Essential Elements

Of
The MYP
 Table of Contents

Middle Years Programme (MYP) Vocabulary​ 2

MYP Common Language​ 4
The Global Contexts Defined​ 5
The Design Cycle​ 7
Planning MYP Units of Inquiry​ 8
MYP Unit Planner GUIDE​ 12
MYP Key Concepts​ 18
MYP Assessment Criteria​ 22

1
 Middle Years Programme (MYP) Vocabulary
Approaches to Learning (ATL): ATL skills represent general and subject specific learning skills that
students will develop and apply during the MYP and beyond. These skills are explicitly taught within a unit
of inquiry in an effort to develop an individual’s awareness of how they learn best. The five
ATL categories are:
• Research
• Communication
• Self-management
• Social
• Thinking

Command terms: Specific terms (in bold print) located within MYP rubrics that define the levels of
cognitive demand for each descriptor. Command terms cannot be altered or removed when making
task-specific clarifications (see below).

Criterion: Each MYP subject area has a set of criterion with specific MYP objectives. Subject specific
criterion are located within the subject guide. Each criterion has its own rubric.

Fundamental Concepts: The three fundamental concepts that are rooted in the IB mission statement are:
• Holistic Learning
• Intercultural Awareness
• Communication

Global Context: The Global Contexts are the lens through which a unit of instruction is taught. Teaching
subjects through these contexts allows teaching & learning to focus on attitudes, values, and skills. There are
six global contexts:
• Identities and relationships
• Orientation in space and time
• Personal and cultural expression
• Scientific and technical innovation
• Globalization and sustainability

Key Concept: Each subject guide has between 3-5 concepts that must be incorporated into units of study.
These key concepts help to create the statement of inquiry within a unit of study.

Learner Profile: A set of 10 attributes that describe the kind of student who exemplifies the spirit of the
MYP
• Inquirers
• Knowledgeable
• Thinkers
• Communicators
• Principled
• Open-minded
• Caring
• Risk-takers
• Balanced
• Reflective

2
Lines of Inquiry: Lines of inquiry are questions that provoke student inquiry towards the development of
the statement of inquiry. There are three types of lines of inquiry:
• Factual- content based
• Conceptual- big picture, broad in scope, and transferrable
• Debatable- engaging and provocative

MYP Objectives: A set of subject specific statements aligned to Standards that describe the skills,
knowledge & understanding that will be assessed.

MYP Subject Areas: The eight subject areas taught in the MYP are:

• Literature & Language (Reading & Language Arts)

• Language Acquisition (Spanish/French)
• Individuals and Societies (Social Studies)
• Science
• Mathematics
• The Arts (Music & Art)
• Physical Education & Health
• Design

MYP Rubrics: Each subject has one MYP rubric for each of its criterion.

Personal Project: A project completed in the final year of the MYP (year 5) that is the culmination of the
students’ experience in the MYP.

Related Concepts: The related concepts are used in conjunction with the key concepts to create a
statement of inquiry. Teachers may use the suggested concepts found in each subject guide, or they may
include their own.

Statement of Inquiry: The Statement of inquiry is a declarative statement that directly links the key
concept(s) and related concepts to the global context.

Task-specific Clarifications: An assessment grid, adapted by the teacher, which better identifies how the
achievement level descriptors can be addressed by the student for a given assessment task.

Unit Plan: a series of lessons, organized and focused through global contexts, statements of inquiry, and
lines of inquiry, which are designed to enable students to achieve the MYP objectives.

3
 MYP Common Language
*Both faculty & students should have a solid understanding of the following MYP terms:

MYP Subject Areas:

~Literature & Language ~Mathematics

~Language Acquisition ~The Arts
~Individuals & Societies ~Physical Education & Health
~Sciences ~Design

IB Learner Profile Global Contexts Design Cycle

Inquirers Fairness and development Plan

Knowledgeable Identities and relationships Investigate
Thinkers Orientation in space and time Create
Communicators Personal and cultural expression Evaluate
Principled Scientific and technical innovation
Open-minded Globalization and sustainability
Caring
Risk-takers
Balanced
Reflective

Unit Planner Terminology

~Global Context (lens) ~State Standards ~Statement of Inquiry ~Approaches to Learning
Skills ~Lines of Inquiry ~Learning experiences (the what) ~Assessment (summative)
~Teaching strategies (the how) ~MYP objectives ~Resources ~MYP Rubrics (one for
each criterion) ~Reflection

