FOR GRADE 4, 5, AND 6 .

NOUN .​
A noun represents a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often the subject of a sentence, but they can also be objects,
possessive forms, or indirect objects.

Types of nouns:

■​ Common nouns: General names for things (e.g., book, city, dog, cat, movie).
■​ Proper nouns: Specific names of people, places, or things (e.g., John, Paris, Microsoft, Cavite).
It always starts in capital letters.
■​ Abstract nouns: Names for things that you cannot physically touch (e.g., love, freedom,
intelligence, kindness).
■​ Concrete nouns: Things that you can perceive with your senses (e.g., apple, car, tree, chair,
cellphone, book).

RULES IN FORMING THE PLURAL NOUNS

Regular Nouns - Regular nouns follow predictable rules for pluralization, typically involving the addition of -s or -es to the
singular form. Here are the main rules:

1.​ Add -s to most nouns.

○​ Examples:
■​ book → books
■​ cat → cats
■​ apple → apples
2.​ Add -es to nouns ending in -s, -x, -z, -ch, or -sh.​
These consonant endings require -es to make the plural form, to make the pronunciation easier.
○​ Examples:
■​ bus → buses
■​ box → boxes
■​ quiz → quizzes
■​ church → churches
■​ dish → dishes
3.​ For nouns ending in -y:
○​ If the -y follows a consonant, change the -y to -ies.
■​ Examples:
■​ baby → babies
■​ city → cities
■​ If the -y follows a vowel, just add -s.
■​ Examples:
■​ boy → boys
■​ day → days
4.​ For nouns ending in -f or -fe:​
Often, you change -f or -fe to -ves to form the plural.
○​ Examples:
■​ leaf → leaves
■​ knife → knives
○​ However, some nouns simply add -s without changing the f or fe.
■​ Examples:
■​ roof → roofs
■​ belief → beliefs

Irregular Nouns - Irregular nouns don't follow standard rules for pluralization. Their plural forms must be memorized since
they involve changes to the word itself. Here are some common patterns:

1.​ Change of vowels (Vowel change):​

Some nouns undergo a vowel change to form the plural.
○​ Examples:
■​ man → men
■​ woman → women
■​ tooth → teeth
■​ foot → feet
■​ goose → geese
2.​ Nouns ending in -us or -um:​
Many of these change to -i.
○​ Examples:
■​ focus → focuses or foci
■​ cactus → cacti
■​ curriculum → curricula
3.​ Nouns ending in -is:​
Nouns ending in -is often change to -es in the plural.
○​ Examples:
■​ thesis → theses
■​ crisis → crises
■​ diagnosis → diagnoses
4.​ No change in the plural form:​
Some nouns have the same form in both singular and plural.
○​ Examples:
 ■​ sheep → sheep
■​ deer → deer
■​ fish → fish (Note: "fishes" is also used when referring to different species of fish.)
5.​ Irregular plural forms for some foreign words:​
Some nouns borrowed from other languages retain their original plural forms.
○​ Examples:
■​ phenomenon → phenomena (Greek)
■​ criterion → criteria (Greek)
■​ cactus → cacti (Latin)
6.​ Foreign Plurals with -ae, -i, or -ae endings:​
Some words with Latin or Greek origins retain their original plural forms.
○​ Examples:
■​ radius → radii
■​ alumnus → alumni
■​ appendix → appendices

MASS NOUNS AND COUNT NOUNS

Count Nouns (Countable Nouns) - Count nouns are things that can be counted as individual units. They have both
singular and plural forms and can be used with numbers or words like "many" and "few."

Characteristics of Count Nouns:

1.​ Can be counted: They can take a numerical value (one, two, three, etc.).
○​ Examples:
■​ apple (one apple, two apples)
■​ book (one book, five books)
■​ dog (one dog, three dogs)
2.​ Can be pluralized: Count nouns can change to the plural form by adding -s or -es (depending on the rules).
○​ Examples:
■​ dog → dogs
■​ box → boxes
■​ child → children (irregular plural)
3.​ Used with numbers: You can use numbers directly with count nouns.
○​ Examples:
■​ I have three chairs.
■​ She owns ten cars.
4.​ Used with determiners like "many," "few," "several," etc.
○​ Examples:
■​ There are many students in the class.
■​ He has few friends.

Mass Nouns (Uncountable Nouns) - Mass nouns, also known as uncountable nouns, represent things that cannot be
counted individually because they are considered a whole, a mass, or a substance. These nouns do not have a plural
form and are often thought of as a "quantity" of something.

