripening as treated fruits were uniformly yellow with
of banana is nearly 530, 124 MT annually.
good flavour, medium starch content, and comparatively soft
texture after 120 hours while control samples were remain
4. Induced Ripening of Bananas unripe after same period of time. According to Burg and
Burg [37] acetylene has a lower biological activity than
Fruit ripening is a combination of physiological, biochemical, ethylene and it was reported in this study that concentration
and molecular processes leading to changes in pigments, of acetylene should be 2.8 ml/L to enhance ripening of
sugar content, acid content, flavour, aroma, texture, etc. Since bananas. However Thompson and Seymour [40] reported
banana is a climacteric fruit it is usually harvested at the that bananas do not respond to acetylene at 0.01ml/L while
preclimacteric stage and for commercial purposes artificially the treatment with acetylene in 1 ml/L led to indistinguishable
ripened. Artificial ripening enables traders to minimize losses colour and soluble solids content compared to those ripened
during transportations as well to timely release the product by exposure to ethylene at same concentration. Further it was
at desired ripening stage. Bananas can be artificially ripened shown in this study that there is no significant difference in
using different ripening agents. sensory attributes between bananas treated with ethylene and
acetylene at 1ml/L when they are compared at same stage of
ripeness.
.. Ethylene Gas. The most popular method practiced in
However, calcium carbide is not generally recognized as
developed countries is application of ethylene gas in ripening
safe [41] and prohibited in Sri Lanka as in most countries
rooms. Modern banana ripening rooms are designed with
under Section 26 of the food (labelling and miscellaneous)
techniques to control temperature, humidity, and ethylene
regulation of 1993. Calcium carbide is considered as haz-
gas concentration and they are equipped with proper ven-
ardous due to several reasons. Commercial calcium carbide
tilation and exhausting systems. Banana combs are properly
contains traces of arsenic and phosphorous hydride [42, 43]
packed and kept in these rooms and then ethylene is supplied
and acetylene emitted from commercial calcium may also
at proper temperature and humidity. Mostly “catalytic gener-
contain up to 3 ppm arsenic and up to 95 ppm phosphorous
ators” are used to generate ethylene in commercial ripening
hydride [42, 44]. Arsenic and phosphorous hydride can
rooms. The concentration of ethylene required for different
be poisonous to humans and cause vomiting, diarrhoea
commodities to enhance ripening is different.
with or without blood, burning sensation of the chest and
However early in the banana history many researchers
abdomen, thirst, weakness, difficulty in swallowing, irritation
tested ethylene as an induced ripening agent. Von Loesecke
or burning in the eyes and skin, permanent aye damage, and
[34] commented that some scientists showed that ripening
so on [42]. Exposure to acetylene gas can cause headache,
of bananas can be induced by exposing them to vapour of
vertigo, dizziness, delirium, seizure, and even coma [43].
apples, which was confirmed when it was shown that ripening
of bananas can be accelerated using the vapour that had previ-
ously passed through ripe bananas. Finally, it was concluded .. Ethephon. Ethephon (2-chloroethylphosphonic acid), an
that exogenous ethylene treatment can induce ripening of ethylene releasing compound, is categorized as noncarcino-
bananas with increased rate of respiration and increased level genic to humans by IARC (International Agency for Research
of endogenous ethylene [35, 36]. Burg and Burg [37] reported on Cancer). It penetrates into the fruit and decomposes to
that low ethylene concentration as 0.1ppm is effective in accel- ethylene [45] and has been shown to hasten ripening of
erating the ripening of bananas. Dominguez and Vendrell several fruits including bananas, apples, tomatoes, mango,
[36] showed that exogenous ethylene, 100ppm treatment for peaches, citrus fruits, and guava [46–48]. Pendharkar [49]
12 hours, can immediately increase the endogenous ethylene treated bananas with different concentrations of ethephon.
