See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/380875529

Recent advances on energy management and control of direct current

microgrid for smart cities and industry: A Survey

Article in Applied Energy · May 2024

DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123501

CITATIONS READS

0 102

6 authors, including:

Seydali Ferahtia Azeddine Houari

Polytech Nantes University of Nantes
36 PUBLICATIONS 587 CITATIONS 142 PUBLICATIONS 1,232 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Tudor Cioara Hegazy Rezk

Universitatea Tehnica Cluj-Napoca Minia University (Egypt)& Prince Sattam Univeristy (KSA)
146 PUBLICATIONS 2,112 CITATIONS 331 PUBLICATIONS 10,040 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Seydali Ferahtia on 25 May 2024.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Recent advances on energy management and control of direct current

microgrid for smart cities and industry: A Survey
Seydali Ferahtia a, b, *, Azeddine Houari a, Tudor Cioara c, Mohammed Bouznit d, Hegazy Rezk e,
Ali Djerioui b
a
Nantes Université, Institut de Recherche en Énergie Électrique de Nantes Atlantique, IREENA, UR, 4642, F-44600 Saint-Nazaire, France.
b
Laboratoire de Génie Electrique dept. of electrical engineering. University of M’sila. 28000 M’sila, Algeria
c
Computer Science Department, Faculty of Automation and Computer Science, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, 400114 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
d
Laboratoire d’économie et développement, Faculté des Sciences Economiques, Commerciales et des Sciences de Gestion, Université de Bejaia, 06000, Bejaia, Algeria
e
Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering in Wadi Alddawasir, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia

H I G H L I G H T S

• An overview of microgrids and their fundamentals is offered.

• A comprehensive analysis of the classifications and applications of microgrids.
• An in-depth analysis is conducted on the challenges related to the installation of microgrids.
• An overview of potential future study topics that are worth investigating in the field of microgrids.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Recently, the intent to use microgrid (MG) technology for urban, residential, and industrial applications has
DC microgrid significantly increased. Thanks to the integration of shared storage technologies, these power systems allow for
Smart cities higher penetration of distributed renewable generation (DGs) and better mitigation of imbalances between de­
Renewable energy integration,
mand and generation. This responds to social and environmental requirements in terms of decarbonizing energy
Microgrid control,
Energy management strategies
and also contributes to strengthening smart cities. DC (Direct Current) microgrids offer several advantages
compared to AC (Alternating Current) type microgrids, like superior efficiency, better control, stability,
compatibility with the DC nature of renewables and storage sources, and the absence of reactive and synchro­
nization problems. However, before fully exploiting the potential of microgrids in renewable-powered smart
grids, it is necessary to conduct further research and discussion on critical technical and socio-economic chal­
lenges. This paper presents a review of the existing state-of-the-art research in DC microgrid development,
relevant challenges related to security, communication, power quality, and operation, as well as the appropriate
control and energy management strategies to handle them. As control and energy management strategies
considerably impact other performance indicators such as operating cost, emissions, and power system safety,
this paper offers a perspective on the potential improvement of such management solutions.

1. Introduction of actions and measures are expected to be achieved in the coming years
in energy, forests, housing, transport, industry, and waste [1]. These
The excessive use of fossil fuels for electricity generation is causing programs aim to reach energy decarbonization, mitigate climate change,
global environmental concerns. Developing and developed countries promote smart cities, and sustain economic development. Indeed, the
recognize the need to protect the planet from climate change and are transition to clean alternative energy generates, in the long run, deep
working together to reduce CO2 emissions to 1000 billion equivalents by structural changes that lead to the prevention of upcoming environ­
2100, aiming to stabilize global warming at 1.5–2 ◦ C. For doing so, a set mental and economic crises [2,3]. It’s well established in the literature

* Corresponding author at: Nantes Université, Institut de Recherche en Énergie Électrique de Nantes Atlantique, IREENA, UR, 4642, F-44600 Saint-Nazaire, France
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Ferahtia).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123501
Received 25 January 2024; Received in revised form 16 April 2024; Accepted 15 May 2024
0306-2619/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
S. Ferahtia et al. Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

that promoting renewable energy is the best way to fight against climate - Load power sharing and voltage regulation in DC power systems
change and reach sustainable development [4,5]. Otherwise, the tran­ since most installed power conversion systems adopt alternating
sition to clean alternative energy is mandatory to prevent upcoming current.
environmental and economic crises. The new energy model is tran­ - Low operating costs and emissions due to the expensive DC protec­
sitioning from the existing power system’s reliance on classical fossil- tion systems, economical sizing, and operational challenges in DC
based power resources to an energy mix based mainly on renewable power systems.
energy resources (RESs) [6]. In this context, smart grid decentralization - DC microgrids enable communication and data transmission,
via management and coordination of local energy systems is an whereas extra communication systems are required compared to
emerging trend in the energy landscape. traditional power systems.
The decentralized coordination of distributed energy resources can - Energy storage systems’ protection against complex operating con­
be achieved through various models, the microgrids (MG) being a ditions is required to extend their lifespan and efficiency.
relevant example. They enable more localized control and coordination - Communication with the primary grid and prepare the microgrid to
of RES and efficient energy management while operating autonomously switch between grid-connected and isolated modes.
or in coordination with the primary grid [7]. Wind, solar, hydro, - Grounding systems and protection protocols for DC power systems
biomass, geothermal, and marine energy are some examples of RESs are immature and expensive. In addition, this paper includes a
characterized as cleaner, smarter, closer, and potentially limitless [8]. comparative study between AC and DC microgrids, DC microgrid
These local sources can be integrated at different power and voltage analysis, and perspectives.
scales into the primary grid through power electronic converters, where
they can be defined as distributed generation (DG) systems. In addition, This review article contributes to reviewing current approaches to
smart cities, representing the next generation of urban cities, require addressing difficulties in direct current (DC) and alternating current
microgrid technology. Smart cities use this technology to increase the (AC) microgrids, emphasizing their benefits, drawbacks, and practi­
effectiveness of various services, including communication, energy, and cality. The study investigates the distinctive attributes, operational in­
transportation [9]. On the other hand, microgrids are small-scale energy tricacies, and performance indicators of DC microgrids. The study
systems that may function separately or in tandem with the primary grid investigates practical implementations, case studies, and extant litera­
[10]. Integrating modern control technologies, storage systems, and ture to comprehend DC microgrid deployment’s technical, economic,
renewable energy sources enhances the resilience and sustainability of and regulatory dimensions. Additionally, this study delves into pro­
smart cities. They provide environmental sustainability, dependability, spective developments and emergent patterns in DC microgrids,
and energy efficiency in urban settings [11,12]. However, incorporating discerning possible avenues for advancement and growth. The paper
new generation sources into the old traditional power grids brings offers stakeholders a comprehensive understanding of the development
technical and economic challenges to maintaining stability and maxi­ trajectory of DC microgrids through clarification of existing technolo­
mizing financial profitability. gies and ongoing research initiatives. Table 1 presents the main parts
Based on advanced communication and management facilities, the covered by the proposed paper compared to other published review
smart grid concept is one of the most promising solutions to these ob­ papers in the context of DC microgrids.
jectives [13]. This technology provides extra options for effective elec­ The rest of this review paper is structured as follows: The microgrid
tric power generation, transport, and distribution [14]. Microgrids are components are provided in Section 2, while their applications and
becoming more attractive for self-production and self-consumption fa­ classifications are illustrated in Section 3 and Section 4, respectively.
cilities as a fundamental brick of smart grids. Indeed, MGs based on RESs Section 5 presents a comparative study between AC and DC microgrids.
are installed near final consumers and participate in greenhouse gas Sections 6 and 7 present the configuration and challenges of DC
emission reduction, minimize transportation losses, and secure the microgrids. Section 8 reports and discusses the rated DC bus voltage
power supply in case of a primary grid fault. Furthermore, this kind of classifications. Section 9 provides the control plans, while Section 10
generation, which provides an uninterrupted power supply (UPS), is presents the management strategies. The main perspectives on the
suitable for rural and isolated areas, islands, military applications, etc. DCMG’s future directions are reported in Section 11.
For these reasons, the global microgrid market is expected to rise from
$24.6 billion in 2021 to $42.3 billion by 2026, at a compound annual 2. Microgrid components
growth rate of 11.4% over 2021–2026 [15]. The prominent market
leaders in the microgrids field are ABB (Switzerland), Siemens (Ger­ Microgrid (MG) is a multisource system that combines various
many), General Electric Company (US), Schneider Electric (France), distributed generators (DGs), including RESs, energy storage systems
Bosch (Germany), Honeywell (US), and Eaton Corporation (Ireland). (ESSs), loads (controllable and non-controllable), and grid equipment
COVID-19 has significantly influenced the operations of microgrid such as control and protection systems [24,25]. MG components are
manufacturers, as well as their suppliers and distributors. Compared to defined as follows:
pre-COVID-19 levels, a drop in export shipments, project delays, and Distributed generators: Distributed generators may include emerging
poor domestic demand for microgrid hardware are projected to nega­ generation technologies such as combined heat and power (CHP) [26],
tively impact and somewhat stagnate demand for the microgrid industry fuel cells (FCs) [27], micro wind turbines, and PV [28]; and classic
in the short term due to quarantine limitations and the degradation of generators including single-phase, three-phase induction, and synchro­
fund sources [15]. On the other hand, the worldwide recovery process nous generators [29]. Fuel cell technology is one of the most promising
made cleaner electricity systems mandatory following this epidemic. technologies because of its high efficiency, modularity, scalability, and
The European Union (EU) emphasized this tendency with the Green Deal low pollutant emissions. FC technology includes the following types:
program [16]. Furthermore, the United Nations is paving the road for proton exchange membrane FC (PEMFC), alkaline FC (AFC), phosphoric
these goals to be met worldwide with goals 7 and 11 of the Sustainable acid FC (PAFC), molten carbonate FC (MCFC), solid oxide FC (SOFC),
Development Goals (SDG) [17,18]. and direct methanol FC (DMFC).
Indeed, DCMGs have various benefits over AC types. However, it is Energy storage systems: Energy storage systems (ESSs) are essential
essential to note that there are several obstacles hindering the promotion components ensuring proper functioning. The primary role of the ESS is
of DC microgrids, including: to maintain the power balance and energy demand within the MG [30].
They have other tasks, such as enhancing the power quality against load
fluctuations or intermittence of RES and supplying the necessary power
for a smooth transition from grid-connected to island-based MG

2
S. Ferahtia et al. Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

Table 1
comparative study between several review papers and the proposed paper.
Ref [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] Proposed

