Definition of Gender and culture.

Nutrition affects a range of health and social issues, including pregnancy outcomes, household
food security, and local and national economic development. Inadequate nutrition for women and
their children is the underlying cause of 3.5 million deaths around the world every year. Women
in developing countries face micronutrient deficiencies, infections, the toll of heavy physical
labor and other threats to their nutritional well-being throughout their lives.

Gender inequality also contributes to inadequate nutrition and food insecurity among women and
children. For example, in many households in developing countries, women do not have the
power to decide how food and other resources should be distributed among household members,
including their children and themselves.

GENDER CONSIDERATIONS IN NUTRITION.

How Nutrition Affects Women

Women are more likely to suffer from nutritional deficiencies than men are, for reasons including
women’s reproductive biology, low social status, poverty, and lack of education. Sociocultural
traditions and disparities in household work patterns can also increase women’s chances of being
malnourished. Globally, 50 percent of all pregnant women are anemic, and at least 120 million
women in less developed countries are underweight. Research shows that being underweight
hinders women’s productivity and can lead to increased rates of illness and mortality. In some
regions, the majority of women are underweight: In South Asia, for example, an estimated 60
percent of women are underweight.

Many women who are underweight are also stunted, or below the median height for their age.
Stunting is a known risk factor for obstetric complications such as obstructed labor and the need
for skilled intervention during delivery, leading to injury or death for mothers and their
newborns. It also is associated with reduced work capacity.

Adolescent girls are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition because they are growing faster than
at any time after their first year of life. They need protein, iron, and other micronutrients to
support the adolescent growth spurt and meet the body’s increased demand for iron during
menstruation. Adolescents who become pregnant are at greater risk of various complications
since they may not yet have finished growing. Pregnant adolescents who are underweight or
stunted are especially likely to experience obstructed labor and other obstetric complications.
There is evidence that the bodies of the still-growing adolescent mother and her baby may
compete for nutrients, raising the infant’s risk of low birth weight (defined as a birth weight of
less than 2,500 grams) and early death.

Iron Deficiency and Anemia

Iron deficiency and anemia are the most prevalent nutritional deficiencies in the world. The body
uses iron to produce hemoglobin, a protein that transports oxygen from the lungs to other tissues
in the body via the blood stream, and anemia is defined as having a hemoglobin level below a
specific level (less than 12 grams of hemoglobin per deciliter of blood [g/dl] in non-pregnant
women; less than 10 g/dl in pregnant women). Most women who develop anemia in less
developed countries are not consuming enough iron-rich foods or are eating foods that inhibit the
absorption of iron. However, malaria can also cause anemia and is responsible for much of the
endemic anemia in some areas. Other causes of anemia include hookworm and schistosomiasis,
HIV/AIDS, other micronutrient deficiencies, and genetic disorders.

Anemia affects about 43 percent of women of reproductive age in less developed countries.
Women are especially susceptible to iron deficiency and anemia during pregnancy, and about
half of all pregnant women in less developed countries are anemic, although rates vary
significantly among regions. Iron deficiency and anemia cause fatigue, reduce work capacity,
and make people more susceptible to infection. Severe anemia places women at higher risk of
death during delivery and the period following childbirth. Recent research suggests that even
mild anemia puts women at greater risk of death.

Iodine Deficiency
Failing to meet the body’s iodine requirements impairs mental functioning and can cause goiter
(a swelling of the thyroid gland) and hypothyroidism, a condition marked by fatigue and
weakness. Among adolescent girls, iodine deficiency may cause mental impairments, impede
physical development, and harm school performance. Although programs to iodize salt have
reduced the prevalence of iodine deficiency disorders dramatically in the past 10 years, there is
still wide variation in household access to iodized salt, ranging from 80 percent in Latin America
to 28 percent in Central and Eastern Europe. At least 130 countries have serious pockets of
iodine deficiency disorders.

Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD)

VAD, which can cause growth retardation and impaired vision, remains a significant public
health issue among populations that do not consume enough vitamin A, which is found in animal
products and certain fruits, including mangos. Severe VAD causes blindness; less severe VAD
impairs the immune system, making people more susceptible to infection and putting them at
increased risk of death. Concurrent infection with parasites and illnesses such as diarrhea, as well
as having several pregnancies too close together, can exacerbate VAD. Pregnant women are
especially vulnerable to VAD. In Nepal, for example, where VAD is prevalent in some
communities, as many as one in 10 pregnant women experience night blindness due to VAD.

How Maternal Nutrition Affects Newborns and Children: The Cycle of Poor Growth

Low Birth Weight

A variety of nutritional deficits, including iron deficiency and insufficient caloric intake, can
increase a woman’s chances of having a low birth-weight infant. Low birth weight affects more
than 20 million infants in less developed countries every year and is the strongest determinant of
a child’s survival. Infants with low birth weight account for the majority of infant deaths in the
first week of life in many less developed countries and are at higher risk of death throughout
infancy. Those who survive tend to remain shorter and lighter than their peers, which damages
their ability to work during adulthood. Low birth-weight infants often suffer from cognitive
impairment, developmental problems, and a greater susceptibility to illness. Low birth weight is
also associated with a higher burden of disease and early mortality.

Micronutrient Deficiencies
Micronutrient deficiencies in mothers place their infants at risk, since the fetus receives essential
nutrients from the mother. Even mild maternal malnutrition can impair fetal development.

Iron
Anemia is responsible for about 35 percent of preventable low birth weight: Because less iron is
transferred from anemic mothers to their fetuses, babies are at risk of iron deficiency and anemia
early in infancy. Infants born to mothers with anemia are at greater risk of low birth weight,
premature birth, and impaired cognitive development.

Vitamin A
Low maternal stores of vitamin A compromise children’s stores of vitamin A, putting those
children at greater risk of illness and death. A recent study showed that providing vitamin A
supplements to pregnant women with HIV in Malawi improved birth weight and neonatal growth
and reduced the prevalence of anemia in infants, as well as reducing rates of HIV transmission
from mothers to infants.

Iodine
Mothers who do not consume enough iodine are more likely to miscarry or have a stillborn child.
The physical growth and mental development of the children who do survive is often severely
impaired, and children may suffer irreversible mental retardation. In areas where iodine
deficiency is widespread, providing iodine supplements to pregnant women has led to decreased
infant mortality and higher birth weights.

Folate and Other B Vitamins

Folate deficiency at the time of conception can cause neural tube defects in infants, and maternal
zinc deficiency is associated with preterm delivery, low birth weight, and increased infant
mortality. Other B vitamins, including B6 and B12, are important for ensuring children’s healthy
neurological development.

How Women’s Nutrition Affects National Economies

Malnutrition in women leads to economic losses for families, communities, and countries
because malnutrition reduces women’s ability to work and can create ripple effects that stretch
through generations. Countries where malnutrition is common must deal with its immediate
costs, including reduced income from malnourished citizens, and face long-term problems that
may be related to low birth weight, including high rates of cardiac disease and diabetes in adults.

Illnesses associated with nutrient deficiencies have significantly reduced the productivity of
women in less developed countries. It is difficult to determine exactly what proportion of those
losses are due to maternal malnutrition, but recent research indicates that 60 percent of deaths of
children under age 5 are associated with malnutrition and children’s malnutrition is strongly
correlated with mothers’ poor nutritional status. Problems related to anemia, for example,
including cognitive impairment in children and low productivity in adults, cost US$5 billion a
year in South Asia alone. Illness associated with nutrient deficiencies have significantly reduced
the productivity of women in less developed countries. A recent report from Asia shows that
malnutrition reduces human productivity by 10 percent to 15 percent and gross domestic product
by 5 percent to 10 percent. By improving the nutrition of adolescent girls and women, nations
can reduce health care costs, increase intellectual capacity, and improve adult productivity.

Do nutritional requirements for men and women differ?

The essentials of a healthy diet are similar for men and women. Eat when hungry, stop when full.
Choose fruits, vegetables, whole grains, protein, and dairy sources that are low in saturated fat.
Avoid trans-fat, excessive sodium, and added sugar.