4
 The Global Contexts Defined
Identities and Relationships:
Who am I? Who are we?
Students will explore identity: beliefs and values; personal, physical, mental, social, and spiritual health;
human relationships including families, friends, communities, and cultures; what it means to be human.
Possible explorations to develop:
• competition and cooperation; teams, affiliation and leadership
• identity formation, self-esteem, status, roles and role models
• personal efficacy and agency; attitudes, motivations, independence; happiness and the good life • development, transitions, health
and well being
• physical, psychological and social being, lifestyle choices
• human nature and human dignity, moral reasoning and ethical judgment, consciousness and mind

Orientation in Space and Time:

What is the meaning of when and where?
Students will explore personal histories; homes and journeys; turning points in human-kind; discoveries;
explorations and migrations of humankind; the relationship between, and the interconnectedness of
individuals and civilizations, from personal, local, and global perspectives.
Possible explorations to develop:
• civilizations and social histories, heritage; pilgrimage, migration, displacement and exchange • epochs, eras, turning points and ‘big
history’
• scale, duration, frequency and variability
• peoples, boundaries, exchange and interaction
• natural and human landscapes and resources
• evolution, constraints and adaptations

Personal and Cultural Expression:

What is the nature and purpose of creative expression?
Students will explore the ways in which we discover and express ideas, feelings, nature, culture, beliefs, and
values; the ways in which we reflect on, extend and enjoy our creativity; our appreciation of the aesthetic.
Possible explorations to develop:
• artistry, craft, creation, beauty, products, systems and institutions
• social constructions of reality; philosophies and ways of life; belief systems; ritual and play • critical literacy, languages and
linguistic systems; histories of ideas, fields and disciplines; analysis and argument • metacognition and abstract thinking
• entrepreneurship, practice and competency

Fairness and Development:

What are the consequences of our common humanity?
Students will explore the rights and responsibilities; the relationship between communities; sharing finite
resources with other living things; access to equal opportunities; peace and conflict resolution. Possible
explorations to develop:
• democracy, politics, government and civil society
• inequality, difference and inclusion
• human capability and development; social entrepreneurs
• rights, law, civic responsibility and the public sphere
• justice, peace, and conflict management

5
• power and privilege
• authority, security and freedom
• imagining a hopeful future

Scientific and Technical Innovation:

How do we understand the world in which we live?
Students will explore the natural world and its laws; the interaction between people and the natural world;
how humans use their understanding of scientific principles; the impact of scientific and technological
advances on communities and environments; the impact of environments on human activity; how humans
adapt environments to their needs.
Possible explorations to develop:
• systems, models, methods; products, processes and solutions
• adaptation, ingenuity and progress
• opportunity, risk, consequences and responsibility
• modernization, industrialization and engineering
• digital life, virtual environments and the information age
• the biological revolution
• mathematical puzzles, principles and discoveries

Globalization and Sustainability:

How is everything connected?
Students will explore the interconnectedness of human-made systems and communities; the relationship
between local and global processes; how local experiences mediate the global; reflect on the opportunities
and tensions provided by world-interconnectedness; the impact of decision-making on humankind and the
environment.
Possible explorations to develop:
• markets, commodities and commercialization
• human impact on environment
• commonality, diversity and interconnection
• natural resources and public goods
• consumption, conservation
• population and demography
• urban planning, strategy and infrastructure

SUPPORTING STUDENTS THROUGH INQUIRY

✔ Explore real world issues

✔ Encourage higher order thinking
✔ Use the Common Language
✔ Go beyond memorization
✔ Collaborate with peers
✔ Teacher becomes facilitator
✔ Practice personal & social responsibility
✔ Students explore, experiment, analyze, and discover

6
 The Design Cycle

The Design Cycle is the basis of the MYP approach to technology. The cycle is the model of
thinking and the strategy to help students investigate problems. With this cycle they will
investigate, plan, create, and evaluate the products/solutions that they generate. Although the
Design Cycle is a requirement of all Design classes, students would benefit from using the
Design Cycle in other content areas that lend themselves to the process.