Market evolution Yes No Yes No No Yes

Architecture Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
DC vs. AC MGs No No No No No Yes
Classification No No No No No Yes
Applications Yes Yes No No Yes Yes
Rated voltage review No No No No No Yes
Control Yes No Yes No No Yes
Energy management system No No Yes No No Yes
Protection Yes Yes Yes Yes
Power quality Yes No No Yes
Challenges No No
Communication Yes No No Yes
Operation Yes No No Yes
Perspectives Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes

operation. Batteries, flywheels, and supercapacitors are the energy Residential applications: MGs can potentially augment energy in­
storage technologies better suited to MGs [31]. Because of their high dependence and robustness by installing sophisticated energy manage­
energy density, batteries can provide superb performance for this ment devices, solar panels, and battery storage systems. In addition,
application. with the increased number of DC residential loads, such as laptops and
MG loads: a microgrid can supply various consumer types such as LEDs, DCMGs are becoming more reliable for residential applications.
residential, commercial, and industrial. Generally, commercial and in­ Because of its compatibility with the standards of the Emerge Alliance of
dustrial consumers are crucial loads that require high power quality and buildings, 380-400 V DC bus voltage is used more in this application
reliability. Therefore, the microgrid has to manage the loads by [21].
accomplishing the following tasks [32]: Commercial applications: commercial buildings have experienced a
significant increase in energy consumption due to their characteristics,
- Load monitoring, analytics, and prediction. including high consumption ratio and building size [36]. MGs have the
- Load balancing and demand response. potential to decrease energy costs and alleviate the hazards linked to
- Load shedding for non-crucial loads to fulfill the net import/export power outages. Also, the buildings can play a significant role if they are
power in on-grid mode. operated in a coordinated manner as flexibility assets integrated with
- Stabilize the voltage and frequency in the islanded mode. the microgrids. Research efforts are needed to support the digital
- Enhance the power quality and reliability of critical loads. transformation of the buildings by proposing technological enablers and
- Load scheduling and resource planning for the resilient operation. interoperability unlocking mechanisms to allow their coordinated
operation. As reported in [37], 380 V DC bus voltage is an appropriate
DG interfacing systems: most DGs require a converter interface to choice for these buildings. Zero-net energy (ZNE) buildings are
adopt their output power with common bus-compatible power (AC or becoming more attractive and using MG technology as a power system
DC). Furthermore, the power electronic interface includes filters, mea­ [38,39]. Using PV and batteries on the rooftops is also an encouraging
surement elements, and protection systems [33]. In particular, the solution for deploying the DCMGs in these buildings. In addition,
interoperability among monitoring and control devices and microgrids buildings lose 13% of energy annually due to AC/DC conversion [40].
is an open change. At the same time, interoperability is essential to These losses can be eliminated using DCMGs. Its compatibility with
ensure efficient communication and coordination between various residential and commercial buildings makes it an excellent solution for
monitoring and control devices within the microgrid. distributing power in urban cities. This can allow the city members to
Management and control system/electronic card IC and measure­ participate in the energy market by exchanging power between them.
ment systems: the management card allows users to control and super­ This can provide economic and technical benefits [41].
vise the source and ESSs. A complete energy management solution Industrial applications: electric motor drives consume >40% of the
includes process data from the control and data acquisition systems, provided electricity [42]. If the used converters are connected to a DC
network monitoring, inverters, system automation, and more. In addi­ bus, this enables the utilization of regenerative (braking) power [43]. As
tion, the remote cards are plug-and-play for quick and immediate a result, the common DC bus configuration can be a cost-effective and
management system installation. energy-efficient option for many industrial applications. Therefore,
using DCMGs for this kind of application is a reliable solution. Its DC
3. DCMG applications: nature allows for excellent plug-and-play prospects, enabling the
attachment or disconnection of DGs or loads in the future without
Since microgrids can deliver power in a dependable, resilient, and affecting the functioning of the MG [40].
environmentally friendly manner, they have a broad range of applica­ Transportation applications: Most current propulsion systems are
tions across various industries. The following are some of the most based on AC-supplying systems. However, the emerging propulsion
essential uses of microgrids: technology may present DC-supplying systems as better solutions [44].
Smart Cities and Urban applications: By integrating with cutting- Hence, DCMGs are being presented as optimal solutions for future
edge technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT), energy manage­ transportation systems such as electric ships [45], more electric aircraft
ment systems, and demand response processes, MGs aid in the transition (MEA) [46], advanced electric vehicles (EVs) [47], ships [48,49], and
of urban infrastructures to smart cities [34]. Intelligent energy systems hybrid electric vehicles [50]. MGs-based hybrid power systems (HPSs)
and reliable electrical networks distinguish smart cities. They enable the are becoming a strategic solution for these applications. Most EVs are
integration of renewable energy resources, refueling electric vehicles, based on batteries with other storage systems, such as supercapacitors.
increase energy efficiency, facilitate demand-side management, and Furthermore, hybrid electric vehicle-based fuel cells are increasingly
innovative energy-related value-added services [11]. In the power utilized for their advantages, including high power density and alter­
paradigm, these technological characteristics and information and native storage strategies [51].
communication networks are indispensable [35]. Fast charging stations for electric vehicles (EVs): Plug-in electric

3
S. Ferahtia et al. Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

vehicles (PEVs) are gaining more and more attention in the context of 4.3. Based on size [60]:
energy decarbonization [52]. However, they require specific charging
stations due to the high consumption rate. On the other hand, a Mini MGs: designed to serve extremely small communities or indi­
microgrid as an independent power system favors self-consumption, and vidual residences, frequently in remote or rural regions, these micro­
thus, less stress is applied to the main grid [53]. Moreover, due to their grids are compact in size.
compatibility with the DC nature of charging power, DC microgrids are Medium MGs: these MGs are characterized by their smaller size and
considered an optimal solution for charging station infrastructures are primarily designed to provide electricity to specific towns, colleges,
compared with the AC type. Moreover, it is compatible with PV gener­ or smaller industrial sites.
ators commonly used in urban areas. Large MGs: these MGs may encompass a substantial geographical
The microgrid’s main applications are illustrated in Fig. 1. expanse and cater to a sizable population or industrial facility.

4. Microgrid classification:
4.4. Based on application [59]:
4.1. Based on the structure:
Urban MGs: urban areas are equipped with these microgrids in an
effort to improve energy resilience, efficiency, and sustainability.
ACMGs (Fig. 2.b): power electronics converters connect DGs and
Rural MGs: these MGs are strategically installed in remote or rural
ESSs to the AC bus. AC sources that provide variable frequency and
regions to supply dependable electricity in the absence of conventional
variable voltage are connected to the AC bus using AC/AC converters,
grid infrastructure.
while controllable AC sources are linked directly to the AC bus. Several
Embedded MGs: these MGs are designed for embedded applications
sources, such as wind turbines and low-head hydro, may require AC/
like transportation applications.
DC/AC power converters to stabilize the ACMG [54]. On the other hand,
MG general classifications are summarized in Fig. 3.
DC sources are connected to the AC bus via a DC/AC converter [55].
Furthermore, the ACMGs directly link AC loads, while DC loads require
AC/DC power converters. 5. AC versus DC MGs:
DCMGs (Fig. 2.a): DC-based DGs and ESSs connect directly to the DC
bus, providing DC power. In addition, DC-compatible loads are getting DC MGs are getting more attractive due to their considerable ad­
more popular. As a result, the DCMGs will dominate soon. In this case, vantages. The DC nature of several renewable energy sources and elec­
an AC/DC converter connects the AC sources to the DC bus [8]. trochemical storage systems reduced conversion stages to power local
Hybrid MGs: This type of MG includes both AC and DC MG features, consumers. In addition, the simplified electrical structure of this MG
where the AC sources are connected to the AC bus, and the DC sources type implies higher efficiency and more simple control since no syn­
are connected to the DC bus. A bidirectional converter connects the AC chronization and complex control is needed. Nevertheless, these power
and DC buses, allowing power to flow between them. Hybrid microgrids systems still suffer from several problems, such as safety and protection
(HMGs) comprise several parallel-connected DGs capable of operating in tools, existing codes and standards designed for AC systems, and other
island and grid-connected modes [56]. Therefore, HMGs can be issues [61,62]. According to the research reported in [63,64], the main
considered a combination of DC and AC MGs [57]. However, the HMGs characteristics of both DC and AC MGs are reported in Table 2.
require a robust management system due to the complex interaction
between the AC and DC sides [58]. 6. DCMG Configuration:

4.2. Based on operating mode [59]: The configuration of a DCMG is mainly available in four different
topologies: single-bus, multi-bus, multi-terminal, and ring architecture.
Islanded MGs (off-grid mode): due to their independence and lack of Single bus: This type of configuration is the basic one. A single bus is
connection to the main grid, MGs are able to generate electricity on their used in this configuration. All the devices, including RESs, ESSs, and
own. loads, connect in parallel, as shown in Fig. 4(a). Power electronics
Grid-connected MGs (on-grid mode): MGs can be connected to the converters must be correctly located to provide system stability and
main grid or function autonomously during grid disruptions or robustness. Because of a single bus, single-point failure may lead to
blackouts. system failure [65].
Ring architecture: As shown in Fig. 4(b), the ring configuration
offers a closed arrangement suitable for various applications. In addi­
tion, this configuration provides more reliability and security due to the
bidirectional power flow. If one busbar connection is damaged, the

Fig. 1. Microgrid applications

4
S. Ferahtia et al. Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

Fig. 2. Microgrid types according to the power type

Fig. 3. Microgrid classifications

According to [22,69], the characteristics of each one are presented in

Table 2
Table 3.
AC vs. DC MG.
DC MG AC MG 7. DCMG Challenges
Number of Medium High
converters Many problems occur due to the various features and topologies of
Transmission High: no loss associated Low: the reactive power the DC microgrid, causing the system to fail to work consistently and,
efficiency with the reactive power increases the transmission
losses
therefore, necessitating further development to meet these obstacles. As
Stability margin High: easy Low: complexed illustrated in Fig. 5, DCMG issues can be classified into four categories:
Synchronization Not required Required protection, communication, power quality, and operational.
Power supply High reliability with smooth A seamless transition is Protection issues: some issues are common in DCMGs and DCMGs,
reliability transient challenging to ensure after a
such as the restricted fault current contribution of inverter-based DG in
grid fault
Control Simple due to the absence of Complex control process due islanded mode or the incapacity of single-setting overcurrent relays to
frequency, reactive power, to voltage and frequency protect dual-mode microgrids [70]. However, two additional problems
or phase unbalance regulation and the unbalanced regarding DCMG protection should be taken into account.
problems compensation in three-phase
systems.
Load Low but promising for High due to domination of the
- Grounding: typically, two types of faults may occur on DCMGs that
compatibility future loads AC loads may damage the MG: pole-to-pole (PP) faults associated with the low
Protection system Complex and costly Simple and affordable impedance and pole-to-ground (PG) faults associated with the high
Devices No Yes impedance. These faults can be prevented by respecting the
compatibility
grounding norms [71,72]. In addition, the grounding has extra
skin effect Not existed Yes
benefits, such as improving personnel safety by decreasing the touch
voltage [73,74]. According to the international standard
opposite direction of the current flow will hold power. Therefore, this IEC60364–1 [75,76], three grounding types are expressed by two
configuration provides excellent robustness [66]. letters: TN, TT, and IT. The first letter describes the connection type,
Multi-bus: This kind of configuration combines several single-bus symbolized by T (direct connection) or I (no point is connected). The
MGs, as illustrated in Fig. 4(c). Each microgrid in a multi-bus DCMG second letter represents the connection mode between the ground
system absorbs or provides electricity to or from its neighbors [67]. This and the electrical device, and it has two symbols: T (local direct
structure makes it easier to isolate a DC MG in the event of a breakdown. connection to ground) or N (the MG provides the grounding, either as
Furthermore, the communication lines between DGs transmit control a separate protected earth wire or in combination with the neutral
signals to enhance the performance and stability of the DC microgrid conductor). Although detecting faults in a TN system is straightfor­
[68]. ward due to the low grounding resistance, personnel safety cannot be

5
S. Ferahtia et al. Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

Fig. 4. Microgrid structures.