Differences in Calorie Needs

Your calorie needs depend on age, height, gender, muscle mass, and activity level. Muscle burns
more calories than fat, so people with more muscle require more calories. Because women tend
to be smaller and carry less muscle mass than men, their calorie needs are generally lower. The
publication "Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010" recommends 1,800 to 2,000 calories a day
for an average sedentary woman, but a sedentary man should consume 2,200 to 2,600 calories
per day. An average, moderately active women should consume about 2,000 to 2,200 daily
calories, compared to a moderately active man who needs 2,400 to 2,800 calories a day. Pregnant
women generally require 300 additional calories a day for healthy fetal growth. The average-
sized, moderately physically active 30-year-old female needs about 2000 calories per day while
her male counterpart needs about 2800 calories per day. Even if they were the same height and
weight, the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) approximate that the man burns about 400 calories
more per day than the woman.

Although the recommended breakdown of carbohydrate, protein, and fat are the same for both
genders, because men generally need more calories, they also require higher total intake of each
of the macronutrients.

Calorie Distribution Recommendations

"Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010" recommends that adults consume 45 percent to 65
percent of their calories from carbohydrates, 10 percent to 35 percent of their calories from
protein and 20 percent to 35 percent of their calories from fat. Because women require fewer
calories than men, their daily nutrient recommendations are also lower.

There is no minimum recommendation for total fat grams, but both genders need some fat for
vitamin absorption, brain function and energy. Recommendations for fiber, an indigestible
carbohydrate that supports heart and digestive health, also differ for men and women. The
Institute of Medicine recommends 25 grams of fiber a day for adult women and 38 grams for
men.

MINERALS AND VITAMINS RECOMMENDATIONS.

Women need fewer calories than men, but in many cases, they have higher vitamin and mineral
needs. Adequate intake of calcium, iron, and folic acid are of special importance for women.

Due to the hormonal changes associated with menstruation and child-bearing, women are more
susceptible than men to weakened bones and osteoporosis. Women also are at increased risk of
iron-deficiency anemia compared to men due to the monthly blood loss associated with
menstruation. The average pre-menopausal woman needs about 18 milligrams of iron per day
compared to 8 milligrams for men.
Both men and women need about 400 micrograms of the B vitamin folic acid, but the DRIs
specifically recommend that all women of childbearing age take a multivitamin with at least 400
micrograms of folic acid to prevent brain and spinal cord defects in a growing fetus. These
devastating consequences can occur in the early weeks of gestation, before a woman even knows
that she is pregnant. Once a woman is pregnant, the DRIs recommend 600 micrograms per day.

Men and women have similar vitamin needs with slight differences due to body size. Both
genders should consume 15 micrograms of vitamin D a day, a vitamin required for calcium
absorption and immunity. Harvard Medical School notes that supplementation of vitamin D may
be necessary for both genders, since very few foods contain high levels of this vitamin. Pregnant
women and women trying to become pregnant have higher folate needs than other adults, 500
micrograms compared to 400 micrograms, because folate is needed to prevent developmental
defects in the growing baby.
ALCOHOL

Men and women may both experience cardiovascular benefits from moderate alcohol
consumption, but women can also experience a devastating effect– increased risk of breast
cancer. For both genders, alcohol should always be consumed in moderation, if at all.

WEIGHT CONTROL.

Despite an extra caloric allowance, men suffer from overweight and obesity at disproportionately
higher rates than women. The effects of obesity [defined as a body mass index (BMI) >30kg/m2]
are widespread and pronounced, plaguing over a third of Americans.

Nearly 70 percent of U.S. adults are overweight (defined as a BMI >25kg/m2) or obese. If you
break it down by gender, almost three out of four men over 20 are overweight or obese compared
to about two out of three women. Among older adults, a similar percentage of men and women
are overweight, but substantially older women are obese compared to older men.

One can only speculate why men have become the heavier sex. Whatever the reasons, if men
were able to overcome the barriers and commit to healthier eating and more physical activity,
most men would find that, due to gender differences in fat storage and fat metabolism, it is
actually easier for them, compared to women, to lose weight!