7
 Planning MYP Units of Inquiry
THE PLANNER

In order for subject content to be understood in context, the written and the taught curriculum
must be brought together in a meaningful synthesis through common planning, teaching,
assessing, and reflecting.

Each unit should…

• stand alone as a significant, engaging, relevant, and challenging learning experience.

• contribute to a coherent, school-wide commitment to inquiry (see Supporting Students

Through Inquiry p. 7) that is framed by the Global Contexts.
• be driven by Lines of Inquiry that are engaging and conceptually based.

• involve students in a range of learning experiences planned in response to the MYP Lines of
Inquiry.
• build on prior knowledge of the students.

• be constructed and conducted with the Learner Profile in mind in order to promote positive
attitudes.
• require students to reflect on their learning, and encourage them to engage in responsible
action.

*MYP units can be subject based or interdisciplinary in nature

8
MYP Unit Planner
Unit Title

Teachers

Subject and
grade-level

Duration

Stage 1: Integrate global context, key concepts, statement of inquiry, and lines
of inquiry
Statement of Inquiry
Global Context Key Concept(s) &
related concepts
What do we want students to
Which global context will be our
What are the big ideas? retain for years in the future
focus?
Why have we chosen this?

Lines of Inquiry

Factual:

Conceptual:

Debatable:

Assessment
What task(s) will allow students the opportunity to respond to the Lines of Inquiry?
What will constitute acceptable evidence of understanding? How will students show what they have understood?

Which specific MYP objectives will be addressed during this unit?

9
 Which MYP assessment criteria will be used?

Stage 2: Backward planning: from the assessment to the learning activities

through inquiry
Content
What knowledge and/or skills (from the course overview) are going to be used to enable the student to respond to the Lines of Inquiry?
What (if any) state, provincial, district, or local standards/skills are to be addressed? How can they be unpacked to develop the statement
of inquiry for stage 1?

Approaches to learning
How will this unit contribute to the overall development of subject-specific and general approaches to learning skills?

Learning experiences Teaching strategies

How will we use formative assessment to give students feedback
How will students know what is expected of them? Will during the unit?
they see examples, rubrics, templates?
What different teaching methodologies will we employ?
How will students acquire the knowledge and practice the
skills required? How will they practice applying these? How are we differentiating teaching and learning for all? How have we
made provision for those learning in a language other than their
Do the students have enough prior knowledge? How will mother tongue? How have we considered those with special
we know? educational needs?

HOW WILL EXPECTATIONS BE FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT:

COMMUNICATED TO STUDENTS?

TEACHING METHODOLOGIES:

LEARNING EXPERIENCES:
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION:

10
 Resources
What resources are available to us?
How will our classroom environment, local environment and/or the community be used to facilitate students’ experiences during the unit?

On-going reflections and evaluation

In keeping an on-going record, consider the following questions. There are further stimulus
questions at the end of the “Planning for teaching and learning” section of MYP: From
principles into practice.
Students and teachers
What did we find compelling? Were our disciplinary knowledge/skills challenged in any way?
What inquiries arose during the learning? What, if any, extension activities arose?
How did we reflect—both on the unit and on our own learning?
Which attributes of the learner profile were encouraged through this unit? What opportunities were there for student-initiated action?

Possible connections
How successful was the collaboration with other teachers within my subject group and from other subject groups? What interdisciplinary
understandings were or could be forged through collaboration with other subjects?
Assessment
Were students able to demonstrate their learning?
How did the assessment tasks allow students to demonstrate the learning objectives identified for this unit? How did I make sure students
were invited to achieve at all levels of the criteria descriptors?

Are we prepared for the next stage?

Data collection
How did we decide on the data to collect? Was it useful?

11
MYP Unit Planner GUIDE
Unit Title The title should engage students and grab their attention/ reflects
the Lines of Inquiry

Teachers

Subject and
grade-level

Duration

Stage 1: Integrate global context, key concepts, statement of inquiry, and lines
of inquiry

Key Concept(s) &

Global Context related concepts Statement of Inquiry

Which global context will be our What are the big ideas? What do we want students to
focus?Why have we chosen this? retain for years in the future
From your guide, list
1. Choose one of the following:
the Key concept(s) Combine components
-identities & relationships from the Global
-orientation in space & time that is the focus of
your unit. Context box with the
-personal & cultural expression
-fairness & development Key Concepts box to
-scientific & technical innovation Also, list any related create a significant
-globalization & sustainability
concepts that are concept statement
important to the
2. Why? “Students will development of this
explore…” planner

Lines of Inquiry

Factual: This question should be broad, but content related.