Table 3
DCMG Topology Characteristics.
Topology Explanation Advantages Reliability Application

- High dynamic stability. Residential

Single bus All the sources are connected to a single line - Improved ESS reliability. ++ Commercial
- Improved voltage regulation Transportation
- High controllability of power flow.
Commercial
Multi-bus Multiple Single bus MGs connected in series and parallel - A possible connection between LV and MV MGs. +
Auxiliary grid
- UPS.
- UPS. Commercial
Multi-terminal A structure that provides the power flow in multiple directions ++
- Reliable operation Industrial
Ring Closed-loop topology Bidirectional load supplying ++ Industrial

Fig. 5. DC Microgrid’s main issues

assured as the touch voltage may exceed the permitted limit. On the renewable DG output, power quality problems such as voltage fluctua­
other hand, IT systems are good candidates for maximizing human tions, harmonics, reactive power compensation, and frequency de­
safety because of their low fault currents, but fault detection in such viations will become more significant in MGs. DCMGs have low power
systems is difficult [77]. As a result, developing an optimal quality issues compared to AC and hybrid types. The main power quality
grounding model that satisfies human safety criteria and fault problems in DCMGs focus on reducing the voltage and current ripple.
detection is difficult. Ripple control may be achieved by increasing the capacitors in the DC
- No zero-crossing current: the functioning of circuit breakers (CBs) bus [81]. However, operating DCMG in islanded and on-grid modes can
in both AC and DC networks is associated with arc phenomena. lead to other power quality problems [82]. These problems include:
Because AC CBs rely on the natural interruption of AC currents, they
can generally discern an arc within half a cycle after tripping. - Voltage transient from AC grid: According to [83], the transient
However, because DC currents have no natural zero-crossing point, over-voltage in these circumstances reaches 194% of the standard
interruption of currents is a significant issue that poses a substantial voltage and is balanced off at 111% of the standard voltage. This
safety risk to personnel and causes contact corrosion that will reduce might be a very unsafe level for other devices using a similar DC bus.
their lifespan [78,79]. Moreover, the fault current levels are - Harmonics and Electromagnetic Interference compatibility: The
commonly very high because of the low impedance of DC systems. high operating frequency of many DC-DC converters might produce
electromagnetic interference. Moreover, the converter’s capacitor
Communication issues: communication is a critical issue in can produce multiple resonance frequencies and increase the
achieving the reliability and efficiency of the system since it has a sub­ impedance of the bus cable [84].
stantial impact on the MG design, including topology, operating mode, - Inrush currents: the power electronic converters are equipped with
control, protection, and energy management systems. MG has adopted electromagnetic interference filters. However, the inrush current
several communication methods, including wireless and optical fiber, to that passes through these filters will produce voltage fluctuations in
ensure stable and effective MG operations. In addition, the communi­ the DC bus and ultimately affect the operation of other devices
cation system delivers voltage and current information to manage the connected to the common DC bus [85].
MG operating mode [80].
Power quality issues: due to the combination of nonlinear load and Operational issues: power-sharing between various DGs under

6
S. Ferahtia et al. Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

different operating conditions is a significant issue regarding the per­ potential risk of damage to end users [100].
formance of MG. The main objective of the MG is to supply the users
with high-quality power, so the response to the power demand must be 9. DCMG Stability and Control Strategies:
considered [86]. Moreover, integrating various DG types with different
characteristics may lead to stability problems. Hence, controlling the Usually, each DC-DC converter is built to provide strong stability
parallel operation of the DGs is a crucial step [63]. The power generation margins and reach certain performance levels while working indepen­
of each DG has its characteristics and limitations that must be included, dently. Nevertheless, the interaction between the many DC-DC con­
such as the dynamics, capacity, and nature of the DG [27]. As the verters in the network might impact the overall performance and
permeability of power electronic devices with low inertia compared possibly result in instability. In addition, unlike constant impedance and
with power systems based on generative machines [87,88] increases, the current loads, which typically do not affect stability, constant power
conventional power system’s rotating reserve capacity and rotational loads (CPLs) might result in network instability owing to their negative
inertia will diminish. Furthermore, the microgrid exhibits inadequate impedance characteristics. DCMGs often have stability problems when
anti-disturbance capabilities and stability when operating in islanding they have CPLs, which happen when filters with low impedance do not
mode [89]. As a result, many researchers have developed design match up with strictly regulated power converters [101]. Additionally,
methods for virtual synchronous generators (VSGs) that let inverters electronic loads and speed-regulated motor systems can produce
using VSG control strategies mimic the working characteristics of syn­ destabilizing effects [102]. Therefore, ensuring network stability is
chronous generators. This makes it easier for microgrids and power essential to a DCMG. This can be achieved using feedback control
systems to work together smoothly and improves the stability of mechanisms to regulate voltage and current at the converters’ local
microgrids [90]. control level [103].
Social issues: social acceptance is one of the most significant social Averaging and linearization are the most common methods for
problems [91–94]. It includes community acceptance, sociopolitical modeling and analyzing switching power converters in DCMGs. This
acceptance, and market acceptance. At the community level, social method provides small-signal models valid for frequencies up to half of
acceptability is significantly influenced by member behavior and active the switching frequency but provides accurate analysis around the
participation in initiatives. Other social issues can be faced during the quiescent operating point [104]. The impedance-based approach sim­
evolution of DCMG, such as decision-making and investment challenges, plifies the dynamic analysis and design of DC MGs by defining
especially for the local communities, due to a lack of resources and ca­ straightforward stability criteria for every individual subsystem through
pacity and stakeholder contact, participation, and coordination issues convenient impedance specifications [105]. However, the stability re­
[95,96]. sults for impedance criteria rely heavily on selecting the point in the
system, which is broken into load and source subsystems [106]. They
8. Rated DC bus voltage classifications: provide only sufficient stability conditions and assume unidirectional
power flow, making them inapplicable to systems where ESSes are used
Another critical aspect to be tackled is the voltage levels for DCMGs. on the load side [107]. The system should be well-tuned before applying
The compatible voltage ranges are necessary to adapt the i-AFE con­ a filter, and a full-order state-space approach can be used as an
verter architecture to current DC load standards [97]. The IEC publi­ alternative.
cation [98] summarizes the primary rated voltages utilized in direct Designing a control strategy for the DCMG should include a list of
current applications, as illustrated in Fig. 6. controlling objectives, such as guaranteeing stability and reliability,
In houses and offices, there are many DC loads. However, it is enhancing global performance and efficiency, protecting the MG ele­
required to protect safety from electric shocks, making using extra-low ments, and managing the power flow within the MG. This is achievable
DC voltage (ELDCV) levels appealing. Furthermore, several industrial by implementing a proper control strategy. The literature review clas­
systems use ELDCV to facilitate servicing and repair. Many crucial DC sifies control strategies into three categories [108]: centralized, decen­
loads in telecommunications, for example, are powered by 12, 24, or 48 tralized, and distributed. An illustrative classification of various types is
V. Large currents and long distances result in substantial power losses, presented in Fig. 7.
which inherently restricts ELDCV buses in terms of power processing
and distance. As a result, ELDCV buses should only be used across short 9.1. Centralized control strategies:
distances and at modest power levels (>1 kW). Low DC voltage (LDCV)
values between 350 and 450 V are often employed in data centers, racks, To establish centralized control in DCMGs, a central controller
servers, and other industrial applications. The amount of electricity (MGCC) system and a digital communication network link the CC with
handled can be increased thanks to these LDCV levels [99,100]. The the power sources and loads, as shown in Fig. 8(a). The MG central
primary challenge for the high DC voltage levels (HDCV) (600–900 V controller (MGCC) receives data from the DG units and sends command
and 1–1.5 kV) relates to safety and protection needs. These voltage signals back to each unit for centralized control strategies. For small-
ranges are not typical for residential-scale microgrids due to the scale DCMGs can be directly controlled via master-slave control strate­
gies [109,110]. In the case of larger-scale MGs, hierarchical control is
favored on account of its autonomy and dependability [111,112]. Local
converter control is utilized as a primary control level in hierarchical
control. Secondary and tertiary control levels regulate DC voltage,
control power flow, and grid-interactive control objectives such as unit
commitment and global optimization, which are coordinated functions.
The hierarchical control structure has been introduced as one of the
most successful control strategies [111,113]. Its structure is based on
primary, secondary, and tertiary levels [111,114]. The primary control
is decentralized control, which mainly includes voltage loop and current
regulation loops, DG MPPT control, and state of charge estimation for
each storage unit. It has a fast dynamic response to real-time regulation
[115,116]. Secondary control is associated with voltage correction and
load-sharing performance improvement. It is concerned with controlling
Fig. 6. DC bus voltage levels for existing applications [98]. the DC bus voltage [117,118]. The tertiary control level can schedule the

7
S. Ferahtia et al. Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

Fig. 7. DC Microgrid’s main category control strategies

Fig. 8. Microgrid control strategies.

MG operating mode, the exchanged energy, the load prediction, and they humans or machines, which provide a transparent, verifiable, and
response, forecast the DG production, evaluate the power quality, and secure framework for, e.g., following the demand signal and trading
optimize the global performance. All of these tasks are provided by the energy flexibility. The droop control strategy is the most used strategy.
energy management strategy implemented at the MGCC level [119]. However, determining the droop parameters is problematic because the
However, this technique has several disadvantages regarding the current sharing, accuracy, and system stability depend on the droop
decentralized topology, including single-point failure, less battery life, parameters [125,126]. Moreover, with limited communication, full
and weak scalability [103]. control cannot be possible. These control strategies offer several bene­
fits, such as simplicity and autonomy from digital communication
9.2. Decentralized control strategies: technology, but the absence of information from other units inherently
constrains their performance. Furthermore, considering that the efficacy
Each DG unit generates its control signal in the case of decentralized and dependability of these approaches are unfailingly contingent on the
control strategies. Droop control strategy, power line signaling (PLS), interpretation of the voltage in the common DC bus, the precision of
and distributed DC bus signaling (DBS) are the most common decen­ voltage sensors is crucial.
tralized control strategies [120]. Lately, the decentralized management
of microgrids has focused on using blockchain or other distributed led­ 9.3. Distributed control strategies
gers to facilitate peer-to-peer exchanges among prosumers or energy
assets [121–124]. In such approaches, the blockchain will store immu­ Distributed control is a control approach in which no central and
table energy transactions based on digitally signed energy-related data local controllers (LCs) interact only with each other. Distributed control
acquired by intelligent devices installed at the prosumers’ sites. At the strategies may perform duties comparable to centralized methods using
microgrid level, the blockchain network is established, and the pro­ digital communication. Fig. 8(b) shows the distributed topology. They
sumer, as a network peer, maintains the blockchain and receives noti­ collect and analyze data using consensus-based algorithms or direct
fications from peer nodes when new energy transactions are generated. means, which improves dependability by eliminating any single point of
Prosumers can trade energy among themselves to increase their profits failure [127,128]. The distributed control technique may effectively
or contribute to microgrid objectives, such as balancing demand and regulate voltage fluctuations while fulfilling tertiary-level goals like load
supply, reducing energy exchanges with the primary grid, and sharing or economic dispatch [129]. Distributed control provides a level
increasing local renewable energy usage. Smart contracts implement the of information awareness that is similar to centralized control. This al­
control logic in these cases. Similarly, demand response programs can be lows for achieving goals such as sharing output current, autonomous
implemented in microgrids using blockchain overlays. Intelligent con­ voltage restoring, power sharing, improving global efficiency, and
tracts will monitor the demand response process for correctness, balancing state of charge (SoC) [130,131]. One primary benefit of this
compliance, and control according to predefined rules. These can technique is that it allows the system to retain complete functionality
encode, execute, and enforce arbitrary agreements between entities, be even if certain communication links fail, as long as the communication