Overall, increased awareness of the nutritional value of foods, including calories, macronutrient
composition, and vitamin and mineral content will empower both men and women to make
smarter nutrition choices and move a few steps closer to their health, fitness, and weight
management goals.
SOCIO CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS.
Forming Dietary Habits, The Beginning
Dietary habits and choices develop early. An infant’s eating habits are shaped by their parents in
accordance with their view of what constitutes a healthy baby. Those views are shaped by society
and can indirectly affect the nutrition the baby receives. Parents who follow a vegan diet, for
example, are more likely to introduce vegan food to their children . Some people perceive a
heavy baby as more healthy and feed accordingly to achieve such an outcome. Food can be used
as a reward for good behavior; sometimes food is used to interrupt bad behavior.
Some research suggests that children pick up eating behaviours by observing the eating habits of
others. Frankly, that sounds like the sort of common sense that didn’t need to be clarified with
research. After all, children learn nearly everything by copying the behavior of others. As such,
it’s important for parents to be a good role model and be careful with the way they encourage or
discourage certain types of food. Parents who adopt a “do as I say, not as I do” philosophy or
prohibit certain types of food may find themselves having to deal with unexpected consequences
when a food’s "forbidden" status makes it more desirable.
Conversely, trying to force a child to eat a specific healthy food isn’t a solid strategy either.
Studies show that forcing kids to eat fruits and vegetables they do not like may discourage good
eating habits.
When parents are selecting food for their kids, variety and options are key. Parents have the job
of choosing what kids eat and shaping their eating habits. This has a big impact on their health,
perhaps a bigger impact than anything else. “Children learn about foods they like or dislike by
being exposed to different types of food and observing and experiencing the consequences and
rewards of consuming those foods.”
Culture and society are essential in shaping a person’s diet. Unfortunately, as a society where
cheap is good and fast is better, we’ve welcomed super-sized, low-cost fast food that has paved
the way for a massive increase in the rate of obesity. In fact, the increased consumption of high
calorie, low-nutrition food has spawned an obesity epidemic.
According to the Journal of American Medicine, more than one-third (34.9%) of U.S. adults
are obese. Approximately 17% (or 12.7 million) of children and adolescents aged two to nineteen
years are obese.
There is also a strong, inverse association between socioeconomic factors such as occupation,
income, and obesity. A study documented that the cost of healthy food such as fruits and
vegetables is higher than less nutritious, energy-dense food.
Friends and family exert an influence over your eating habits. When people are together, they
tend to eat more, or less, than when they’re alone (depending how much others eat). The type of
food eaten in social situations can be different than the food eaten when a person is alone. One
study, in particular, found, “Meals eaten with others contained more carbohydrate, fat, protein,
and total calories.” Makes sense. After all, an appetizer is fun to share.
How Culture Influences Diet
Media and technology have been a shaping force in culture for many years. This isn’t always for
the better. Unfortunately, within the realm of eating habits, research shows that children who
watch television are more likely to have unhealthy eating habits.
In our culture, eating trends are also pushed by marketing strategies that may or may not be for
the betterment of society. Certainly, the advertisements for highly processed, highly refined,
unhealthy food full of artificial sweeteners, fat, and salt aren’t a positive influence. Adding a
“cool” and “fun” theme is simply masking these strategies, and it’s offensive. Especially
considering the effect a child’s eating habits will have on their health throughout their entire life.
Too often, people start out on the wrong foot and end up on track to eating and drinking
themselves to death.
Many people, especially young adults, are susceptible to how the media portrays the “perfect
body.” Is the media to blame for the epidemic of body dysmorphia and other self-image issues?
Magazines full of slim girls or muscular men may lead to a negative body image and, in turn,
encourage unhealthy habits. When this is coupled with other factors, such as mental health,
there’s little question why serious, sometimes life-threatening, body image and eating disorders
are so common.
Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, and their variants, are serious
disturbances in eating behavior. They are associated with a wide range of negative psychological,
physical, and social consequences. Eating disorders may start small but obsessive behavior
escalates quickly and it doesn’t take long for a serious concern to emerge. Eating disorders are
real, treatable medical illnesses.
Anorexia
When people have anorexia nervosa, they see themselves as overweight, even when they are
clearly underweight. Eating, food, and weight control become obsessions. There are many
symptoms of anorexia, but the most common include weighing oneself repeatedly, eating very
small quantities of food, self-induced vomiting, misusing laxatives, diuretics, or even enemas.
Anorexia is actually associated with the highest mortality rate of any psychiatric disorder.
Bulimia
People with bulimia nervosa tend to eat unusually large amounts of food and feel a lack of
control over these episodes. Bulimia-eating is followed by the use of laxatives, diuretics, fasting,
excessive exercise or any combination of them. The goal is to compensate the out-of-control
eating.
People with this disorder often maintain a normal weight. But the psychological fear factors
remain the same the fear of gaining weight and intense unhappiness with body size and shape.
Bulimic behavior is often done secretly as it is often accompanied by feelings of disgust or
shame.
Binge-Eating Behavior
Binge-eating behavior often leads to losing control over eating. The difference between binge-
eating and bulimia is that in both cases, people eat excessive amounts of food, but people with
bulimia compensate out-of-control eating with purging, while pure binge-eaters will not. As a
result, people with binge-eating disorder often become overweight or obese.
Inculcating Good Eating Habits
Parents play an important role in shaping the eating habits of their children. If you are a parent,
there are a few things to keep in mind.
Expose your kids to a range of healthy foods and start when they’re young. Cheap, poor-quality
foods of convenience aren’t appropriate for anyone of any age. Provide gentle guidance but be
careful when it comes to strictly forbidding food. If you’re purchasing the groceries, most of the
control will be in your hands by default. However, as kids get older and spend more time with
friends and away from their parents, they will make their own decisions. It’s important to teach
them honestly as opposed to dictating forcefully. Developing a solid foundation of healthy eating
habits at home will go a long way.
An easy way to maintain perspective is to ask yourself why people eat. Ultimately, the reason is
(or should be) to provide life-giving nourishment to our bodies. Basing your food choices on the
nourishment your body needs instead of the junk food that looks tasty is one strategy for making
better choices.
Of course, it is not always easy to maintain a healthy diet. For example, many people don’t have
the time or desire to cook at home. For others, natural or organic ingredients may be less
available. It can also be difficult to consistently follow a balanced diet. When you consider all
the macro and micronutrient your body needs on a daily basis, it’s not difficult to understand why
many people may not receive the complete nutrition they need. In those instances, vitamins and
natural supplements can be a great way to fill the gaps between your nutritional requirements and
your nutritional intake.
HOW CULTURE AFFECTS DIET.
When you grow up in a distinctive culture, it's bound to influence your lifestyle, your belief
system and perhaps most enjoyably, your diet. You might have a soft spot for mama's marinara,
an aunt's curry and chapatis, dad's barbecue ribs or grandmother's holiday tamales. Some food
traditions are more healthful than others, so you might want to modify some family favorites to
fit them into a healthy lifestyle while retaining the taste of home.
Negative and Positive Impact
Different cultures can produce people with varying health risks, though the role of diet is not
always clear. For example, African-Americans and many Southerners are at greater risk for
ailments such as heart disease and diabetes, but Southern-style fried foods, biscuits and ham
hocks might not be the only culprits. Income levels, limited access to healthier foods and
exercise habits might play a role as well. Menus stressing lower-fat foods and lots of vegetables,
such as those of many Asian cultures, can result in more healthful diets, even reducing the risks
for diseases such as diabetes and cancer.
Cultural Shifts
As people from one culture become assimilated into another, their diets might change, and not
always for the better. A good example is the shift away from traditional eating patterns among
Latinos in the United States. Besides the well-known emphasis on ingredients such as hot chiles
and cilantro, traditional, nutritious Latino meals include corn, grains, tubers such as potatoes and
yucca, vegetables, legumes and fruits. But a shift to a higher-fat, Americanized diet has raised the
obesity rate among Latinos and the health risks that go with it.
Mediterranean Example
How would you like a Mediterranean cruise? Not possible for everyone, but certain
Mediterranean cultures feature diets so healthful that lots of people try to emulate them.
According to the Cleveland Clinic, nutrition experts years ago took note of typical diets in
regions such as Crete, other parts of Greece and southern Italy, where life expectancy was high
and heart disease rates were low. The Mediterranean diet includes seasonal foods with minimal
processing, plenty of vegetables and whole grains, fresh fruit for dessert instead of sugary
sweets, olive oil as the main fat, and moderate amounts of dairy products, fish and poultry.
Healthier Diets
Enjoy your culture and the foods that make it special, but look for ways to tweak diet traditions
to make them more healthful. The American Academy of Family Physicians and American
Cancer Society suggest you reduce your risks for chronic disease by eating more fruits and
vegetables, limiting alcohol consumption, avoiding high-fat and sugary foods, and cutting back
on processed foods and red meat. Try substituting less-fattening ingredients for example,
reduced-fat cheese in tacos, and veggies instead of meat in lasagna or fat-free yogurt in raita
sauce. And include exercise in your personal and family routines, aiming for 30 to 60 minutes of
exercise on most days.
MALE INVOLVEMENT IN FAMILY HEALTH SERVICES, FOOD SECURITY AND
NUTRITIONAL HEALTH.

MALE INVOLVEMENT IN PREGNANCY AND CHILD CARE.

Family health is a state in which the family is a resource for the day-to-day living and health of
its members. A family provides its individual members with key resources for healthful living,
including food, clothing, shelter, a sense of self-worth, and access to medical care. Further,
family health is a socioeconomic process whereby the health of family members is mentioned.

Ensure that men are involved in the process of offering care to women during pregnancy,
childbirth, and after birth.

Ensure that men are involved when accessing family planning services.

Why is male involvement important?

• After delivery of a baby, men can support by ensuring women get time to rest and
recover, through taking on some of the household tasks like:
- Bathing the baby
- Fetching water
- Taking time to hold and care for the baby
- Visiting the family planning unit with together to learn more about responsible
parenting

• A father can support the mother while she breastfeeds by caring for the household and
other children or by caring for the newborn while she rests.

What are the benefits of male involvement?

• Men who participate in household work are confident, caring and respected.

• Men who support their wives are good examples to their children.
 • Working together encourages proper planning for the family’s basic needs such as food,
health care and education and use of the available land to grow enough food, including
fruits and vegetables for home consumption.

• When men help women during and after pregnancy, their families are happier and
healthier.

Why Involve Men in Reproductive Health?

What is "male involvement"? The word "Reproductive Health" implies both men and women.
Men are partners in reproduction and sexuality. Men's reproductive health and their behaviors
impact on women's reproductive health and children's well-being and society as well.
Comprehensive male involvement includes:

1. Encouraging men to become more involved and supportive of women's needs, choices, and
rights in sexual and reproductive health; and

2. Addressing men’s own sexual and reproductive health needs and behavior.

But some strong advocates of the use of family planning for population stabilization remain
unconvinced that to involve men in reproductive health is a worthwhile endeavor; the evidence
for this in the structuring of new reproductive health and family planning programmes rather
than any sweeping statements made on the topic. In their view, it is far more cost-effective to
promote women’s use of family planning (see Schuler et al (1995) for the strategic reasons to
focus on women). Women, who are primarily responsible for rearing children, are likely to be
more committed to contraceptive use than men, goes the reasoning.

Three reasons are most often given for involving men in reproductive health: 1) expanding the
range of contraceptive options; 2) supporting women’s contraceptive use; 3) preventing the
spread of sexually transmitted infections (PATH 1997). Taken alone, these three reasons are
highly clinical in orientation, and focus on contraception and sexually transmitted disease.
Supporting women’s contraceptive use is a worthy cause, but this motive could be more usefully
be expressed as, "the support of contraceptive use by men and women." In most settings, social
change must occur to change people's ideas about contraceptive use, health childbearing, and
sometimes even sexuality; bringing about this social change is a powerful reason to involve men
in reproductive health. "As programs move toward a concept of shared responsibility for family
planning and reproductive health, reaching men with information and services regarding their
own reproductive health as well as that of their partners becomes essential" (PATH 1997: 7).