Conceptual: This question is broad in scope, and should be

able to be transferred to other disciplines.

Debatable: This question is intended to elicit student

engagement.

12
 Assessment
What task(s) will allow students the opportunity to respond to the unit question?
What will constitute acceptable evidence of understanding? How will students show what they have understood?

This is where you summarize the summative assessment(s) that will be graded using the
MYP rubrics.
□ Write the type of assessment (test, project, essay, etc.) and a brief description of what
students will be required to do.
□ The summative assessment needs to allow students the opportunity to respond to the
Lines of Inquiry written above.

Which specific MYP objectives will be addressed during this unit?

□ Take wording directly from the objectives list in your MYP subject guide □ Consider how
these objectives will be assessed in the UNIT

Which MYP assessment criteria will be used? (List the criterion)

□ Which MYP rubrics will be used?

□ Simply list the criterion that matches the objectives you chose above

Stage 2: Backward planning: from the assessment to the learning activities

through inquiry
Content
What knowledge and/or skills (from the course overview) are going to be used to enable the student to respond to the unit
question?
What (if any) state, provincial, district, or local standards/skills are to be addressed? How can they be unpacked to develop
the significant concept(s) for stage 1?

□ List the state standards will be addressed in the UNIT

□ The concepts and content to be presented in the UNIT
□ List specific skills or performance indicators
□ All content should be directly related to the Global Context, the Statement of Inquiry, and
Lines of Inquiry.

Approaches to learning
How will this unit contribute to the overall development of subject-specific and general approaches to learning skills?

13
ATL skills help students to identify the specific skills necessary to develop purposeful and
effective habits of mind. These skills must be explicitly taught.
□ Choose the ATL skills that will be the focus of the unit, and then explain how you will be
explicitly teaching the skills.
□ The five ATL categories are:

*Research
*Communication
*Thinking
*Self-management
*Social

Learning experiences Teaching strategies

How will we use formative assessment to give students
How will students know what is expected of them? feedback during the unit?
Will they see examples, rubrics, templates?
What different teaching methodologies will we employ?
How will students acquire the knowledge and
practice the skills required? How will they practice How are we differentiating teaching and learning for all? How
applying these? have we made provision for those learning in a language
other than their mother tongue? How have we considered
Do the students have enough prior knowledge? those with special educational needs?
How will we know?

These are the sequential lessons that will These are the instructional approaches you will
appear as detailed plans in your DAILY use to ensure that all students have equal access
LESSON PLAN binder/book to the content

□ First, how will expectations be □ First, list how you collect formative assessment
communicated? List the things you do to data
share expectations with students.
□ Second, explain the teaching methodologies
you use.
□ Next, outline the sequence of lessons □ Finally, explain how you will differentiate your
including specific learning activities unit for all students
*** See Stage 2 Planning Resource
*** See Stage 2 Planning Resource

Resources
What resources are available to us?
How will our classroom environment, local environment and/or the community be used to facilitate students’ experiences
during the unit?

□ List all materials available to aid students in developing a full understanding of

concepts/content
□ Include the names of texts or other specific materials

14
On-going reflections and evaluation
In keeping an on-going record, consider the following questions. There are further
stimulus questions at the end of the “Planning for teaching and learning” section of
MYP: From principles into practice.
Students and teachers
What did we find compelling? Were our disciplinary knowledge/skills challenged in any way?
What inquiries arose during the learning? What, if any, extension activities arose?
How did we reflect—both on the unit and on our own learning?
Which attributes of the learner profile were encouraged through this unit? What opportunities were there for
student-initiated action?

Possible connections
How successful was the collaboration with other teachers within my subject group and from other subject groups? What
interdisciplinary understandings were or could be forged through collaboration with other subjects? Assessment

Were students able to demonstrate their learning?

How did the assessment tasks allow students to demonstrate the learning objectives identified for this unit? How did I
make sure students were invited to achieve at all levels of the criteria descriptors?
Are we prepared for the next stage?

Data collection
How did we decide on the data to collect? Was it useful?