8
S. Ferahtia et al. Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

network remains connected. Distributed control is, therefore, imper­ without previous information about the load profile [136]. Determin­
vious to singular points of failure [120]. Nevertheless, its primary istic rule strategies, also known as static logic threshold techniques
drawback is the intricacy of its analytical performance analysis, partic­ [137], formulate rules with specific goals such as grid independence,
ularly in nonideal settings. Moreover, thorough mathematical analysis cost savings, and diminished emissions. Look-up tables [138], filter-
continues to be difficult, particularly under nonideal conditions such as based control (FBC) [139], wavelet transform [140,141], load follow
communication delays, measurement noise, and inadequate electrical control (LFC) strategy [142], and state machine control (SMC) strategy
control systems. Therefore, this type is not achievable for large-scale [143–145] are the most common deterministic rule strategies. Due to
MGs. their minimal complexity, FBC, SMC, and wavelet-based EMS are the
Table 4 compares centralized, decentralized, and distributed MG simplest techniques for allocating the power reference via frequency
control strategies. division. Nevertheless, it is unstable in the case of large input variations.
Furthermore, it is incapable of responding to complex and changing
10. DCMG Management system operational circumstances. Linear programming (LP) [146] and mixed-
integer linear programming (MILP) are two different approaches used to
Each microgrid has a management system (MS) that includes manage power flow on DCMGs [147–149]. Furthermore, designers have
monitoring, control systems, and electronic interfaces. In addition, it utilized rule-based strategies in numerous DCMGs. It is possible to
tacks on voltage level control, power balancing, load sharing, and benefit from integrating new communication systems like the internet of
shedding [86]. According to the implemented energy management things (IoT) to design more advanced strategies. Authors in [150] pro­
strategy (EMS) in the control system, the MG operates in islanding (off- vided a DMS based on MILP for an IoT-enabled grid. Nonetheless, the
grid) mode without connection with the primary grid or in grid- effectiveness of these strategies heavily depends on the designer’s
connected (on-grid). In grid-connected operating mode, the MG ex­ knowledge and engineering experience. Therefore, determining the
changes power with the primary grid by absorbing or injecting it. The power system’s optimal operating point is complicated.
locally generated power will supply the loads if the MG operates in Artificial intelligence-based strategies: EMSs in this category are
islanding mode. The management system architecture is illustrated in developed based on artificial intelligence (AI) approaches like fuzzy
Fig. 9. logic (FL), neural networks (NN), and machine learning (ML).
The MS tasks are presented in Fig. 10, including forecasting, FL-based management strategies: Incorporating fuzzy logic (FL) into
analyzing, and optimizing tasks and real-time controlling tasks. These the EMS provides soft switching between rules, improved stability, and
tasks are executed based on data optimization variables (DG genera­ performance. FL is simple to build and offers a high level of resilience.
tion), load power, storage, meteorological conditions, and electricity One of the main advantages of FL is its ability to be modified and altered,
market prices [132,133]. which increases the degree of flexibility of EMS. Conventional FL
According to [134], the specific functions of the MS can be listed in [151,152], type 2 FL [153], predictive FL [154], and adaptive FL
Table 5. [155,156] are examples of FL-based EMSs. These strategies are insen­
The energy management strategy (EMS) is a multi-objective strategy sitive to model errors and have robust techniques for dealing with sys­
that responds to technological, financial, and environmental problems. tem disruptions; nonetheless, they need an accurate design and faster
The principal purposes are to improve system reliability, energy microcontrollers.
scheduling, and operation in both on-grid and islanded modes. There­ NN-based management strategies: these methods include ANN
fore, developing the energy management strategy (EMS) can enhance [157], recursive neural network (RNN) [158], and ANFIS [159,160].
the operation of the MG. This topic is gaining more attention due to its These methods can perform better; nevertheless, they require a database
enormous impact on the performance of the MG. The MGCC and the LCs to train these systems.
control and coordinate the whole MG operation using a communication ML-based management strategies: Reinforcement learning (RL)
network known as information and communication technology (ICT) [161,162]. Multi-agent systems (MAS) [163–165] and deep learning
[135]. approaches [166,167] are the most used strategies in this subcategory.
In the literature, the EMS can be classified into three major cate­ Since there has not been enough study done in this relatively new sector,
gories: rule-based, artificial intelligence, and optimization-based stra­ training the EMS based on a previously obtained database, which is not
tegies [27,51]. There are two subcategories for rule-based strategies: constantly obtainable, becomes a problem. This poses a problem due to
deterministic and Boolean logic strategies. Furthermore, there are two insufficient research in this relatively new sector. Furthermore, there is
subcategories for optimization-based strategies: online and offline. no guarantee that it will function with data other than that used for the
Finally, artificial intelligence can be classified into three subcategories: training process.
fuzzy logic, neural network, and machine learning strategies. These Optimization-based strategies: they aim to minimize/maximize the
categories and subcategories are presented in Fig. 11. objective function. The objective function might include emissions,
Rule-based Strategies: These methods are defined mainly by the costs, energy savings, device deterioration, and global efficiency [168].
operating mode. They are simple to integrate with a real-time controller Offline optimization: Dynamic Programming (DP) [169–171],
to control power flow in a hybrid power system. The rules are defined Nonlinear Programming (NLD) [172,173], Stochastic Dynamic Control
using designer intelligence or mathematical models and generally Strategy (SDP) [174], and Genetic Algorithm (GA) [175,176] are the
most widely utilized to manage the power flow in the DCMG. The au­
thors in [177] developed an Improved Butterfly Optimization algorithm
Table 4
for managing the scheduling of household appliances and battery
Comparison of MG control strategies.
charging and discharging. The algorithm aims to minimize energy costs,
Metric Centralized Decentralized Distributed reduce carbon emissions, and optimize peak-to-average energy usage.
Number of users Single Multiple Multiple Similar work has been reported in [178] to discover the optimal
Flexibility + +++ + scheduling of home appliances using an optimized EMS based on the
Optimization +++ + ++ Bald Eagle Search algorithm. In [179], a multi-objective optimization
Evolution + +++ ++
Communication +++ + +++
algorithm using the Improved Cockroach Swarm Algorithm has been
Installation cost +++ + ++ used to reduce operating costs, maximize user comfort, and handle peak-
System failure ++ − − to-average ratio. All load profiles must exist. Hence, a large amount of
From all Local and neighboring data is involved. This makes their implementation extremely difficult.
Data acquisition Local data
elements data
Online optimization: in these strategies, the objective function

9
S. Ferahtia et al. Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

Fig. 9. management system structure for DC Microgrid.

Fig. 11. Energy management strategies

category.
Based on [187–189], several published works in DCMG energy
Fig. 10. Microgrid tasks with a time scale.
management strategies are presented in Table 7.

Table 5 11. Perspectives and future works:

DCMG functions.
Compared to ACMGs, DCMGs offer several technical advantages,
Reliability Efficiency Sustainability Security
including better harmonic mitigation, easier integration of renewable
- Optimal energy sources, no frequency or reactive power management diffi­
- Alarming economic - Enhancement of
culties, and direct connection to DC loads. Nevertheless, DC microgrids
- Voltage dispatch the security
- Emission also face particular technical challenges that need to be addressed by
regulation - Simple or architecture
reducing
- Reserve autonomous - Cyber researchers, system engineers, and developers in both control and
- Renewable
management operation
(wind speed and
vulnerability management strategies. The most challenging problems in the coming
- Grid mode - Demand evaluation
solar radiation) years can be listed as follows:
transition management - Access restriction
forecasting
- Load Shaving - Energy trading - Lifecycle
- Maximum power - Accurate system modeling: increasing the accuracy of the DCMG
- Black start - Ancillary extension
production from
recovery services
renewables
- Information model will provide better opportunities to evaluate its behavior and
- Power quality - Protect the security improve its performance. However, the model’s accuracy may be
evaluation energy storage governance
decreased because of several factors, such as parametric variation,
systems
element degradation, and unexpected operation conditions. In this
context, the Digital Twins is a promising research field for building
replicas of microgrids and energy assets that can play a valuable role
depends only on the actual states of the system [180]. They have more in improving the accuracy and effectiveness of DCMG modeling by
restricted processing and higher real-time performance. The storage integrating data-driven models and physics-informed ones.
devices’ SoC is considered, but global optimization is not possible [50]. - Advanced control strategies: several strategies may be developed or
The equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS) [181,182], incorporated to provide simultaneous power-sharing and efficient
model predictive control (MPC) [183,184], Pontryagin’s minimal prin­ DC bus voltage management.
ciple (PMP) [185], and the external energy maximization strategy - The high penetration of renewables into DCMGs diminishes their
(EEMS) [181,186] are examples of these techniques. total inertia, which reduces their voltage controllability. Although
Table 6 presents the main advantages and shortcomings of each certain solutions have been proposed to deal with such a

10
S. Ferahtia et al. Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

Table 6 Table 7
The main advantages and weaknesses of each category. The main advantages and shortcomings of each category.
Category Advantages Shortcomings MG composition EMS Objectives Ref

- Due to the dependency - Power balance

- They’re resilient, easy Standalone PV/WT/FC/
on human experience Linear Programming - PEMFC [190]
to design, and simple Battery
and the consequences, protection
to implement.
they cannot be robust or Grid-connected PV/wind/ - Power balance
- They are extensively Linear Programming [191]
flexible under battery - Power quality
Rule-based strategies used for managing the
complicated operating Standalone PV/WT/FC/ FL-based DE - Power balance
power flow in hybrid [192]
situations. Battery algorithm - Cost reduction
power systems (HPS)
- Determining the Standalone PV/WT/FC/ - Power balance
such as MGs-based SMC [193]
optimal control point is Bioethanol reformer - Bio storage
EVs.
challenging. - Power balance
- It has superior Standalone PV/FC/Battery MPC - Renewable [194]
robustness and high optimization
efficiency in real- - Complex Standalone PV/WT/micro - Power balance
time. implementation. hydropower/ Diesel/ MAS - Demand side [195]
Artificial intelligence- - It can solve complex - Weak dynamic Battery control
based strategies and nonlinear characteristics due to - Power balance
Standalone PV/WT/FC/
problems. the firmness of the ANN - Renewable [196]
Battery
- It can provide control rule. forecasting
reasonable power- - Battery
Standalone PV/WT/Battery FL [197]
sharing. management
- Very excellent - Power balance
Grid-connected PV/FC/ Bald eagle search
performance. - Knowing the load - Cost reduction [37]
Battery algorithm (BES)
- They can be utilized profile, complicated - Power quality
Offline to compare and processing, and vast Differential
Standalone PV/FC/ - Power balance
evaluate the amounts of data is Flatness-Based [198]
Supercapacitor - Power quality
performance of other necessary. Control
Optimization-
strategies. Grid-connected PV/Battery MILP - Cost reduction [199]
based
- It has superior real- PV/Micro-Turbine/FC/ - Power balance
strategies PSO [200]
time performance, Battery - Cost reduction
- It requires a high-
and each point of - Power balance
processing controller Battery/Supercapacitor LQR with SSA [51]
Online operating work is - Power quality
and huge storage
optimum. Firefly algorithm
devices. WT/PV/MT/FC/Battery - Cost reduction [201]
- Extended power (FA)
source lifespan.