A fourth and, in the view of this author, the most compelling reason for involving men in
reproductive health is to use the forum of reproductive health programmes to promote gender
equity and the transformation of men’s and women’s social roles; this reason is least often given
as a justification for including men, however, though the implications of male involvement are
broader than are often noted (Green et al 1995).

It is important to note here that although biology determines much of our reproductive roles, the
social overlay of our gender roles is at least as important for determining how we fulfill our
sexual and reproductive roles in a given setting (Mundigo 1995). To some extent, an exclusive
focus on the instrumental promotion of family planning methods among women takes refuge in
the biological basis of reproductive role differentiation, when we must attend to not only
reproduction but sexuality itself.
The use of any method of FP by women is often influenced by their husbands. Men have rarely
been involved in either receiving or providing information on sexuality, reproductive health, or
birth spacing. They have also been ignored or excluded in one way or the other from
participating in many FP programmes as FP is viewed as a woman’s affair. Traditionally, men are
the heads of households and decision makers in all issues in their respective households. Men
decide on FP and the number of children as well as how to use what is produced by the family.
Also, findings have shown that since men were the decision makers, they were expected to
initiate discussions on FP and the number of the children the couple want to have. Men were
perceived as the sole providers for their family needs. Women were not considered decision
makers, but implementers of what had been decided by men, without questioning men’s
decisions. The high level of awareness about contraception but very low level of use has been
established in studies in Nigeria. There are several obstacles to contraceptive use in Nigeria.
Studies in Nigeria and elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa have shown that major obstacles to the
adoption of modern contraceptive behavior include myths and misinformation or rumors and
unconfirmed information passed within social networks. Other reasons for this lack of FP use
include fear of complications, lack of understanding of methods, and fear of opposition from the
husband. Nadia et al. also identified evidence of fear of FP side effects among females and males
from India, Nepal, and Nigeria.

Family planning program planners tend to assume that men are opposed to family planning and
will, if involved in reproductive decision making, prevent women from regulating their fertility.
Available data, however, suggest that the most successful family planning programs target men
as well as women and promote communication about contraception between spouses. The
authors examined fertility decision making across five generations of one middle-class, South
Indian, high-caste Brahmin family from the state of Andhra Pradesh and the factors affecting its
sudden observed fertility decline. Data were collected through interviews with 77 male and 101
female family members from the five generations. Men in this family were significantly involved
in family planning over several generations. Indeed, fertility levels dropped during the periods of
greatest male involvement and practically no female involvement in reproductive decision
making. Such male involvement has resulted in fertility decline and long-term benefits for
women. Traditional notions about gender roles and family, together with economic concerns,
shaped fertility decision making. Individual motivation rather than choice of methods was more
important for positive male participation in family planning.

MALE INVOLVEMENT IN FOOD SECURITY.

Definition of key terms.

Food security -Food security, as defined by the United Nations’ Committee on World Food
Security, means that all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to
sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary needs for an
active and healthy life.

Food security for a household means access by all members at all times to enough food for an
active, healthy life. Food security includes at a minimum, (USDA):

(1) The ready availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods

(2) An assured ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways (that is, without
resorting to emergency food supplies, scavenging, stealing, or other coping strategies).

Things affecting food security today include:

• Global Water Crisis - Water table reserves are falling in many countries (including
Northern China, the US, and India) due to widespread over-pumping and irrigation.

• Climate Change - Rising global temperatures are beginning to have a ripple effect on
crop yields, forest resources, water supplies and altering the balance of nature.

• Land Degradation - Intensive farming leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil

fertility and decline of agricultural yields.
 • Greedy Land Deals - Corporations and Governments buying rights to millions of acres of
agricultural land in developing countries to secure their own long-term food supplies.
Gender analysis related to food systems and food security

Any project seeking to intervene in food chains needs to analyze and understand the different
roles of women and men. Often these are very clearly drawn in all the four areas of production,
postharvest management, distribution and management, and processing and consumption.

Production: Often women are responsible for subsistence crops, and men for commercial crops,
although local norms should always be checked. Where women or men household members are
absent on labour migration, the division of tasks may forcibly change, and place particular strain
on those left behind. The “feminization of agriculture” is a common trend.

Gender preferences for crops.

The separate roles of women and men are often reflected in differing responsibilities for, and
ownership of, different crops. In West Africa, for instance, cowpeas are mainly a women’s crop
produced, stored and also sold with only minor involvement of men. In Benin, women often go
to local markets to sell crops; however, the decision of what to sell is generally taken by both
men and women, depending on the crop

Postharvest management: Although often considered mainly the preserve of women, men may
also have roles in post-harvest management, especially more technical aspects. Specific taboos or
beliefs (for example concerning food handling by women during their menstruation) can also
influence who undertakes what task.

Distribution and marketing: Most small farm households sell a certain part/number of their
crops and animals to buyers on local or national markets. Often men are particularly active in
marketing, especially in societies in which men (through better access to education) are more
numerate and literate than women. Nevertheless, in many parts of the world, norms are changing.

Preparation and consumption: Whilst this is mainly done by women, in different communities
men may also be involved to a greater or lesser extent in preparing food. Access to clean
drinking water and sanitation is of course a pre-requisite for healthy food preparation and
consumption.

Unpaid care and domestic work: An important aspect regarding the division of labour cutting
across the four areas of production, postharvest management, distribution and consumption is the
division of unpaid care and domestic work, which lies largely in the hands of women. Rural
women of all ages spend much of their day engaged in domestic chores, including collecting
water and firewood, processing and preparing food, travelling and transporting, and caregiving.
These tasks are unpaid, restrict a woman’s time and mobility and are a major constraint to the
ability of smallholder farmers to increase agricultural productivity and achieve food and nutrition
security.

Access to and control over resources related to food.

It is also important to analyze women’s and men’s access to and control over resources related to
food here divided into physical, financial and knowledge assets.

Physical assets – land and water: Access to land and water is fundamental for food production,
hence it is crucial to understand who controls these resources, and decides upon their use.

In most parts of the world, more land is owned by men than by women (the exception being in
matrilineal societies), and in many countries women are legally discriminated regarding land
rights. Furthermore, where “joint” ownership is the norm, this does not necessarily equate joint
decision-making. More often than not, men control land use, deciding what crops should be
grown, where. Nevertheless, the facts on land ownership vary by country and should always be
carefully investigated, not assumed.
MALE INVOLVEMENT AND NUTRITIONAL HEALTH.

How to engage men in nutrition and health: Gender research in nutrition and health frequently
focuses on women: safeguarding women’s health, enhancing women’s decision making power,
and improving women’s nutrition knowledge. However, although women are primary caregivers,
men have an important role to play. Some organizations have started experimenting with projects
that work with men and with couples to support family health and nutrition behaviors, but the
state of knowledge about what works to engage men in women and children’s nutrition and
health and women’s empowerment is incipient. A deeper focus on gender relations and norms
that help or hinder better nutrition and health outcomes is merited.

In Senegal, an organization called SPRING developed an approach called SPRING’s Gender

Champion Approach whose aim was to increase men and women’s partnership within the
household in order to impact nutrition outcomes. This was done by encouraging women’s
participation in household financial and nutrition-related decision-making, and men’s
involvement in nutrition and hygiene-related tasks. SPRING identified men who were well
known within their communities for performing desired gender-supportive roles. The men and
their wives attended a one-day training, where they were equipped with the knowledge and tools
to become community advocates for gender equality, with a particular focus placed on relieving
women’s workload. These champion couples are now recognized as leaders by their peers and
are influencing others to follow their example and ultimately improve nutrition outcomes in their
communities. The findings of this survey were;

• The families where men were actively involved in either fetching water, gardening,
bathing children were happier, strong bond and there was oneness and co-operation.

• The women had more time to provide care to the children and take care of other
activities.

• The women had also time to engage in income generating activities.

