1.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
Purpose: Used to transfer files between a client and a server.
Ports: Typically operates on ports 20 (data transfer) and 21 (control connection).
Features:
o Supports authentication (username/password) and anonymous access.
o Allows upload, download, and management of files.
Use Case: Uploading a website's files to a web server or downloading large datasets.
2. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):
Purpose: The foundation of the World Wide Web, used for transmitting hypertext
documents (web pages).
Port: Operates on port 80 (default) and port 443 for HTTPS (secure version).
Features:
o Stateless protocol; each request is independent.
o Supports GET, POST, PUT, DELETE methods for web communication.
Use Case: Browsing websites, retrieving online content, APIs.
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):
Purpose: Used to send and relay emails.
Port: Operates on ports 25, 465 (secured with SSL), and 587 (secured with STARTTLS).
Features:
o Transfers emails from clients to mail servers and between mail servers.
o Does not support retrieving emails (POP3/IMAP are used for that).
Use Case: Sending emails via email clients or automated systems.
4. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol):
Purpose: Used for managing and monitoring devices on a network (routers, switches,
servers).
Port: Operates on UDP ports 161 (data exchange) and 162 (traps/alerts).
Features:
o Uses agents to collect data from devices.
o Includes operations like GET, SET, and TRAP for device management.
Use Case: Network monitoring tools to check bandwidth usage, device status, or generate
alerts.
Queuing Mechanisms in Networking
Queuing mechanisms determine how packets are handled, prioritized, and transmitted through a
network, especially under conditions of congestion. Different types of queuing mechanisms help
manage bandwidth, reduce latency, and ensure Quality of Service (QoS) requirements.
Common Queuing Mechanisms:
1. FIFO (First-In-First-Out):
o Description: Packets are processed in the order they arrive, without prioritization.
o Advantages: Simple to implement.
o Disadvantages: No prioritization, which can lead to delays for critical traffic.
2. Priority Queuing (PQ):
o Description: Packets are classified into priority levels, and higher-priority packets are
processed before lower-priority packets.
o Advantages: Guarantees service for high-priority traffic.
o Disadvantages: Lower-priority traffic may face starvation if high-priority traffic
dominates.
3. Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ):
o Description: Assigns weights to different traffic flows, ensuring bandwidth allocation
proportional to the weights.
o Advantages: Fair allocation of bandwidth across all traffic types.
o Disadvantages: Can be complex to configure.
4. Class-Based Weighted Fair Queuing (CBWFQ):
o Description: Extends WFQ by allowing traffic classes to have defined bandwidth
allocations.
o Advantages: More granular control over traffic management.
o Disadvantages: Still subject to delays during congestion.
5. Low Latency Queuing (LLQ):
o Description: Combines CBWFQ with a strict priority queue for delay-sensitive traffic like
voice and video.
o Advantages: Ensures low latency for critical applications.
o Disadvantages: Misconfiguration can lead to bandwidth starvation for lower-priority
classes.
6. Round Robin (RR):
o Description: Each queue is served in a cyclic order.
o Advantages: Ensures all queues get a fair chance of service.
o Disadvantages: Not ideal for latency-sensitive traffic.
QoS Parameters
QoS (Quality of Service) parameters define measurable properties of network performance that
affect the delivery of data packets.
Common QoS Parameters:
1. Bandwidth:
o The amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time.
o Measured in bits per second (bps).
o Importance: Ensures enough bandwidth for critical applications (e.g., video streaming,
VoIP).
2. Latency (Delay):
o The time it takes for a packet to travel from source to destination.
o Measured in milliseconds (ms).
o Importance: Crucial for real-time applications like video conferencing and gaming.
3. Jitter:
o The variation in packet delay during transmission.
o Measured in milliseconds (ms).
o Importance: Affects real-time applications; low jitter is essential for smooth audio/video
streaming.
4. Packet Loss:
o The percentage of packets lost during transmission.
o Measured as a percentage.
o Importance: High packet loss leads to retransmissions and degraded performance,
especially for video and voice.
5. Reliability:
o The probability that data is delivered correctly and on time.
o Measured as a success rate or availability percentage.
o Importance: Ensures consistent network performance.
6. Throughput:
o The actual amount of data successfully transmitted over the network.
o Measured in bits per second (bps).
o Importance: Reflects how much data the network can handle in real conditions.
QoS and Queuing in Action
QoS relies on queuing mechanisms to enforce prioritization and guarantee service levels. For
example:
Voice-over-IP (VoIP) packets can be prioritized using LLQ to minimize latency and jitter.
Bandwidth allocation for critical applications is managed using WFQ or CBWFQ.
Let me know if you’d like an example configuration or further explanation on these concepts!
Networking Parameters: Transmission Impairment, Data Rate, and
Performance
1. Transmission Impairment
Factors that degrade signal quality during transmission:
Attenuation: Signal strength decreases over distance.
Noise: External interference distorts the signal.
Distortion: Signal changes shape due to differing frequencies traveling at varying speeds.
2. Data Rate
The rate at which data is transmitted over a network:
Measured in bits per second (bps).
Governed by the Shannon-Hartley theorem and Nyquist theorem.
Depends on bandwidth, signal quality, and error rates.
3. Performance Parameters
Key performance metrics include:
Throughput: Actual data transfer rate after accounting for losses and retransmissions.
Latency: Time delay in data transfer.
Efficiency: Ratio of useful data to total transmitted data, including overhead.
Scalability: Ability of the network to maintain performance as the number of users or devices
increases.