- More research is required for ESS lifespan extension while control­

ling the power balance and regulating DC bus voltage.
circumstance, more research should be done in this area, considering - Establish new standards such as voltage standardization, protection,
that the DCMG is becoming a 100% converter-based system. Virtual safety, and power quality for all aspects of DCMGs. These new
synchrony generators (VSGs) may receive more attention for this standards may improve the readiness level of this technology for
problem. practical implementation.
- Several nonlinear loads, such as constant power loads (CPL), indi­ - Social problems related to the consumer’s opinion on the EMS’s
cator motors, and EVs, may reduce the stability margin. Therefore, decisions. The EMS can cut off the loads in some cases. These loads,
power system instability is highly possible. Consequently, it is crucial considering the EMS, are optional. However, they are not for some
to investigate the effect of these loads deeply and incorporate them consumers. More social studies are required to adapt EMS’s decisions
into control strategies. to consumers’ preferences.
- Integrating DCMGs with the energy markets by providing coordi­ - The contractual commitments between market participants should
nation mechanisms to trade and exchange energy over local energy be made more explicit through improved regulatory and policy
markets aims to construct win-win business and financial models for obstacles.
all the stakeholders involved in the value chain and incentivize
efficient energy utilization and microgrid stability. Based on these perspectives, our future works can focus on the
- Integrating DC microgrids with grid-interactive buildings enables following points:
effective coordination between building energy management sys­
tems and the microgrid, exploiting their flexibility for improving - Design sophisticated optimization techniques for DCMGs to improve
interoperability and creating synergies among DC microgrids, multi- energy management, optimize efficiency, and reduce costs. These
carrier energy networks, buildings, and non-energy sectors. algorithms should consider elements such as integrating renewable
- Researchers are expected to extend studies on large-scale MGs’ energy, exploiting energy storage, controlling the demand side, and
communication systems to build robust, secure, and efficient the grid’s stability.
communication environments. These environments are crucial for - Explore novel energy storage technology, including batteries,
the efficient and coordinated operation of the microgrids, as they supercapacitors, and flywheels, for DC microgrid systems in terms of
provide data on various operational parameters, performance, and size, location, and management techniques.
grid conditions. - Explore new converter designs, control algorithms, and protective
- The decentralized energy management of a multi-energy grid and systems to enhance the stability and dependability of the power grid.
energy communities: consumer engagement frameworks are needed - Real-world experiments of DCMG energy management strategies
to unlock the necessary socio-economic potential for microgrid under various environmental conditions with the assistance of real-
management, ensuring that consumers and local communities play world emulators such as RT-Lab.
an active role in grid management via demand response, peer-to-peer
energy trading and fair allocation of incurred costs and benefits.

11
S. Ferahtia et al. Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

CRediT authorship contribution statement [15] Wood L. Global microgrid market with COVID-19 impact analysis by connectivity
(grid connected, off-grid connected), offering (hardware, software, services), end
use (Commercial & Industrial, remote, utilities), pattern, type, and geography -
Seydali Ferahtia: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investiga­ forecast to 2026. n.d.
tion, Conceptualization. Azeddine Houari: Writing – review & editing, [16] European Parliament and the council of the European union. Brussels: The
Supervision, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Tudor European Green Deal; 2019.
[17] United Nations. Climate Action Summit yields plans to increase financing for
Cioara: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Investigation. green, livable cities, and to promote sustainable infrastructure, transport. 2019.
Mohammed Bouznit: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Meth­ [18] Goel S, Sharma R. Performance evaluation of stand alone, grid connected and
odology. Hegazy Rezk: Writing – review & editing, Visualization, hybrid renewable energy systems for rural application: A comparative review.
Renew Sust Energ Rev 2017;78:1378–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Validation, Supervision, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptuali­ rser.2017.05.200.
zation. Ali Djerioui: Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Valida­ [19] Ashok Kumar A, Amutha Prabha N. A comprehensive review of DC microgrid in
tion, Supervision, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, market segments and control technique. Heliyon 2022;8:e11694. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11694.
Conceptualization. [20] Jithin K, Student Member G, Haridev PP, Mayadevi N, Hari Kumar R, Mini VP.
A review on challenges in DC. Microgrid Planning and Implementation 2022;XX:
1–21. https://doi.org/10.35833/MPCE.2022.000053.
Declaration of competing interest
[21] Ali S, Zheng Z, Aillerie M, Sawicki J-P, Péra M-C, Hissel D. A review of DC
microgrid energy management systems dedicated to residential applications.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Energies 2021;14:4308. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14144308.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence [22] Sarangi S, Sahu BK, Rout PK. A comprehensive review of distribution generation
integrated DC microgrid protection: issues, strategies, and future direction. Int J
the work reported in this paper. Energy Res 2021;45:5006–31. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.6245.
[23] Dragičević T, Lu X, Vasquez JC, Guerrero JM. DC microgrids - part II: A review of
Data availability power architectures, applications, and standardization issues. IEEE Trans Power
Electron 2016;31:3528–49. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2015.2464277.
[24] Dagar A, Gupta P, Niranjan V. Microgrid protection: A comprehensive review.
No data was used for the research described in the article. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2021;149:111401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2021.111401.
[25] Lidula NWA, Rajapakse AD. Microgrids research: A review of experimental
Acknowledgment microgrids and test systems. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2011;15:186–202. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.09.041.
This research has been supported by LEAP-RE MiDiNa project, grant [26] Haller MY, Amstad D, Dudita M, Englert A, Häberle A. Combined heat and power
production based on renewable aluminium-water reaction. Renew Energy 2021;
N◦ ANR-23-LERE-0002-01. 174:879–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.04.104.
[27] Ferahtia S, Djeroui A, Rezk H, Houari A, Zeghlache S, Machmoum M. Optimal
References control and implementation of energy management Strategy for a DC microgrid.
Energy 2021:121777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.121777.
[28] Figaj R. Performance assessment of a renewable micro-scale trigeneration system
[1] Zhang S, Hu W, Cao X, Du J, Bai C, Liu W, et al. Low-carbon economic dispatch
based on biomass steam cycle, wind turbine, photovoltaic field. Renew Energy
strategy for interconnected multi-energy microgrids considering carbon emission
2021;177:193–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.05.143.
accounting and profit allocation. Sustain Cities Soc 2023;99:104987. https://doi.
[29] Chowdhury S, Chowdhury SP, Crossley P. Microgrids and active distribution
org/10.1016/j.scs.2023.104987.
networks. Institution of. Eng Technol 2009. https://doi.org/10.1049/PBRN006E.
[2] Diji CJ. Energy transition process and sustainable development. Encycl. Sustain.
[30] Yang L, Tai N, Fan C, Meng Y. Energy regulating and fluctuation stabilizing by air
High. Educ., Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. p. 1–8. https://doi.
source heat pump and battery energy storage system in microgrid. Renew Energy
org/10.1007/978-3-319-63951-2_315-1.
2016;95:202–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.04.019.
[3] Bouznit M. Energy transition, economic growth and environmental sustainability
[31] Fossati JP, Galarza A, Martín-Villate A, Fontán L. A method for optimal sizing
in Algeria. Les Cah Du Cread 2022;38:261–82. https://doi.org/10.4314/cread.
energy storage systems for microgrids. Renew Energy 2015;77:539–49. https://
v38i3.10.
doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.12.039.
[4] Mohsin M, Kamran HW, Atif Nawaz M, Sajjad Hussain M, Dahri AS. Assessing the
[32] Driesen J, Katiraei F. Design for distributed energy resources. IEEE Power Energy
impact of transition from nonrenewable to renewable energy consumption on
Mag 2008;6:30–9. https://doi.org/10.1109/MPE.2008.918703.
economic growth-environmental nexus from developing Asian economies.
[33] Caliao ND. Dynamic modelling and control of fully rated converter wind turbines.
J Environ Manag 2021;284:111999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Renew Energy 2011;36:2287–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jenvman.2021.111999.
renene.2010.12.025.
[5] Khan I, Zakari A, Ahmad M, Irfan M, Hou F. Linking energy transitions, energy
[34] Batty M, Axhausen KW, Giannotti F, Pozdnoukhov A, Bazzani A, Wachowicz M,
consumption, and environmental sustainability in OECD countries. Gondwana
et al. Smart cities of the future. Eur Phys J Spec Top 2012;214:481–518. https://
Res 2022;103:445–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2021.10.026.
doi.org/10.1140/epjst/e2012-01703-3.
[6] Mohabat Doost D, Buffa A, Brunetta G, Salata S, Mutani G. Mainstreaming
[35] Coelho VN, Coelho IM, Coelho BN, de Oliveira GC, Barbosa AC, Pereira L, et al.
energetic resilience by morphological assessment in ordinary land use planning.
A communitarian microgrid storage planning system inside the scope of a smart
The case study of Moncalieri, Turin (Italy). Sustainability 2020;12:4443. https://
city. Appl Energy 2017;201:371–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
doi.org/10.3390/su12114443.
apenergy.2016.12.043.
[7] Ebadat Parast M, Mousavian M, Nazari MH, Hosseinian SH. Microgrids and
[36] Zhang F, Meng C, Yang Y, Sun C, Ji C, Chen Y, et al. Advantages and challenges of
distribution system resilience assessment: A multi-objective robust-stochastic
DC microgrid for commercial building a case study from Xiamen university DC
optimization approach considering social behavior using a deep learning
microgrid. 2015 IEEE first Int. Conf. DC microgrids, IEEE. 2015. p. 355–8.
modeling. Sustain Cities Soc 2023;97:104686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ICDCM.2015.7152068.
scs.2023.104686.
[37] Ferahtia S, Rezk H, Abdelkareem MA, Olabi AG. Optimal techno-economic energy
[8] Cergibozan R. Renewable energy sources as a solution for energy security risk:
management strategy for building’s microgrids based bald eagle search
empirical evidence from OECD countries. Renew Energy 2022;183:617–26.
optimization algorithm. Appl Energy 2022;306:118069. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.11.056.
10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.118069.
[9] Warsi NA, Siddiqui AS, Kirmani S, Sarwar M. Impact assessment of microgrid in
[38] (DOE) US Department of Energy. A Common Definition for Zero Energy
smart cities: Indian perspective. Technol Econ Smart Grids Sustain Energy 2019;
Buildings. 2015.
4:14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40866-019-0071-3.
[39] Pless S, Polly B. Communities of the future : Accelerating zero Energy District
[10] Rao J, He Y, Liu J. Standalone versus grid-connected? Operation mode and its
master planning preprint. In: 2018 ACEEE summer study energy Effic. Build.,
economic and environmental assessment of railway transport microgrid. Sustain
California: National Renewable Energy Laboratory; 2018.
Cities Soc 2023;98:104811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2023.104811.
[40] Kumar D, Zare F, Ghosh A. DC microgrid technology: system architectures, AC
[11] Sami MS, Abrar M, Akram R, Hussain MM, Nazir MH, Khan MS, et al. Energy
grid interfaces, grounding schemes, power quality, communication networks,
Management of Microgrids for smart cities: A review. Energies 2021;14:5976.
applications, and standardizations aspects. IEEE Access 2017;5:12230–56.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185976.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2705914.
[12] Rangarajan SS, Raman R, Singh A, Shiva CK, Kumar R, Sadhu PK, et al. DC
[41] Lovering JR. A techno-economic evaluation of microreactors for off-grid and
microgrids: A propitious smart grid paradigm for smart cities. Smart Cities 2023;
microgrid applications. Sustain Cities Soc 2023;95:104620. https://doi.org/
6:1690–718. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities6040079.
10.1016/j.scs.2023.104620.
[13] Dileep G. A survey on smart grid technologies and applications. Renew Energy
[42] Waide P, Brunner CU. Energy-efficiency policy opportunities for electric motor-
2020;146:2589–625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.08.092.
driven systems. Int Energy Agency 2011;na:132. https://doi.org/10.1787/
[14] Majeed Butt O, Zulqarnain M, Majeed Butt T. Recent advancement in smart grid
20792581.
technology: future prospects in the electrical power network. Ain Shams Eng J
2021;12:687–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2020.05.004.