There has been recognition that, to improve maternal, infant, and young child nutrition, health
structures need to attend to and support fathers, because they play a critical role in providing
instrumental and emotional support to mothers and children. Interventions that involve men as
agents of positive change are relatively few in number, although research has indicated that men
themselves, as well as their partners, would prefer that they play a more active role although the
societal and health system norms often do not support this. Engaging fathers is also important
because of the significance of both the father-infant relationship (provision of physical and
psychosocial support for mothers during the weaning period) and the couple relationship to
overall individual and family well-being.
Fathers’ involvement in parenting is associated with positive cognitive, developmental, and
socio-behavioral child outcomes such as improved weight gain in preterm infants, improved
breastfeeding rates, higher receptive language skills, and higher academic achievement. Joint
decision-making between women and their spouses also significantly increases women’s final
decision in uptake of other maternal health services such as Skilled Birth Attendance which also
improves the newborns nutrition
The Ministry Of Health of Uganda through its infant and young child feeding (IYCF) policy
guidelines highlights the role of fathers in child feeding as participating in decision-making on
infant and young child feeding, providing physical, psychological, and financial support during
lactation, and developing an interest in promoting, supporting, and protecting infant and young
child feeding for optimal feeding practices

In Malawi, as in many other societies, women have historically been responsible for housework,
food and childcare. Women’s household responsibilities have often left them with heavier
workloads than men.
A recent report showed that the time Malawian women spent caring for children was six times
higher than men. The women’s multiple roles and responsibilities typically prevented them from
participating in activities to earn income.
Past studies have also shown that women spend more of their income on food and children’s
education than men do.
But times are changing. Malawian men are increasingly becoming involved in maternal and child
health as well as household chores such as growing, buying and preparing food.
Other studies show that changes in the role of men in mother and child health are gaining
momentum, particularly with increased government efforts in the country’s northern and central
regions. Many of these changes are driven by health sector policies.
Walking into a local clinic in Malawi, you will likely find posters with images calling on men to
take a more active role in housework and children’s and mother’s health. Such messages have
become a common feature, attesting to changing times in the country.
A study of one community in rural central Malawi set out to investigate how interventions by
NGOs, the Ministry of Health and traditional leaders which aim to involve men in mother and
child health are changing the role of men in growing, cooking and buying food for the
household.
As the custodians of culture, traditional leaders in Malawi have been central to influencing
changes in household roles and responsibilities. They play an important role in assisting in policy
implementation in the areas they oversee.
The study began by reviewing international as well as Malawian policy documents to understand
how men’s participation in mother and child health emerged. In-depth interviews and focus
group discussions with both men and women, as well as with policymakers were conducted.
The findings showed that some men were becoming more involved in looking for food and
cooking. They are also helping women with other chores, including cleaning and caring for
children.
Findings
It was found that while not all men were willing to become involved in women’s and children’s
health, there were specific situations that forced them to take on “women’s work”. For example,
regulations passed by clinics and traditional leaders encouraged women to stay at from their
eighth month of pregnancy.
These maternity waiting places were located close to the hospital to prevent women travelling
long distances when they were in labour. The waiting homes had played a central role in
reducing mother and child deaths.
But women who stayed at these facilities frequently left other children at home, forcing men to
take responsibility for cooking, cleaning and looking after children. Such interventions were
unravelling the typical roles men and women are expected to play.
Along with messages from the government and NGOs on gender equality, these interventions
were helping undo traditional beliefs about the roles men and women play.
Men who accompanied their spouses to antenatal visits were provided with information on the
importance of helping women with housework when they are pregnant. As a result, more men
are now actively helping women to grow, prepare and buy food.
These interventions are increasing cooperation between men and women, which is important for
building well-functioning families.
Besides participating in general housework, men also take children to the hospital and attend
antenatal visits with their partners. Thus, men and women in the community work together to
make sure that their families are healthy and have food. One woman said,
Although men have not traditionally fulfilled caring roles, there is evidence to suggest their
greater input into child health/care could have positive outcomes for the health and development
of their children.

When men are involved in child care there is evidence to suggest that they tend to be involved in
play rather than engaged in daily child care routines.

Men’s roles are also context specific and should not be generalized, for example there may be
important life stage and socio cultural influences that impact on their behavior.

It is important to find ways in which men can be encouraged to take a more active role in child
health/care while also ensuring that existing power relations are not reinforced but challenged
and transformed to become more gender equitable.

Gender and norms.

Gender differences are often manifested through divisions of labour, in terms of the different
roles and responsibilities assigned to women and men. In this section the focus moves away from
reproductive and productive labour to less tangible but equally significant aspects of women’s
and men’s roles related to gender norms, identities and values. These norms, values and identities
relate to cultural perceptions of what it means to be male and female, and to the intrinsic value
assigned to being male or female. They may even form the foundation for abusive behavior
between the sexes, even to the extent of physical, psychological and sexual violence. The section
will explore three aspects of gender norms, values and identities emerging from the literature,
first, the significance of gender bias and how this impacts on child survival; second, the
importance of taking gender norms and values into account when addressing infant feeding
practices; and third, the risks to child survival among children exposed to domestic violence,
which reflects gender discrimination at its most extreme.

What are gender norms, values and identities?

Social norms are rules of behavior adhered to by members of a community, based on their belief
that others would expect them to behave accordingly. Such norms are context specific and may
vary between countries and social settings. Gender norms, values and identities reflect social
norms specific to the ‘rules’ women and men should adhere to and perpetuate expectations about
women’s and men’s capacities, characteristics and social behaviour whether these are implicit or
explicit. Gender norms therefore do not represent what women and men are actually capable of
rather they reflect expectations of women’s and men’s capacities and characteristics.
Discrimination against female infants may also manifest in post-natal neglect through inadequate
feeding, clothing, biased care practices or treatment-seeking for illnesses of a child (Das Gupta
1987; Li 2004) ;( Bhandari et al. 2005; Ganatra & Hirve 1994; Pandey et al. 2002; Willis etal.
2009)16. Although much evidence derives from South Asian contexts, such biases are also found
elsewhere, for example from rural Peru (Larme 1997).

Different gender norms can produce similar outcomes for child health and nutrition;

Infant feeding practices are powerfully influenced by prevailing cultural and gendered norms and
recent research has highlighted the importance of including men and other supporting members
of households in breastfeeding education;

The role of grandmothers as expert advisors to young women must also be taken into account in
infant feeding and other aspects of child care;

Addressing the challenge of infant feeding in contexts where HIV is prevalent requires a good
understanding of the roles which supporting members of household may play, but also needs to
take into account the difficulties women may face around disclosing HIV status to their family
members;

However it is vital that the inclusion of other members of the household in any aspect of child
care is sensitive to gender discrimination against women and that interventions seek to foster
collaborative care for infants, not undermine women’s roles as carers.

FOOD TABOOS.

Taboo is a social prohibition or restriction sanctioned by suprasocietal (innate) means or a

socially sanctioned injunction alleged to have the force of such a prohibition. Food taboos are
known from virtually all human societies. Most religions declare certain food items fit and others
unfit for human consumption. Dietary rules and regulations may govern particular phases of the
human life cycle and may be associated with special events such as menstrual period, pregnancy,
childbirth, lactation, and -- in traditional societies -- preparation for the hunt, battle, wedding,
funeral, etc. On a comparative basis many food taboos seem to make no sense at all, as to what
may be declared unfit by one group may be perfectly acceptable to another. On the other hand,
food taboos have a long history and one ought to expect a sound explanation for the existence
(and persistence) of certain dietary customs in a given culture. Yet, this is a highly debated view
and no single theory may explain why people employ special food taboos.

Food and mealtimes are very important to all cultures around the world. We may be judged
harshly if we use the wrong knife and fork at a posh dinner, or if we put milk in our teacup
before we pour the tea, or heaven forbid let out a long belch after a satisfying meal. On the flip
side, there are some places where a loud burp is the perfect way to thank your host for a delicious
feast.
In some cultures around the world there are very strict rules about the foods you can and can’t
eat, and the etiquette involved in dining. Sometimes this is related to environmental conditions,
taboos based on religion, or superstitions that have been handed down through the generations,
yet are still very much alive and observed today. This makes it very necessary for you to be a
smart traveler.
If you enjoy traveling to far and exotic locations, it can be helpful to know about the food taboos in your
chosen destination in order to prevent you from making a social faux pas at the dinner table, and
inadvertently offending your host.