This section of the planner is to be completed after the conclusion of the UNIT. It is used as
a reference when planning the next iteration of the UNIT.

15
 IB PLANNER STAGE 2 RESOURCE

LEARNING EXPERIENCES TEACHING STRATEGIES

How are expectations communicated? See the Formative Assessment Examples:
examples below: • Quizzes
• Grading Rubrics • Homework
• Project summary • Exit slips
• Defining assignment requirements • Learning journals
• Unit overview • Practice sheets
• Course syllabus • Warm-ups
• Unit goals and objectives • Indiv. white board practise
• Exemplars

Teaching Methodology Examples:

• Demonstrations
Learning Activities: • Class discussion
• Start with day one. What activities are you asking • Small group work
students to do in this unit? Think of this as the list of • Lecture w/ discussion
assignments in your plan book or your agenda • Role playing
items (minus the warm-up, homework, and other • Case studies
“record keeping” tasks. • Guest Speaker
• Video/ technology

Differentiated Instruction Examples:

• Guided Notes
• Flexible grouping
• Modeling
• Task sheets
• Tiered lessons/centers/products
• Scaffolding
• Modified tests/quizzes
• Offer choice (Mult. Intelligences)
• Anchor activities
• Graphic organizers

IB ATL MYP ATL EXAMPLES

SKILLS SKILLS
(Broad
categories for
all IB Programs)

Communication Communication • Writing

• Speaking & Listening
• Presenting
• Representations
• Using symbols

16
 Social Collaboration • Communication
• Cooperative learning: roles & responsibilities
• Co-creation of work
• Conflict /resolution,
• Teambuilding

Self-management Organization • Time-management

• System for recording homework, projects, assessments •
Goal setting
• Coming prepared
• Organized notes/notebook
• Making use of graphic organizers

Affective • Demonstrate perseverance

• Mindfulness- focus & concentration
• Emotional management
• Self-motivation
• Resilience – “failing well”

Reflection • Reflect on content

• Reflect on process
• Reflect on ATL skills development
• Reflect on personal learning strategies- What worked for
you?

Research Information • Finding, interpreting, judging, and creating information •

literacy Documenting sources
• Identify primary and secondary sources

Media • Locate, organize, analyze, synthesize, and ethically use

Literacy information from a variety of sources and media

Thinking Critical • Analyze and evaluate issues and ideas

thinking • Bloom's taxonomy
• Webb’s Depth of Knowledge

Creative • Brainstorming & visual diagrams to generate new ideas

thinking and inquiries
• Create novel solutions to authentic problems
• Create original works and ideas

Transfer • Use skills and knowledge in multiple contexts • Connect

past learning to new learning
• Apply skills and knowledge in unfamiliar situations

17
 MYP Key Concepts
･Aesthetics deals with the characteristics, creation, meaning and perception of beauty and taste. The study
of aesthetics develops skills for the critical appreciation and analysis of art, culture and nature.

･Change is a conversion, transformation or movement from one form, state or value to another. Inquiry into
the concept of change involves understanding and evaluating causes, processes and consequences.

･Communication is the exchange or transfer of signals, facts, ideas and symbols. It requires a sender, a
message and an intended receiver. Communication involves the activity of conveying information or
meaning. Effective communication requires a common language (which may be written, spoken or
non-verbal).

･Communities are groups that exist in proximity defined by space, time or relationship. Communities
include, for example, groups of people sharing particular characteristics, beliefs or values as well as groups
of interdependent organisms living together in a specific habitat.

･Connections are links, bonds and relationships among people, objects, organisms or ideas.

･Creativity is the process of generating novel ideas and considering existing ideas from new perspectives.
Creativity includes the ability to recognize the value of ideas when developing innovative responses to
problems; it may be evident in process as well as outcomes, products or solutions.

･Culture encompasses a range of learned and shared beliefs, values, interests, attitudes, products, ways of
knowing and patterns of behavior created by human communities. The concept of culture is dynamic and
organic.

･Development is the act or process of growth, progress or evolution, sometimes through iterative
improvements.

･Form is the shape and underlying structure of an entity or piece of work, including its organization,
essential nature and external appearance.

･Global interactions, as a concept, focuses on the connections among individuals and communities, as well
as their relationships with built and natural environments, from the perspective of the world as a whole.