12
S. Ferahtia et al. Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

[43] Kumar D, Wheeler PW, Clare JC, Kim Tae-Woong. Weight/volume effective [70] Mirsaeidi S, Dong X, Shi S, Tzelepis D. Challenges, advances and future directions
multi-drive system based on two-stage matrix converter. 2008 34th Annu. Conf. in protection of hybrid AC/DC microgrids. IET Renew Power Gener 2017;11:
IEEE Ind. Electron., IEEE. 2008. p. 2782–7. https://doi.org/10.1109/ 1495–502. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-rpg.2017.0079.
IECON.2008.4758399. [71] Hussain A, Aslam M, Arif SM. N-version programming-based protection scheme
[44] Zahedi B, Norum LE, Ludvigsen KB. Optimized efficiency of all-electric ships by for microgrids: A multi-agent system based approach. Sustain Energy, Grids
dc hybrid power systems. J Power Sources 2014;255:341–54. https://doi.org/ Networks 2016;6:35–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.segan.2016.02.001.
10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.01.031. [72] Meghwani A, Srivastava SC, Chakrabarti S. A non-unit protection scheme for DC
[45] Zadeh MK, Saublet L-M, Gavagsaz-Ghoachani R, Nahid-Mobarakeh B, microgrid based on local measurements. IEEE Trans Power Deliv 2017;32:
Pierfederici S, Molinas M. Energy management and stabilization of a hybrid DC 172–81. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRD.2016.2555844.
microgrid for transportation applications. 2016 IEEE Appl. Power Electron. Conf. [73] Ibrahem A, Elrayyah A, Sozer Y, De Abreu A. DC railway system emulator for
Expo., vol. 2016- may, IEEE. 2016. p. 3397–402. https://doi.org/10.1109/ stray current and touch voltage prediction. 2015 IEEE energy convers. Congr.
APEC.2016.7468355. Expo., IEEE; 2015, p. 1320–6. doi:https://doi.org/10.1109/ECCE.2015.7309845.
[46] Magne P, Nahid-Mobarakeh B, Pierfederici S. Active stabilization of DC [74] Mitolo M, Liu Haijun. Touch voltage analysis in low-voltage power systems
microgrids without remote sensors for more electric aircraft. IEEE Trans Ind Appl studies. 2015 IEEE IAS Electr. Saf. Work., vol. 2015- April, IEEE. 2015. p. 1–5.
2013;49:2352–60. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2013.2262031. https://doi.org/10.1109/ESW.2015.7094951.
[47] Khaligh A. Realization of parasitics in stability of dc-dc converters loaded by [75] Low voltage electrical installations—Part 1: Fundamental principles, assessment
constant power loads in advanced multiconverter automotive systems. IEEE Trans of general characteristics, definitions. IEC 60364–1 2005.
Ind Electron 2008;55:2295–305. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2008.918395. [76] Li L, Yong J, Zeng L, Wang X. Investigation on the system grounding types for low
[48] Hansen JF, Lindtjørn JO, Vanska K. Onboard DC grid for enhanced DP operation voltage direct current systems. 2013 IEEE Electr. Power energy Conf., IEEE. 2013.
in ships. Dyn Position Conf 2011:1–8. p. 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/EPEC.2013.6802975.
[49] Jin Z, Sulligoi G, Cuzner R, Meng L, Vasquez JC, Guerrero JM. Next-generation [77] Madingou G, Zarghami M, Vaziri M. Fault detection and isolation in a DC
shipboard DC power system: introduction smart grid and dc microgrid microgrid using a central processing unit. 2015 IEEE power energy Soc. Innov.
technologies into maritime electrical Netowrks. IEEE Electrif Mag 2016;4:45–57. Smart grid Technol. Conf., IEEE. 2015. p. 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/
https://doi.org/10.1109/MELE.2016.2544203. ISGT.2015.7131858.
[50] Cao J, Emadi A. A new battery/ultracapacitor hybrid energy storage system for [78] Do Park J, Candelaria J, Ma L, Dunn K. DC ring-bus microgrid fault protection and
electric, hybrid, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Power Electron identification of fault location. IEEE Trans Power Deliv 2013;28:2574–84.
2012;27:122–32. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2011.2151206. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRD.2013.2267750.
[51] Ferahtia S, Djeroui A, Mesbahi T, Houari A, Zeghlache S, Rezk H, et al. Optimal [79] Yuan C, Haj-Ahmed MA, Illindala MS. Protection strategies for medium-Voltage
Adaptive Gain LQR-Based Energy Management Strategy for direct-current microgrid at a remote area mine site. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2015;51:
Battery–Supercapacitor Hybrid Power System. Energies 2021;14:1660. https:// 2846–53. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2015.2391441.
doi.org/10.3390/en14061660. [80] Lotfi H, Khodaei A. Hybrid AC/DC microgrid planning. Energy 2017;118:37–46.
[52] Hajimiragha A, Canizares CA, Fowler MW, Elkamel A. Optimal transition to plug- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.12.015.
in hybrid electric vehicles in Ontario, Canada, considering the electricity-grid [81] Chauhan R. Challenges and opportunities for DC Micro grid. 2016.
limitations. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2010;57:690–701. https://doi.org/10.1109/ [82] Rawat GS. Sathans. Survey on DC microgrid architecture, power quality issues
TIE.2009.2025711. and control strategies. 2018 2nd Int. Conf. Inven. Syst. Control, IEEE. 2018.
[53] Locment F, Sechilariu M. Modeling and simulation of DC microgrids for electric p. 500–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICISC.2018.8399123.
vehicle charging stations. Energies 2015;8:4335–56. https://doi.org/10.3390/ [83] Taylor E, Korytowski M, Reed G. Voltage transient propagation in AC and DC
en8054335. datacenter distribution architectures. 2012 IEEE energy convers. Congr. Expo.,
[54] Baran ME, Mahajan NR. DC distribution for industrial systems: opportunities and IEEE. 2012. p. 1998–2004. https://doi.org/10.1109/ECCE.2012.6342567.
challenges. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2003;39:1596–601. https://doi.org/10.1109/ [84] Graham AD. The importance of a DC side harmonic study for a DC distribution
TIA.2003.818969. system. 6th IET Int. Conf. Power Electron. Mach. Drives (PEMD 2012), vol. 2012,
[55] Rashid MH. Power electronics handbook. Elsevier 2018. https://doi.org/ IET. 2012. p. P32. https://doi.org/10.1049/cp.2012.0146.
10.1016/C2016-0-00847-1. [85] Asakimori K, Murai K, Tanaka T, Babasaki T. Effect of inrush current flowing into
[56] Jayachandran M, Ravi G. Design and Optimization of hybrid Micro-grid system. EMI filter on the operation of ICT equipment in HVDC system. 2014 IEEE 36th
Energy Procedia 2017;117:95–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Int. Telecommun. Energy Conf., vol. 2014- Janua, IEEE. 2014. p. 1–5. https://doi.
egypro.2017.05.111. org/10.1109/INTLEC.2014.6972194.
[57] Ribó-Pérez D, Bastida-Molina P, Gómez-Navarro T, Hurtado-Pérez E. Hybrid [86] Sechilariu M, Locment F. Urban DC Microgrid: Intelligent Control and Power
assessment for a hybrid microgrid: A novel methodology to critically analyse Flow Optimization. 2016.
generation technologies for hybrid microgrids. Renew Energy 2020;157:874–87. [87] Rakhshani E, Rodriguez P. Inertia emulation in AC/DC interconnected power
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.05.095. systems using derivative technique Considering frequency measurement effects.
[58] Liu X, Wang P, Loh PC. A hybrid AC/DC microgrid and its coordination control. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2017;32:3338–51. https://doi.org/10.1109/
IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2011;2:278–86. TPWRS.2016.2644698.
[59] Shahgholian G. A brief review on microgrids: operation, applications, modeling, [88] Tamrakar U, Shrestha D, Maharjan M, Bhattarai B, Hansen T, Tonkoski R. Virtual
and control. Int Trans Electr Energy Syst 2021:31. https://doi.org/10.1002/ inertia: current trends and future directions. Appl Sci 2017;7:654. https://doi.
2050-7038.12885. org/10.3390/app7070654.
[60] Martin-Martínez F, Sánchez-Miralles A, Rivier M. A literature review of [89] Wang P, Goel L, Liu X, Choo FH. Harmonizing AC and DC: A hybrid AC/DC future
microgrids: A functional layer based classification. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2016; grid solution. IEEE Power Energy Mag 2013;11:76–83. https://doi.org/10.1109/
62:1133–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.025. MPE.2013.2245587.
[61] Hosseinzadeh M, Salmasi FR. Power management of an isolated hybrid AC/DC [90] Bevrani H, Ise T, Miura Y. Virtual synchronous generators: A survey and new
micro-grid with fuzzy control of battery banks. IET Renew Power Gener 2015;9: perspectives. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 2014;54:244–54. https://doi.org/
484–93. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-rpg.2014.0271. 10.1016/j.ijepes.2013.07.009.
[62] Glasgo B, Azevedo IL, Hendrickson C. How much electricity can we save by using [91] Good N, Ellis KA, Mancarella P. Review and classification of barriers and enablers
direct current circuits in homes? Understanding the potential for electricity of demand response in the smart grid. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2017;72:57–72.
savings and assessing feasibility of a transition towards DC powered buildings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.043.
Appl Energy 2016;180:66–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.07.036. [92] Ellabban O, Abu-Rub H. Smart grid customers’ acceptance and engagement: an
[63] Hossain MA, Pota HR, Hossain MJ, Blaabjerg F. Evolution of microgrids with overview. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2016;65:1285–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
converter-interfaced generations: challenges and opportunities. Int J Electr Power rser.2016.06.021.
Energy Syst 2019;109:160–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2019.01.038. [93] Wolsink M. Distributed energy systems as common goods: socio-political
[64] Xu DC, L, Abstract.. Technologies and applications for smart charging of electric acceptance of renewables in intelligent microgrids. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2020;
and plug-in hybrid vehicles. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. 127:109841. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109841.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43651-7. [94] von Wirth T, Gislason L, Seidl R. Distributed energy systems on a neighborhood
[65] Krishnamurthy V, Kwasinski A. Effects of power electronics, energy storage, scale: reviewing drivers of and barriers to social acceptance. Renew Sust Energ
power distribution architecture, and lifeline dependencies on microgrid resiliency Rev 2018;82:2618–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.086.
during extreme events. IEEE J Emerg Sel Top Power Electron 2016;4:1310–23. [95] Warneryd M, Håkansson M, Karltorp K. Unpacking the complexity of community
https://doi.org/10.1109/JESTPE.2016.2598648. microgrids: A review of institutions’ roles for development of microgrids. Renew
[66] Mohanty R, Pradhan AK. DC ring bus microgrid protection using the oscillation Sust Energ Rev 2020;121:109690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109690.
frequency and transient power. IEEE Syst J 2019;13:875–84. https://doi.org/ [96] Norouzi F, Hoppe T, Elizondo LR, Bauer P. A review of socio-technical barriers to
10.1109/JSYST.2018.2837748. smart microgrid development. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2022;167:112674. https://
[67] Shafiee Q, Dragicevic T, Vasquez JC, Guerrero JM, Hierarchical control for doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112674.
multiple DC-microgrids clusters.. IEEE 11th Int. multi-conference Syst. Signals [97] Carvalho EL, Blinov A, Chub A, Emiliani P, de Carne G, Vinnikov D. Grid
devices. IEEE 2014;2014:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/SSD.2014.6808857. integration of DC buildings: standards, requirements and power converter
[68] Augustine S, Quiroz JE, Reno MJ. DC Microgrid Protection: Review and topologies. IEEE Open J Power Electron 2022;3:798–823. https://doi.org/
Challenges. Sandia National Laboratories; 2018. 10.1109/OJPEL.2022.3217741.
[69] Priyadarshini Padhi P, Deepa K. DC microgrids: architecture and challenges. IOP [98] IEC. LVDC: Electricity for the 21st century. Tech. White Pap. 2017:58. 2017.
Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 2021;1070:012098. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/
1070/1/012098.