and CO2 production similar to respiratory climacteric. Fur- Here it was found out that different concentrations of
ther this study showed that increment in respiration depends ethephon significantly influence chemical changes during
on time of treatment whereas 12-hour treatment was slightly ripening and 1000 ppm was found as the best concentration
 1796, 2019, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2019/2520179 by Cochrane Oman, Wiley Online Library on [18/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
International Journal of Food Science 5

of ethephon for early ripening. Nair and Singh [50] showed not significantly affect the final levels of sugar and starch
that prestorage treatments of mangoes (Mangifera indica L., content in the ripe pulp. Another study which was conducted
cv. Kensington Pride) with ethephon (500 mg/L) for five min- to examine comparative effect of acetylene and ethylene gas
utes increased TSS, TSS/acid ratio, and sugars and reduces on banana ripening showed that fruits treated with acetylene
chilling injury. Adane [51] compared ethephon treatment at 1ml/L exhibited the similar colour score and soluble solids
and traditional kerosene smoke treatment and their effect on content in fruits treated with ethylene gas. However in this
ripening of “Cavendish” bananas, where it was shown that study it was further recorded that sensory quality is the same
ethephon treated fruits demonstrated higher sensory quality. in the fruits treated with ethylene gas and acetylene gas when
Apart from being used to initiate ripening, ethephon has compared at same stage of ripeness [40]. Similar research
been recorded as plant growth regulator which can be used was conducted by Sarananda [55] where effect of acetylene
to increase fruit size, induce flowering, enhance colour, and liberated from calcium carbide on ripening of “Embul” (Musa
induce flower abscission [48]. acuminata, AAB) banana. It was clearly exhibited in this study
It has been reported that health related studies on ethep- that naturally ripened fruits have excellent sensory quality
hon has shown that it has hepatotoxic potential. Ethephon is with flesh colour, flavour, taste, and overall acceptability
an organophosphorus compound and it has been reported compared to calcium carbide treated fruits at the stage of
to get rapidly absorbed in the gut. There is a possibility of fully yellow (Colour Index-6). Nevertheless it was shown
converting ethephon into ethylene oxide, then to ethanediol that calcium carbide treated fruits achieved the same sensory
and hydroxyethyl-glutathione and mercapturic acid. Further quality when they were kept for one day more after reaching
it has been studied that it can inhibit the growth Streptomyces the fully yellow stage.
and their antibiotic production [52] According to Adane [51] smoking bananas caused deep
yellow colour with black spots on the peel with over softening
.. Other Ripening Agents. Ethylene glycol is C2 H6 O2 and while ethephon treatment gave uniform yellow colour in
commonly used as a coolant and antifreeze. Goonatilake [53] the peel at the end of the ripening period. As well Islam et
experiments on the effectiveness of ethylene glycol as a fruit al., 2018, showed that bananas treated with kerosene smoke
ripening agent have reported that when diluted with water, have significantly low levels of vitamin C. Further in this
various fruits will ripen faster in colder climactic conditions. study it was revealed that calcium carbide treated bananas
According to Stahler and Pont [54] bananas can be artificially shows high level of sulphur and trace amount of arsenic and
ripened by using alkyl alcohol containing between 6 and 14 phosphorous.
carbon atoms. Further, it has been reported, in this patent, Gandhi [61] compared natural ripening agents includ-
that lauryl alcohol is preferred to ripen green bananas and ing apple, pear, and tomato with calcium carbide. In this
treatment with 0.01% by the weight of bananas can change study it was revealed that apple is an effective ripening
bananas to completely yellow within 48 hours without any agent compared to calcium carbide and other tested natural
loss of palatability. agents and it contributed to the highest sensory acceptability.
One of the traditional methods used in Sri Lanka, as However calcium carbide treated fruits exhibited the least
well as in many other countries, is smoking. In Sri Lankan organoleptic quality compared to naturally ripened and
traditional practice, bananas are laid in a pit, covered with ethephon treated bananas in [62]. Further in this study, the
banana leaves or a sheet cover and smoke, generated from best physicochemical quality attributes such as total sugar,
burning of semidried leaves, is directed into the pit. In some vitamin C, titratable acidity, pH, and total soluble solids were
countries kerosene burners are used to generate smoke in recorded in naturally ripened banana compared to artificially
commercial scale banana ripening. Smoke is known to accel- ripened bananas, whereas controversial results were obtained
erate ripening due to the presence of acetylene, ethylene, and by Kulkarni et al., 2011, which showed that sensory quality
other unsaturated compounds which can enhance ripening and other physicochemical quality attributes were excellent in
[55, 56]. ethephon (500-1000 ppm) treated bananas compared to nat-
Some other ripening agents are ethanol, methanol, propy- urally ripened fruits at the 6th day of storage. Reference [63]
lene, and methyl jasmonate [57, 58]. Ethylene is also emitted compared ripening techniques such as ethephon, smoking,
from fruit that have already initiated to ripen and can be and keeping in low density polyethylene plastic, in Teff straw,
used to enhance ripening of other fruits. Ethylene production and in banana leaves. The results supported that smoking
can be stimulated by mechanically wounding the fruit. enhance faster ripening but led to least marketability, 28.67%
Here ethylene production is directly proportional to wound at 10th day of storage when other treatments reported more
dimensions [59]. than 83% of marketability. The reduction of marketabil-
ity of smoked bananas was due to blackening and over
softening.
5. Effect of Induced Ripening Agents on
Effect of induced ripening agents including calcium car-
Quality of Bananas
bide, potash, and leaves of Irvingia gabonensis and Jatropha
Lustre [60] compared physicochemical changes occurring curcas leaves on nutritional and mineral composition of
during natural ripening and acetylene induced ripening in bananas was studied by Sogo-Temi et al. [64]. They reported
“Saba” bananas. Here it was shown that acetylene affects the that the chemical ripening agents tested contributed to lower
rate of chemical changes during ripening; nevertheless it did levels of protein compared to biological ripening agents. Also
 1796, 2019, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2019/2520179 by Cochrane Oman, Wiley Online Library on [18/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
6 International Journal of Food Science

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The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest
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