Taboos usually concern the consumption of protein-rich animal food hence a cause of nutrient
deficiencies. One taboo [practiced in western Africa] is related to the consumption of eggs for
women, who are said to become sterile if they eat them. Some communities believe that children
should not eat eggs either."

Women and young children are more likely to adhere to food taboos than men, which makes
them more vulnerable to malnutrition. According to world food program, the lifting of taboos,
especially during pregnancy, where, for instance, a lack of iron due to refusing to eat foods like
eggs or red meat is likely to lead to anaemia.
Below are some of the food taboos from around the world to learn about the strange mealtime
customs enjoyed in different countries.
Eggs and chicken not for children.

There are lot of taboos about egg and chicken products, and the impact they may have on young
children. Jamaican parents believe that their children will never learn to talk if they feed them
chicken before they have spoken for the first time and eating half an egg will make the child
grow into a thief and drinking milk from a baby bottle will turn them into a drunkard.

Nigerian parents, on the other hand, think that feeding half eggs to growing children will turn
them into thieves. Chinese parents also steer clear of chicken, believing that the meat will make
their offspring fight more, and also affect their ability to perform well in exams. While such
taboos, or superstitions, are disappearing in urban areas, there are still huge numbers of rural
families who abide strictly by these rules.

A pregnant woman should not eat a cow. The child will be fat," said one respondent during
research carried out on nutritional taboos among the Fulla people in the Upper River region of
the Gambia.

Don’t Serve Baby’s Milk from a Bottle

Parents not feeding their children eggs or chicken may seem a little strange, but it is unlikely to
do the kids much harm in the long run. Perhaps more strangely, there are also taboos relating to
young children and milk in almost the same parts of the world. In some parts of Nigeria, for
example, it is thought that children who drink coconut milk will grow up to be unintelligent. And
in Jamaica, parents don’t like to feed their babies milk from a bottle, as they believe that this will
make them grow up to be drunkards – the perfect way to get Moms to believe that “breast is
best!”

Restricted Diet for Pregnant Women

A lot of pregnant women have strange food cravings, but a hankering for ice cream and pickles is
nothing compared to the food taboos of the Orang Asli tribe, who live in rural Malaysia. Women
in the tribe have a very restricted diet when pregnant. Actually, tribal traditions dictate that they
can only eat small animals, such as rats, squirrels, frogs and small fish, as these creatures are
thought to contain weaker spirits, which won’t affect the health of the unborn baby. It may not
make for a very satisfying meal, but it just shows how seriously mothers-to-be take the health of
their babies, no matter where they live.
Don’t Eat Fresh Fruits and Vegetables When Menstruating
When women living in Papua New Guinea are menstruating, there are a lot of restrictions placed
on the kinds of food that they are allowed to eat. Most of this stems from a misunderstanding of
what menstruation is, as the women are thought to be ill, and as a consequence are not allowed to
eat fresh fruit, vegetables, or meat. They are not even allowed to cook fresh food for others, as
anyone who eats food prepared by a menstruating woman will also become sick, according to
tribal lore.
Additionally, there is a real hierarchy within the tribe when it comes to the best food. Normally,
the young men get the best meals, while older women are left to survive on the scraps.
Don’t Dare Serve Before Grandma Does
It may be respectful to turn down food from an Italian grandma the first time that she offers you
a meal, but there are lots of other cultures where older people are shown respect by the way they
are served food at family gatherings and local restaurants. For example, in Colombia, the oldest
person at the table should always be served first, which could lead to some interesting
discussions among the waiting staff. This is taken a notch higher in South Korea, where no-one
is allowed to start eating until the oldest person at their table has taken their first bite.
Refusal to feed babies on colostrum in some cultures that believe it will harm a baby.

Child right to accessing holistic nutrition and elimination of child labour.

Inadequate nutrition early in life can cause irreparable damage to the developing brain and body.
Among other ills, results can include improper mental and physical development, diminished
mental and physical capacity, mental retardation, blindness, impaired ability to fight infections
and increased risk for obesity and the chronic diseases associated with it. Malnutrition underlies
and contributes to approximately 53 percent of all child deaths. The right to adequate nutrition,
therefore, is a fundamental, foundational right for children. Its fulfillment is essential for life,
health, development and dignity. Without these, a child will have difficulty learning, playing,
engaging in other childhood activities, becoming a productive member of society in later years
and enjoying the full range of human rights to which all humans are entitled.

Giving effect to children’s right to adequate nutrition begins with ensuring proper nutrition in
utero and during the first two years. It also means ensuring the nutritional needs of girls and
women of childbearing age and pregnant and lactating women are met. These groups are entitled
to adequate nutrition and health for their own well-being, as reflected in Article 12 of the
Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). Due to persistent
status inequities, however, girls and women are more likely to suffer from inadequate nutrition.
Their children bear the burden with them and all of society suffers.

The right to adequate nutrition is established in numerous international instruments, from the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) to the International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), the Convention on the Right of the Child (CRC), and
CEDAW. Breastfeeding is an essential component of children’s right to adequate nutrition and to
other human rights and is protected and supported in several international instruments. These
include the ICESCR, CEDAW, the International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes
(the Code) and subsequent World Health Assembly (WHA)

Right to Food

Understanding children’s right to food

The right to meals and nourishment is a vital right for all human beings. Food is an
essential element without which human beings cannot survive.

The importance of food is self-evident. Without food, there cannot be human life. For a person to
develop properly, mentally and physically, he or she must have adequate food of suitable
nutritional value. Thus, for children in particular, the right of access to food is of paramount
importance. A malnourished child, if she is fortunate to survive, has no chance of proper
development and is consequently doomed to a bleak future of illiteracy, poverty and destitution.
With underdeveloped mental faculties, a child cannot go very far with education, which is critical
to founding an independent existence and freedom. Proper physical and mental development is
the key to realizing the child’s full potential as a human being and as a useful citizen.

Guaranteed food: an essential right for all

The right to meals and nourishment is the right of each and every man, woman and child to have
guaranteed access to healthy food on a daily and regular basis.

Four important aspects of food security:

• Food must be available: that is to say in a sufficient quantity for the entire population.

• Food must be accessible: each person must be able to procure nourishment, either through
his/her own production of it (via farming and livestock) or through his/her disbursement of
sufficient financial capacity to buy nourishment.

• Access to food must be stable and continuous: food must be available and accessible under
all circumstances (wars, natural catastrophes. . .).

• Food must be healthy: that is to say, consumable and hygienic, particularly for water.

Balanced nourishment: a vital right for the development of the child

Elimination of child labour.

Child.

Anyone under the age of 18 is considered a child, according to the United Nations.

Child labour.

Child Labour’ is work performed by a child that is likely to interfere with his or her right to
education, or to be harmful to their health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social
development. All work done by children under the age of 15 and dangerous work done by
children under the age of 18 is illegal. Whether or not work performed by children is defined as
child labour depends on the child’s age, the hours and type of work and the conditions in which
the work is performed.

Hazard/risk.

A hazard is anything that has the potential to cause harm. Risk is the chance or probability that a
hazard will actually result in injury or illness along with an indication of how serious the harm
could be. Therefore, risk = severity of harm x probability of harm. Even if workers are exposed
to the same hazard, risks may be greater for young workers than for adult workers because of
high severity (e.g. immaturity of immune system) and high probability (e.g. lack of experience).

Hazardous work.

Hazardous child labour is work in dangerous or unhealthy conditions that could result in a child
being killed or injured/harmed (often permanently) and/or made ill (often permanently) as a
consequence of poor safety and health standards and working arrangements.

Decent work.

Decent work sums up the aspirations of people in their working lives. It involves opportunities
for work that is productive and delivers a fair income, security in the workplace and social
protection for families, better prospects for personal development and social integration, freedom
for people to express their concerns, organize and participate in the decisions that affect their
lives and equality of opportunity and treatment for all women and men.

Minimum age for work.