13
S. Ferahtia et al. Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

[99] Carvalho EL, Bellinaso LV, Cardoso R, Michels L. Distributed Price-based power [127] Nasirian V, Moayedi S, Davoudi A, Lewis FL. Distributed cooperative control of dc
Management for Multibuses DC Nanogrids EEMS. IEEE J Emerg Sel Top Power microgrids. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2015;30:2288–303. https://doi.org/
Electron 2022;10:5509–21. https://doi.org/10.1109/JESTPE.2022.3152101. 10.1109/TPEL.2014.2324579.
[100] Standard NPR 9090. 2018: DC installations for low voltage - NEN. Netherlands. [128] Shafiee Q, Dragicevic T, Andrade F, Vasquez JC, Guerrero JM. Distributed
2018. consensus-based control of multiple DC-microgrids clusters. IECON Proc
[101] Middlebrook RDD. Input filter consideration in design and application of (Industrial Electron Conf). 2014. p. 2056–62. https://doi.org/10.1109/
switching regulators. IEEE Ind Appl Soc Annu Meet 1976:366–82. IECON.2014.7048785.
[102] Emadi A, Khaligh A, Rivetta CH, Williamson GA. Constant power loads and [129] Zhao J, Dörfler F. Distributed control and optimization in DC microgrids.
negative impedance instability in automotive systems: definition, modeling, Automatica 2015;61:18–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.automatica.2015.07.015.
stability, and control of power electronic converters and motor drives. IEEE Trans [130] Sahoo S, Peng JCH, Mishra S, Dragicevic T. Distributed screening of hijacking
Veh Technol 2006;55:1112–25. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2006.877483. attacks in DC microgrids. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2020;35:7574–82. https://
[103] Meng L, Shafiee Q, Ferrari Trecate G, Karimi H, Fulwani D, Lu X, et al. Review on doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2019.2957071.
control of DC microgrids. IEEE J Emerg Sel Top Power Electron 2017:1. https:// [131] Anand S, Fernandes BG, Guerrero JM. Distributed control to ensure proportional
doi.org/10.1109/JESTPE.2017.2690219. load sharing and improve voltage regulation in low-voltage DC microgrids. IEEE
[104] Erickson RW, Maksimović D. Fundamentals of power. Electronics 2001. https:// Trans Power Electron 2013;28:1900–13. https://doi.org/10.1109/
doi.org/10.1007/b100747. TPEL.2012.2215055.
[105] KUNDUR P. Power system stability and control. 1994. [132] Zia MF, Elbouchikhi E, Benbouzid M. Microgrids energy management systems: A
[106] Sudhoff SD, Glover SF, Lamm PT, Schmucker DH, Delisle DE, Karatsinides SP. critical review on methods, solutions, and prospects. Appl Energy 2018;222:
Admittance space stability analysis of power electronic systems. IEEE Trans 1033–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.04.103.
Aerosp Electron Syst 2000;36:965–73. https://doi.org/10.1109/7.869517. [133] Kanchev H, Lu D, Colas F, Lazarov V, Francois B. Energy management and
[107] Riccobono A, Santi E. Comprehensive review of stability criteria for DC power operational planning of a microgrid with a PV-based active generator for smart
distribution systems. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2014;50:3525–35. https://doi.org/ grid applications. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2011;58:4583–92. https://doi.org/
10.1109/tia.2014.2309800. 10.1109/TIE.2011.2119451.
[108] Al-Ismail FS. DC microgrid planning, operation, and control: A comprehensive [134] Ag S. Introduction to Microgrids & Control Solutions. 2016.
review. IEEE Access 2021;9:36154–72. https://doi.org/10.1109/ [135] Li Y, Nejabatkhah F. Overview of control, integration and energy management of
ACCESS.2021.3062840. microgrids. J Mod Power Syst Clean Energy 2014;2:212–22. https://doi.org/
[109] Mehdi M, Kim C-H, Saad M. Robust centralized control for DC islanded microgrid 10.1007/s40565-014-0063-1.
Considering communication network delay. IEEE Access 2020;8:77765–78. [136] Panday A, Bansal HO. A review of optimal energy management strategies for
https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2989777. hybrid electric vehicle. Int J Veh Technol 2014;2014:1–19. https://doi.org/
[110] Saleh M, Esa Y, Mohamed AA. Communication-based control for DC microgrids. 10.1155/2014/160510.
IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2019;10:2180–95. https://doi.org/10.1109/ [137] Xue Q, Zhang X, Teng T, Zhang J, Feng Z, Lv Q. A comprehensive review on
TSG.2018.2791361. classification, energy management Strategy, and control algorithm for hybrid
[111] Guerrero JM, Vasquez JC, Matas J, De Vicuña LG, Castilla M. Hierarchical control electric vehicles. Energies 2020;13:5355. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205355.
of droop-controlled AC and DC microgrids - A general approach toward [138] Bader B, Torres O, Ortega JA, Lux G, Romeral JL. Predictive real-time energy
standardization. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2011;58:158–72. https://doi.org/ management strategy for PHEV using lookup-table-based Dynamic Programming.
10.1109/TIE.2010.2066534. 2013 World Electr. Veh. Symp. Exhib., IEEE. 2013. p. 1–11. https://doi.org/
[112] Lu X, Member S, Guerrero JM, Member S, Sun K, Vasquez JC, et al. Hierarchical 10.1109/EVS.2013.6914859.
control of parallel AC-DC converter interfaces for hybrid microgrids. IEEE Trans [139] Snoussi J, Ben Elghali S, Benbouzid M, Mimouni M. Auto-adaptive filtering-based
Smart Grid 2014;5:683–92. energy management Strategy for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles. Energies 2018;
[113] Meng L, Luna A, Díaz ER, Sun B, Dragicevic T, Savaghebi M, et al. Flexible system 11:2118. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11082118.
integration and advanced Hierarchical control architectures in the microgrid [140] Zhang C, Shen Y, Wang Y-XX. Wavelet Transform-Based Energy Management
research Laboratory of Aalborg University. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2016;52: Strategy for Fuel Cell/Variable-Structure Super-capacitor Hybrid Power System.
1736–49. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2015.2504472. 2020 Asia Energy Electr Eng Symp AEEES 2020. 2020. p. 732–6. https://doi.org/
[114] Olivares DE, Mehrizi-Sani A, Etemadi AH, Cañizares CA, Iravani R, Kazerani M, 10.1109/AEEES48850.2020.9121475.
et al. Trends in microgrid control. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2014;5:1905–19. [141] Mishra M, Byomakesha Dash P, Nayak J, Naik B, Kumar Swain S. Deep learning
https://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2013.2295514. and wavelet transform integrated approach for short-term solar PV power
[115] Shuai Z, Fang J, Ning F, Shen ZJ. Hierarchical structure and bus voltage control of prediction. Measurement 2020;166:108250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
DC microgrid. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2018;82:3670–82. https://doi.org/ measurement.2020.108250.
10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.096. [142] Bizon N, Thounthong P. Energy efficiency and fuel economy of a fuel cell/
[116] ALAM MS, ABIDO MAY. Fault ride through capability enhancement of a large- renewable energy sources hybrid power system with the load-following control of
scale PMSG wind system with bridge type Fault current limiters. Adv Electr the fueling regulators. Mathematics 2020;8:151. https://doi.org/10.3390/
Comput Eng 2018;18:43–50. doi:https://doi.org/10.4316/AECE.2018.01006. math8020151.
[117] Loh PC, Blaabjerg F, Peyghami-Akhuleh S, Mokhtari H. Distributed secondary [143] Nasri S, Sami BS, Cherif A. Power management strategy for hybrid autonomous
control in DC microgrids with low-bandwidth communication link. 2016 7th power system using hydrogen storage. Int J Hydrog Energy 2016;41:857–65.
power Electron. Drive Syst. Technol. Conf., IEEE. 2016. p. 641–5. https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.11.085.
10.1109/PEDSTC.2016.7556935. [144] Han Y, Chen W, Li Q. Energy management strategy based on multiple operating
[118] Vandoorn TL, Meersman B, De Kooning JDM, Vandevelde L. Analogy between states for a photovoltaic/fuel cell/energy storage DC microgrid. Energies 2017:
conventional grid control and islanded microgrid control based on a global DC- 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10010136.
link Voltage droop. IEEE Trans Power Deliv 2012;27:1405–14. https://doi.org/ [145] M. S. Y. Konara K, L. Kolhe M, Sharma A.. Power dispatching techniques as a
10.1109/TPWRD.2012.2193904. finite state machine for a standalone photovoltaic system with a hybrid energy
[119] Papadimitriou CN, Zountouridou EI, Hatziargyriou ND. Review of hierarchical storage. AIMS. Energy 2020;8:214–30. https://doi.org/10.3934/
control in DC microgrids. Electr Power Syst Res 2015;122:159–67. https://doi. energy.2020.2.214.
org/10.1016/j.epsr.2015.01.006. [146] Quiggin D, Cornell S, Tierney M, Buswell R. A simulation and optimisation study:
[120] Dragicevic T, Lu X, Vasquez J, Guerrero J. DC Microgrids–Part I: A Review of towards a decentralised microgrid, using real world fluctuation data. Energy
Control Strategies and Stabilization Techniques. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2015: 2012;41:549–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2012.02.007.
1. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2015.2478859. [147] Sukumar S, Mokhlis H, Mekhilef S, Naidu K, Karimi M. Mix-mode energy
[121] Pop C, Cioara T, Antal M, Anghel I, Salomie I, Bertoncini M. Blockchain based management strategy and battery sizing for economic operation of grid-tied
decentralized Management of Demand Response Programs in smart energy grids. microgrid. Energy 2017;118:1322–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Sensors 2018;18:162. https://doi.org/10.3390/s18010162. energy.2016.11.018.
[122] Antal C, Cioara T, Antal M, Mihailescu V, Mitrea D, Anghel I, et al. Blockchain [148] Amrollahi MH, Bathaee SMT. Techno-economic optimization of hybrid
based decentralized local energy flexibility market. Energy Rep 2021;7:5269–88. photovoltaic/wind generation together with energy storage system in a stand-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.08.118. alone micro-grid subjected to demand response. Appl Energy 2017;202:66–77.
[123] Cioara T, Antal M, Mihailescu VT, Antal CD, Anghel IM, Mitrea D. Blockchain- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.05.116.
based decentralized virtual power plants of small prosumers. IEEE Access 2021;9: [149] Comodi G, Giantomassi A, Severini M, Squartini S, Ferracuti F, Fonti A, et al.
29490–504. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3059106. Multi-apartment residential microgrid with electrical and thermal storage
[124] Pop Antal, Cioara Anghel, Salomie Bertoncini. A fog computing enabled virtual devices: experimental analysis and simulation of energy management strategies.
power plant model for delivery of frequency restoration reserve services. Sensors Appl Energy 2015;137:854–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
2019;19:4688. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19214688. apenergy.2014.07.068.
[125] Lu X, Guerrero JM, Sun K, Vasquez JC. An improved droop control method for dc [150] Alhasnawi BN, Jasim BH, Sedhom BE, Guerrero JM. A new communication
microgrids based on low bandwidth communication with dc bus voltage platform for smart EMS using a mixed-integer-linear-programming. Energy Syst
restoration and enhanced current sharing accuracy. IEEE Trans Power Electron 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12667-023-00591-2.
2014;29:1800–12. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2013.2266419. [151] Corcau JI, Dinca L. Fuzzy energy management scheme for a hybrid power sources
[126] Lu X, Sun K, Guerrero JM, Vasquez JC, Huang L. State-of-charge balance using of high-altitude Pseudosatellite. Model Simul Eng 2020;2020:1–13. https://doi.
adaptive droop control for distributed energy storage systems in DC microgrid org/10.1155/2020/5459098.
applications. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2014;61:2804–15. https://doi.org/ [152] Al-Sakkaf S, Kassas M, Khalid M, Abido MA. An energy management system for
10.1109/TIE.2013.2279374. residential autonomous DC microgrid using optimized fuzzy logic controller