･Identity is the state or fact of being the same. It refers to the particular features that define individuals,
groups, things, eras, places, symbols and styles. Identity can be observed, or it can be constructed, asserted
and shaped by external and internal influences.

･Logic is a method of reasoning and a system of principles used to build arguments and reach conclusions.

･Perspective is the position from which we observe situations, objects, facts, ideas and opinions.
Perspective may be associated with individuals, groups, cultures or disciplines. Different perspectives often
lead to multiple representations and interpretations.

･Relationships are the connections and associations between properties, objects, people and ideas—including

18
the human community’s connections with the world in which we live. Any change in relationship brings
consequences—some of which may occur on a small scale, while others may be far reaching, affecting large
networks and systems such as human societies and the planetary ecosystem.

･Systems are sets of interacting or interdependent components. Systems provide structure and order in
human, natural and built environments. Systems can be static or dynamic, simple or complex.

･The intrinsically linked concept of time, space and place refers to the absolute or relative position of
people, objects and ideas. Time, place and space focuses on how we construct and use our understanding of
location (where and when).

MYP Related Concepts by Subject

LANGUAGE & LITERATURE

Audience Character Context Genres

imperatives

Intertextuality Point of view Purpose Self-expression

Setting Structure Style Theme

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Phases 1-2

Accent Audience Context Conventions

Form Function Meaning Message

Patterns Purpose Structure Word choice

Phases 3-4

Audience Context Conventions Empathy

Function Idiom Meaning Message

Point of view Purpose Structure Word choice

Phases 5-6

Argument Audience Bias Context

Empathy Idiom Inference Point of view

Purpose Stylistic choice Theme Voice

INDIVIDUALS & SOCIETIES

Economics

Choice Consumption Equity Globalization

Growth Model Poverty Power

19
 Resources Scarcity Sustainability Trade

Geography

Causality Culture Disparity & equity Diversity

Globalization Management & Networks Patterns and trends

intervention

Power Processes Scale Sustainability

History

Causality Civilization Conflict Cooperation

Culture Governance Identity Ideology

Innovation & Interdependence Perspective Significance

revolution

Integrated Humanities

Causality Choice Culture Equity

Globalization Identity Innovation & Perspective

revolution

Power Processes Resources Sustainability

SCIENCES

Biology

Balance Consequences Energy Environment

Evidence Form Function Interaction

Models Movement Patterns Transformation

Chemistry

Balance Conditions Consequences Energy

Evidence Form Function Interaction

Models Movement Patterns Transformation

Physics

Consequences Development Energy Environment

Evidence Form Function Interaction

Models Movement Patterns Transformation

20
 Integrated Sciences

Balance Consequences Energy Environment

Evidence Form Function Interaction

Models Movement Patterns Transformation

MATHEMATICS

Change Equivalence Generalization Justification

Measurement Model Pattern Quantity

Representation Simplification Space System

THE ARTS

Visual Arts

Audience Boundaries Composition Expression

Genre Innovation Interpretation Narrative

Presentation Representation Style Visual culture

Performing Arts

Audience Boundaries Composition Expression

Genre Innovation Interpretation Narrative

Play Presentation Role Structure

PHYSICAL EDUCATION & HEALTH

Adaptation Balance Choice Energy

Environment Function Interaction Movement

Perspective Refinement Space Systems

DESIGN

Adaptation Collaboration Ergonomics Evaluation

Form Function Innovation Invention

Markets & trends Perspective Resources Sustainability

21
 MYP Assessment Criteria
Course
MYP Subject A B C D
group

Language and Analyzing Organizing Producing text Using language

literature

Individuals and Knowing and Investigating Communicating Thinking critically

societies understanding

Mathematics Knowing and Investigating patterns Communicating Applying mathematics in

understanding real world contexts

Sciences Knowing and Inquiring and designing Processing and evaluating Reflecting on the impacts
understanding of science

Arts Investigating Developing Creating/Performing Evaluating

Physical and Knowing and Planning for performance Applying and performing Reflecting and improving
health education understanding performance

Design Inquiring and analyzing Developing ideas Creating the solution Evaluating

Language Listening Reading Speaking Writing

acquisition

Personal Project Planning Applying skills Reflecting

Community Project Investigating Planning Taking action Reflecting

G8

Interdisciplinary Evaluating Synthesizing Reflecting

Units

22