There isn’t just one minimum age for work; in general, it should not be less than 15 years, with
light work permitted from the age of 13. In countries with insufficiently developed economies
and education systems, those ages may be provisionally set at 14 and 12 respectively. But there is
no age distinction when it comes to the Worst Forms of Child Labour. No child under 18 should
be engaged in a Worst Form of Child Labour: hazardous work; forced labour; commercial sexual
exploitation; or criminal activities. It is important that the minimum school-leaving age and the
minimum age for full-time work are the same.

Worst Forms of Child Labour.

The term “Worst Forms of Child Labour” comprises:

• All forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children,
debt bondage and serfdom and forced or compulsory labour, including recruitment of children
for use in armed conflict.

• The use, procurement or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of pornography
or for pornographic performances.

• The use, procurement or offering of a child for unlawful activities, in particular for the
production and trafficking of drugs as defined in the relevant international treaties.

• Work which, by its nature or the environment where it takes place, is likely to harm the health,
safety or morals of children (referred to as hazardous child labour).

Youth employment.

Not all work done by children under the age of 18 is classified as child labour. Participation in
decent work which does not affect their health, personal development or education can be a very
positive experience for children or adolescents who have reached the required age. Indeed,
millions of young workers around the world between the ages of 14 and 18 are desperate to find
decent youth employment.

Causes & Consequences

Poverty is often cited as the main cause of child labour. It is widely believed that families will
not be able to cope if their children do not work. In practice, however, the poverty argument does
not hold water. Precisely the opposite is true: child labour maintains poverty.

Experience shows that deep rooted social norms, the violation of workers’ rights,
discrimination against certain groups, and a poorly-functioning education system are the main
reasons why children aren’t attending school.

Because children are easy to exploit and are cheap laborers, they are hired in preference to
adults. Child labour thus leads to lower wages and higher unemployment among adults. Children
who work and do not go to school will end up in low paid jobs later, and so will their children –
and so the vicious cycle of poverty is perpetuated.

Child labour exists because:

• people accept it and invent excuses for it

• children’s rights are not respected

• governments do not provide compulsory, free and accessible education

 • international agreements and conventions are not observed

• the education system excludes poor and vulnerable children

• employers can benefit from cheap labour

• there is no decent work for adults

• we have not done enough to stop it

Solutions to stopping child labour.

• Review national laws regarding child labour

It is essential to know how your national law defines child labour. An employer needs to
understand the content of the national Labour Code and other laws that relate to child labour. It is
against the law for a company to break the rules concerning minimum age and hazardous work.
The international definitions of child labour define the minimum age for different types of work,
the worst forms of labour for those under the age of 18 and the criteria for light work. These
definitions are set out in two International Labour Organization (ILO) Conventions on child
labour: Convention No. 138 on Minimum Age for Work and Convention No.182 on the Worst
Forms of Child Labour.

2. Refer to your buyers’ requirements

Buyers may expect you to have strict policies about child labour (perhaps stricter than national
law and international standards). International buyers and brands want to meet accepted
international labour standards and also avoid bad publicity and potential damage to brand image
and share value. Foreign companies, or local plants and plantations owned by multinational
companies, may use other suppliers if you fail to meet their requirements.

3. Check the age of your employees

The International Labour Organization’s (ILO) Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138),
obliges ratifying States to set a minimum age for employees, in line with the minimum school-
leaving age. This must not be less than 15 years of age (or 14 in developing countries).Almost all
countries have set a minimum working age of 14, 15 or 16 years of age, in accordance with this
international standard. Without proof of age, you cannot decide if a certain type of work is
suitable for an individual. Beware: sometimes it is not possible to obtain a birth certificate to
confirm age (and falsified documents may be easy to get on the black market).

4. Identify hazardous work

Identifying hazardous work in your company is an important step in preventing child labour. If
young people (of a legal working age) work in safe, non-hazardous conditions, then this is called
youth employment. Each country creates a list of hazardous activities by consulting with
workers’ and employers’ organizations (social partners). This list describes types of work that
must not be carried out by children, focusing on work that is likely to harm their health, safety or
morals. When this list has been finalized, it is usually attached to the country’s labour law. There
are reported cases of children doing hazardous work with grave consequences. For example, in
the United States, a 15-year old farm worker was fatally electrocuted when a 30-foot section of
aluminium irrigation pipe he was moving came into contract with an overhead power line.

5. Carry out workplace risk assessment

Risk assessment plays an important part in protecting workers and businesses, as well as
complying with the laws of many countries. These assessments can prevent accidents from
happening. In Zambia, when the Zambia Federation of Employers (ZFE) conducted an
assessment in Kaoma Farming areas, one confirmed case of food poisoning was reported by the
Kaoma District Environmental Health Specialist. A farmer from Kamuni, being unaware of the
hazards associated with farming, had stored pesticides close to an area where food was also kept.
The food became contaminated and was later consumed by a family of 23 people. Of the 23 who
were poisoned, 12 children aged below the age of 13 had to be hospitalized.

6. Stop hiring children below the minimum age

It is unacceptable for businesses to employ children in conditions of child labour. Companies of

all sizes need to ensure that they do not use child labour anywhere in their operations. Youth
employment, i.e. children who are above the minimum age for work, but under the age of 18,
must have decent working conditions. This will ensure you are not adding to the problem.

7. Remove children from hazardous work

In general, hazardous work can have an immediate and long-term impact on the safety and health
of workers, including children. This may include injury (e.g. wound from a blade), ill health (e.g.
respiratory disease by breathing toxic chemicals or dust), disability (e.g. crushed limb from a
machine) and even death (e.g. from pesticide poisoning). Children and adolescents are especially
vulnerable to hazards because they are still developing physically and mentally. They are less
aware of risk than adults and therefore are more likely to be hurt. Exposing children to dangerous
chemicals or physical stress can seriously harm their health. Some of the physical or
psychological impacts of hazardous work may only begin to appear at a later stage in their lives
(e.g. musculoskeletal problems from carrying heavy loads as a child; cancer or reproductive
problems resulting from exposure to pesticides; industrial chemicals or heavy metals).

8. Reduce the hours for children under the minimum age

In many countries, national legislation allows children between the ages of 13 and 15 (or 12 and
14 in developing countries) to do light work of up to about 14 hours per week. Children can
often do some work while also attending school regularly. It is difficult to describe what is meant
by “light work” and it is rarely given a legal definition. It is important to make sure that children
do not work more than the legal maximum number of hours per week.

9. Apply a safety and health management system.

An Occupational Safety and Health Management System (OSHMS) helps employers prevent
accidents, injuries and diseases in the workplace in a continuous manner. It provides a logical,
step-by-step method to help you decide what needs to be done, how best to do it, how to monitor
and evaluate progress and identify areas for improvement.

10. Use collective bargaining agreements.

The collective bargaining agreements are important tools which can be used to address child
labour. They cover all negotiations between an employer, a group of employers or one or more
employers’ organizations and one or more workers’ organizations with the following objectives:

• determining working conditions and terms of employment, including wages and benefits;

• managing relations between employers and workers;

• managing relations between employers or their organizations and a workers’ organization or

workers’ organizations. Collective bargaining agreements are crucial mechanisms to enable
workers to improve terms and conditions of their employment. Sometimes the government is
involved as a third party; however, the independence of workers’ and employers’ organizations
must be respected. Issues such as occupational safety and health, hours of work, wages and skills
training are often negotiated in a collective bargaining agreement. In some cases, these
agreements have also included clauses banning the use of child labour.

11. Use the link between labour inspection and the workplace Occupational Safety and
Health Committee.

Labour inspectors play an important role in eliminating child labour. They work under the
authorization of the state and have access to workplaces where child labour can be found. They
can effectively enforce national labour legislation, providing advice and information to help
employers meet legal requirements.
12. Compose a code of labour practice.

A code of labour practice helps a company show it is refusing to employ child labour or use
suppliers that do so. Such codes promote a company’s standards and improved productivity,
enhance their reputation, attract investors and make it easier to recruit qualified and motivated
staff. Small businesses focused on the domestic market may decide not to have a written code of
labour practice, but still have an unwritten policy against the hiring of children, as well as
informal procedures for handling the situation if an employee is found to be underage. Internally,
all employees, particularly those involved in recruitment, can be made aware and reminded of
the company’s child labour policy, of screening procedures in recruitment and how to remove
children from work or young workers from hazardous conditions. Having such codes reduces
confusion and makes it easier to see when rules are broken.