14
S. Ferahtia et al. Applied Energy 368 (2024) 123501

considering economic dispatch. Energies 2019:12. https://doi.org/10.3390/ [177] Alhasnawi BN, Jasim BH, Bureš V, Sedhom BE, Alhasnawi AN, Abbassi R, et al.
en12081457. A novel economic dispatch in the stand-alone system using improved butterfly
[153] Mohammadzadeh A, Rathinasamy S. Energy management in photovoltaic battery optimization algorithm. Energy Strateg Rev 2023;49:101135. https://doi.org/
hybrid systems: A novel type-2 fuzzy control. Int J Hydrog Energy 2020;45: 10.1016/j.esr.2023.101135.
20970–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.05.187. [178] Alhasnawi BN, Jasim BH, Siano P, Alhelou HH, Al-Hinai A. A novel solution for
[154] Jafari M, Malekjamshidi Z, Zhu J, Khooban M-H. A novel Predictive fuzzy logic- day-ahead scheduling problems using the IoT-based bald eagle search
based energy management system for grid-connected and off-grid operation of Optimization algorithm. Inventions 2022;7:48. https://doi.org/10.3390/
residential smart microgrids. IEEE J Emerg Sel Top Power Electron 2020;8: inventions7030048.
1391–404. https://doi.org/10.1109/JESTPE.2018.2882509. [179] Alhasnawi BN, Jasim BH, Jasim AM, Bureš V, Alhasnawi AN, Homod RZ, et al.
[155] Tifour B, Moussa B, Ahmed H, Camel T. Monitoring and energy management A multi-objective improved cockroach swarm algorithm approach for apartment
approach for a fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle. Diagnostyka 2020;21:15–29. energy management systems. Information 2023;14:521. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.29354/diag/123996. 10.3390/info14100521.
[156] Keshtkar A, Arzanpour S. An adaptive fuzzy logic system for residential energy [180] Shi W, Li N, Chu CC, Gadh R. Real-time energy Management in Microgrids. IEEE
management in smart grid environments. Appl Energy 2017;186:68–81. https:// Trans Smart Grid 2017;8:228–38. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2015.2462294.
doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.11.028. [181] Motapon SN, Dessaint L-A, Al-Haddad K. A robust H2-consumption-minimization-
[157] Venayagamoorthy GK, Sharma RK, Gautam PK, Ahmadi A. Dynamic energy based energy management Strategy for a fuel cell hybrid emergency power
management system for a smart microgrid. IEEE Trans Neural Networks Learn system of more electric aircraft. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2014;61:6148–56.
Syst 2016;27:1643–56. https://doi.org/10.1109/TNNLS.2016.2514358. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2014.2308148.
[158] Gamez Urias ME, Sanchez EN, Ricalde LJ. Electrical microgrid Optimization via a [182] Lei Z, Qin D, Hou L, Peng J, Liu Y, Chen Z. An adaptive equivalent consumption
new recurrent neural network. IEEE Syst J 2015;9:945–53. https://doi.org/ minimization strategy for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles based on traffic
10.1109/JSYST.2014.2305494. information. Energy 2020;190:116409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[159] Garcia P, Garcia CA, Fernandez LM, Llorens F, Jurado F. ANFIS-based control of a energy.2019.116409.
grid-connected hybrid system integrating renewable energies, hydrogen and [183] Borhan H, Member S, Vahidi A, Phillips AM, Kuang ML, Kolmanovsky IV, et al.
batteries. IEEE Trans Ind Informatics 2014;10:1107–17. https://doi.org/10.1109/ MPC-based energy Management of a Power-Split Hybrid Electric Vehicle. IEEE
TII.2013.2290069. Trans Control Syst Technol 2012;20:593–603.
[160] Bogaraj T, Kanakaraj J. A novel energy management scheme using anfis for [184] Huang Y, Wang H, Khajepour A, He H, Ji J. Model predictive control power
independent microgrid. Int J Renew Energy Res 2016;6:735–46. https://doi.org/ management strategies for HEVs: A review. J Power Sources 2017;341:91–106.
10.1234/ijrer.v6i3.3458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.11.106.
[161] Zou Y, Liu T, Liu D, Sun F. Reinforcement learning-based real-time energy [185] Peng H, Li J, Löwenstein L, Hameyer K. A scalable, causal, adaptive energy
management for a hybrid tracked vehicle. Appl Energy 2016;171:372–82. management strategy based on optimal control theory for a fuel cell hybrid
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.03.082. railway vehicle. Appl Energy 2020:267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[162] Liu Y, Zhang D, Gooi HB. Optimization strategy based on deep reinforcement apenergy.2020.114987.
learning for home energy management. CSEE J Power Energy Syst 2020;6: [186] Dhifli M, Jawadi S, Lashab A, Guerrero JM, Cherif A. An efficient external energy
572–82. https://doi.org/10.17775/CSEEJPES.2019.02890. maximization-based energy management Strategy for a battery/supercapacitor of
[163] Ghorbani S, Rahmani R, Unland R. Multi-agent Autonomous Decision Making in a Micro grid system. Int J Comput Sci Netw Secur 2020;20:196–203.
Smart Micro-Grids’ Energy Management: A Decentralized Approach 2017: [187] Olatomiwa L, Mekhilef S, Ismail MS, Moghavvemi M. Energy management
223–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64798-2_14. strategies in hybrid renewable energy systems: A review. Renew Sust Energ Rev
[164] Anvari-Moghaddam A, Rahimi-Kian A, Mirian MS, Guerrero JM. A multi-agent 2016;62:821–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.040.
based energy management solution for integrated buildings and microgrid [188] Vivas FJ, De las Heras A, Segura F, Andújar JM.. A review of energy management
system. Appl Energy 2017;203:41–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. strategies for renewable hybrid energy systems with hydrogen backup. Renew
apenergy.2017.06.007. Sust Energ Rev 2018;82:126–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.014.
[165] Karavas C-S, Kyriakarakos G, Arvanitis KG, Papadakis G. A multi-agent [189] Rathor SK, Saxena D. Energy management system for smart grid: an overview and
decentralized energy management system based on distributed intelligence for key issues. Int J Energy Res 2020;44:4067–109. https://doi.org/10.1002/
the design and control of autonomous polygeneration microgrids. Energy Convers er.4883.
Manag 2015;103:166–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.06.021. [190] Dursun E, Kilic O. Comparative evaluation of different power management
[166] Wu J, Wei Z, Li W, Wang Y, Li Y, Sauer D. Battery thermal- and health-constrained strategies of a stand-alone PV/wind/PEMFC hybrid power system. Int J Electr
energy Management for Hybrid Electric bus based on soft actor-critic DRL Power Energy Syst 2012;34:81–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2011.08.025.
algorithm. IEEE Trans Ind Informatics 2021:1. https://doi.org/10.1109/ [191] Pascual J, Barricarte J, Sanchis P, Marroyo L. Energy management strategy for a
TII.2020.3014599. renewable-based residential microgrid with generation and demand forecasting.
[167] Wu J, Wei Z, Liu K, Quan Z, Li Y. Battery-involved energy Management for Hybrid Appl Energy 2015;158:12–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.08.040.
Electric bus Based on expert-assistance deep deterministic policy gradient [192] Abedi S, Alimardani A, Gharehpetian GB, Riahy GH, Hosseinian SH.
algorithm. IEEE Trans Veh Technol 2020;69:12786–96. https://doi.org/10.1109/ A comprehensive method for optimal power management and design of hybrid
TVT.2020.3025627. RES-based autonomous energy systems. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2012;16:1577–87.
[168] Byrne RH, Nguyen TA, Copp DA, Chalamala BR, Gyuk I. Energy management and https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.11.030.
Optimization methods for grid energy storage systems. IEEE Access 2018;6: [193] Feroldi D, Degliuomini LN, Basualdo M. Energy management of a hybrid system
13231–60. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2741578. based on wind–solar power sources and bioethanol. Chem Eng Res Des 2013;91:
[169] Wang X, Huang Y, Guo F, Zhao W. Energy Management Strategy based on 1440–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2013.03.007.
Dynamic Programming Considering Engine Dynamic Operating Conditions [194] Bruni G, Cordiner S, Mulone V, Rocco V, Spagnolo F. A study on the energy
Optimization. 2020 39th Chinese control Conf., IEEE. 2020. p. 5485–92. https:// management in domestic micro-grids based on model Predictive control
doi.org/10.23919/CCC50068.2020.9188933. strategies. Energy Convers Manag 2015;102:50–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[170] Zhang X, Ren X, Zheng C, Yuan Y, Diao L. Dynamic Programming in energy enconman.2015.01.067.
management Strategy for optimizing multi-energy drive system. Lect Notes Electr [195] Basir Khan MR, Jidin R, Pasupuleti J. Multi-agent based distributed control
Eng 2020;638:471–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2862-0_45. architecture for microgrid energy management and optimization. Energy Convers
[171] Zhang S, Xiong R. Adaptive energy management of a plug-in hybrid electric Manag 2016;112:288–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.01.011.
vehicle based on driving pattern recognition and dynamic programming. Appl [196] Brka A, Kothapalli G, Al-Abdeli YM. Predictive power management strategies for
Energy 2015;155:68–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.06.003. stand-alone hydrogen systems: lab-scale validation. Int J Hydrog Energy 2015;40:
[172] Tsikalakis AG, Hatziargyriou ND. Centralized control for optimizing microgrids 9907–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.06.081.
operation. IEEE Trans Energy Convers 2011;23:241–8. https://doi.org/10.1109/ [197] Kyriakarakos G, Dounis AI, Arvanitis KG, Papadakis G. A fuzzy logic energy
PES.2011.6039737. management system for polygeneration microgrids. Renew Energy 2012;41:
[173] Panwar LK, Konda SR, Verma A, Panigrahi BK, Kumar R. Operation window 315–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2011.11.019.
constrained strategic energy management of microgrid with electric vehicle and [198] Ferahtia S, Djerioui A, Zeghlache S, Houari A. A hybrid power system based on
distributed resources. IET Gener Transm Distrib 2017;11:615–26. https://doi. fuel cell, photovoltaic source and supercapacitor. SN Appl Sci 2020;2:940.
org/10.1049/iet-gtd.2016.0654. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2709-0.
[174] Leroy T, Vidal-Naquet F, Tona P. Stochastic Dynamic Programming based energy [199] Setlhaolo D, Xia X. Combined residential demand side management strategies
management of HEV’s: an experimental validation. IFAC Proc 2014;47:4813–8. with coordination and economic analysis. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 2016;79:
https://doi.org/10.3182/20140824-6-ZA-1003.01868. 150–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2016.01.016.
[175] Panday A, Bansal HO. Energy management strategy for hybrid electric vehicles [200] Moghaddam AA, Seifi A, Niknam T, Alizadeh Pahlavani MR. Multi-objective
using genetic algorithm. J Renew Sustain Energy 2016;8:015701. https://doi. operation management of a renewable MG (micro-grid) with back-up micro-
org/10.1063/1.4938552. turbine/fuel cell/battery hybrid power source. Energy 2011;36:6490–507.
[176] Lü X, Wu Y, Lian J, Zhang Y, Chen C, Wang P, et al. Energy management of hybrid https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.09.017.
electric vehicles: A review of energy optimization of fuel cell hybrid power system [201] Mohammadi S, Soleymani S, Mozafari B. Scenario-based stochastic operation
based on genetic algorithm. Energy Convers Manag 2020;205:112474. https:// management of MicroGrid including wind, photovoltaic, Micro-turbine, fuel cell
doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.112474. and energy storage devices. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 2014;54:525–35.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2013.08.004.

15

View publication stats