13. Provide support to children found in child labour.

Taking immediate action, e.g. banning the hire of underage workers, may reduce the problem of
child labour in your business, but not remove it. Getting children into school and compensating
for the loss of their wages could cost your company in the short term. However, you may be able
to offset these costs by negotiating with adult workers for improved productivity. Companies
share the responsibility of bringing child labour to an end. They rely on governments and donors
to provide services (especially education) to help them do this. Companies should ask for support
identifying services to help affected children and their families. Many local and international
organizations or coalitions have been formed to fight child labour. Employers’ organizations or
sectorial bodies may also have active programmes on this issue. All of these groups may be able
to help your company design a responsible programme.

14. Support education.

According to Convention No. 182, States (Parties) shall take measures to ensure access to free
basic education, and wherever possible and appropriate, vocational training for children
withdrawn from the worst forms of child labour. Removing children from child labour does not
mean that they will attend school. Schooling can be unaffordable, or of very poor quality, and so
some parents think sending their children to work is the obvious alternative. Larger companies
sometimes decide to pay for children’s education as a way of keeping them out of the labour
market. Both large and smaller businesses can make their contribution by raising awareness
about the importance of education in their workplaces, communities, industries or sectors. Some
companies, like Ghana Rubber Estates Ltd., directly support education. This African company –
which employs about 2,500 people on its plantations – has established a school for pupils from
Grade 1 to junior secondary school and helps to keep it running.

15. Adapt your business to a child labour-free reality.

The elimination of child labour, in most cases, will not affect the ability of your business to
operate and earn a profit. Evidence suggests that the majority of businesses, particularly larger
companies, will continue to operate and be profitable after eliminating child labour. International
buyers note that obeying child labour laws does not damage a supplier’s bottom line. Suppliers
that hire children are usually not well-managed. The two problems – child labour and poor
management – tend to occur together. Therefore, savings can usually be found in other areas of
the business, (e.g. through better organization). This can offset increases in the cost of wages
when older workers replace children.

16. Let your suppliers know your requirements.

Contracts help businesses make unbiased decisions. Breaking the terms of a contract regarding
child labour can result in some buyers ending relationships with suppliers. However, most prefer
to have a practical and positive discussion to improve the situation and ensure the children are
protected. If the contract is verbal, the terms need to be explained clearly and repeated at future
meetings, e.g. when a mid-chain buyer purchases from a home-based producer, and where
literacy is a problem. Telling your suppliers that eliminating child labour is important for your
business can help you respond to international and domestic buyers who are checking on the use
of child labour in production. In India, for example, carpet firm Obeetee Ltd. raised the income
paid to weavers at the same time it demanded they did not employ children. To complement this
action, the company launched an awareness campaign in the villages where the carpets were
woven; and, among other measures, made loom owners provide written assurances declaring
they would not employ children under 15 years old.

17. Ensure your new suppliers do not use child labour.

Preventing child labour does not only mean that children will not be used in the parent company
or even by its immediate suppliers. A company at the top of the supply chain must also make
sure that all supply channels are free from child labour. Without a fully developed labour
relations system, it is both difficult and costly to make sure that suppliers are meeting child
labour standards. This is particularly true when a high number of suppliers are involved (e.g. in
the garment and agriculture sectors) and when the supply chain is long.

18. Establish one or more monitoring systems.

It is important for companies to be sure they are not using child labour and to meet the
expectations of consumers, governments, workers and society. To do this, they sometimes use
social auditing. Some companies use internal or first-party social audits to check if business units
are following company policy on child labour. Another approach might be to monitor suppliers;
this is known as buyer or second-party monitoring. Although used by both international buyers
and domestic producers, second-party monitoring can be difficult when there are many sub-
producers involved in production. A company can employ an external organization to monitor its
worksites or, more commonly, those of its suppliers. It may be difficult to trust this external audit
assessment because it has been paid for by the company. Monitoring child labour means doing
reliable and regular checks on workplaces. It is rarely possible to employ someone to do this full
time for you. However, your managers and workers are present every day and can report any use
of child labour. They can do this via trade unions if available, and through the use of collective
bargaining agreements.
Reducing heavy workload on women.
The importance of reducing the domestic workload.
The term “domestic” used in this note refers to the reproductive roles that women usually
perform, including providing labour to carry out household chores, and childbearing and
childcare. Although this role constitutes work, it is differentiated from what is understood as
“productive” because it does not generate an income (in cash and/or in kind), does not have an
exchange value, and is not reflected in a country’s gross domestic product. There is clearly a fine
line between what is “domestic” and what is “productive”. For example, when domestic work is
increased or adjusted to provide goods or services to others and consequently generates an
income, it can be considered “productive”. Therefore, the understanding of the term “domestic”
is context- specific and adaptable when referring to “work” and “labour-saving technologies”.
Globally, women work longer hours than men when both paid and unpaid work are accounted
for. This is particularly pronounced in rural areas of most developing countries, where women
have the triple responsibility for domestic, on-farm and off-farm work. Across Africa, Asia and
the Pacific, rural women typically work 12 hours more per week than men.
A typical day sees poor rural women working up to 16 hours, or even longer in some cases,
performing many tasks, often at the same time. And the bulk of their work, unlike for men, is
unpaid. Women still shoulder most of the responsibility for domestic work, and their role in
subsistence farming is often unremunerated.
A heavy domestic workload often leads to “time poverty”, which is a major reason why women
in rural economies are marginalized and why young women migrate to urban areas in search of a
better life. It restricts their opportunities in education, training, farming, off-farm employment
and development processes, and limits the income that they can bring in and have control over at
home. These factors undermine women’s participation in decision-making at home and in the
community and perpetuate the inequitable balance of workloads between men and women. With
women’s limited voice in household expenditure, the need for technologies to reduce the burden
of women’s unpaid domestic chores does not always surface as a priority.
Time poverty means “working long hours and having no choice to do otherwise”. It results from
the combination of two conditions: “First, the individual does not have enough time for rest and
leisure once all working hours are accounted for. Second, the individual cannot reduce his/her
working time without either increasing the level of poverty of his/her household or leading
his/her household to fall into monetary poverty due to the loss in income or consumption
associated with the reduction in working time (if the household is not originally poor)”
Benefits of reducing the domestic workload.
The direct practical benefits of reducing women’s domestic workload through labour-saving
technologies and practices include:
• Freeing up time;
• Improving health, nutrition, and well-being of women and their families.

Labour-saving technologies and practices play an important role in improving household

nutrition, an essential factor for economic growth. By reducing the physical exertion of domestic
tasks, nutrient requirements are not increased through unnecessary labour. This is particularly
beneficial for maternal nutrition in poor rural areas, where pregnant and breastfeeding women
already struggle to meet the higher nutrient requirements of their condition. In turn, improved
maternal nutrition translates into improved foetal and child nutrition and development. Together
with nutrition-sensitive agriculture interventions, time savings help to increase a woman’s caring
capacity in terms of the time and ability to put sufficient, diverse and nutritious food on the table
for her family.
With more time available during the day, women can perform more productive activities to
generate income and improve household food and nutrition security. These activities include
family farming (crop production and processing, small livestock production), fish
processing/trading and aquaculture, vegetable gardening, selling and buying goods in the local
market, and off-farm employment. Women also have more time to participate in training, self-
help groups and community-based organizations, empowering them with greater voice and
influence over their lives. In turn, rural youth, particularly young women, may view rural living
as more attractive and with opportunities. A reduced domestic workload also means women need
less assistance from their children, giving the children more time for school and play.
Workload
New and expectant mothers are far more susceptible to fatigue and the psychosocial issues
described earlier may impede their ability to manage their usual workload. Long hours and a
heavy workload have been linked with an increased risk of premature delivery and low birth
weight. Workloads may need to be modified to reduce the risk of fatigue and stress. This could
include reducing work activities, adjusting / reducing working hours, offering flexible working
hours and increasing rest periods.