Characteristics of Mass Nouns:

1.​ Cannot be counted: Mass nouns refer to things that are too broad or amorphous to be counted directly.
○​ Examples:
■​ water (We don’t say “two waters” unless referring to separate bottles or types of water.)
■​ rice (You can’t say “two rices”; it’s just "rice.")
■​ furniture (We don’t say "furnitures.")
2.​ No plural form: Mass nouns do not typically have a plural form.
○​ Examples:
■​ milk (no plural form, we don’t say "milks")
■​ advice (no plural form, we don’t say "advices")
3.​ Used with quantifiers: Mass nouns are often quantified with words like "some," "much," "a lot of," or "little."
○​ Examples:
■​ I need some water.
■​ She gave me a lot of advice.
4.​ Can be made countable with specific units: While mass nouns are uncountable by themselves, they can be
made countable when you use a specific unit of measurement.
○​ Examples:
■​ I bought three bottles of water. (Here, "bottles" is countable, not "water.")
■​ I ate two pieces of bread. (Here, "pieces" is countable, not "bread.")

POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNS

1. Possessive of Singular Nouns - For most singular nouns, you add 's to the end of the word.

●​ Examples:
○​ The cat’s toy (The toy belongs to the cat.)
○​ John’s car (The car belongs to John.)
○​ The teacher’s book (The book belongs to the teacher.)

2. Possessive of Plural Nouns - For plural nouns that already end in -s, you add only an apostrophe (').
●​ Examples:
 ○​ The dogs’ collars (The collars belong to the dogs.)
○​ The teachers’ lounge (The lounge belongs to the teachers.)
○​ The houses’ roofs (The roofs belong to the houses.)

For plural nouns that do not end in -s (irregular plurals), you add 's.

●​ Examples:
The children’s toys (The toys belong to the children.)
The men’s shoes (The shoes belong to the men.)
The women’s hats (The hats belong to the women.)

3. Possessive of Compound Nouns - For compound nouns (nouns made up of more than one word), the possessive
form is usually added to the last word of the compound.

●​ Examples:
○​ My brother-in-law’s house (The house belongs to my brother-in-law.)
○​ The editor-in-chief’s decision (The decision belongs to the editor-in-chief.)

4. Possessive of Proper Nouns - For most proper nouns (names of specific people, places, or things), you follow the
same rule as for singular nouns. Add 's.

○​ Examples:
■​ Alice’s book (The book belongs to Alice.)
■​ New York’s skyline (The skyline of New York.)
■​ Paris’s landmarks (The landmarks of Paris.

For proper nouns ending in -s, both 's or just ' can be used, but it often depends on the style guide (though 's is more
common in modern English).

○​ Examples:
■​ James’s house (The house belongs to James.)
■​ The boss’s office (The office belongs to the boss.)
■​ Some might write: James’ house, The boss’ office, but this is less common.

Remember…

●​ For joint possession (when two or more people own something together), add the possessive form to the last
person or entity.
○​ Example: Sarah and Tom’s house (This means Sarah and Tom share one house.)
●​ For individual possession (when two or more people each own something separately), add the possessive form
to each noun.
○​ Example: Sarah’s and Tom’s houses (Sarah owns one house, and Tom owns another house.)

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

Characteristics of Collective Nouns

1.​ Singular in form: Even though they refer to multiple individuals, collective nouns are usually treated as singular
because they refer to the group as one unit.
2.​ Context matters: Whether the collective noun is treated as singular or plural depends on whether the group is
acting as a single entity or as individuals.

Examples of Collective Nouns:

●​ People: family, team, crowd, audience, group, committee, staff, class, crew
●​ Animals: herd, flock, pack, swarm, pride, gaggle, pod, colony, troop
●​ Things: bunch, collection, set, fleet, stack, team, cluster, series, range

Examples in Sentences:

●​ People:
○​ The team is practicing for the match. (Singular)
○​ The team are arguing among themselves. (Plural, when the focus is on individual members acting
separately)
●​ Animals:
○​ The flock of birds flew south for the winter. (Singular)
○​ The flock were all flying in different directions. (Plural, focusing on the individual actions of the birds)
●​ Things:
○​ The set of keys is on the table. (Singular)
○​ The set of instructions were confusing. (Plural, if referring to instructions as individual items)

Common Collective Nouns for Animals:

●​ Herd: A group of cattle, elephants, or other large animals.

○​ Example: A herd of elephants walked through the forest.
●​ Flock: A group of birds, sheep, or other similar animals.
○​ Example: A flock of sheep grazed in the meadow.
 ●​ Pack: A group of wolves, dogs, or other predatory animals.
○​ Example: The pack of wolves hunted together.
●​ Swarm: A large group of insects, especially flying ones.
○​ Example: A swarm of bees attacked the intruder.
●​ Pride: A group of lions.
○​ Example: The pride of lions rested under the tree.
●​ Gaggle: A group of geese (when on the ground).
○​ Example: The gaggle of geese waddled across the field.

Singular vs. Plural Use of Collective Nouns

●​ Singular: When the collective noun refers to the group as a whole, it’s treated as singular.
○​ Example: The audience is excited about the show. (The audience as one unit.)
●​ Plural: When individual members of the group are emphasized, the collective noun can be treated as plural.
○​ Example: The audience were all standing and clapping. (Focusing on the actions of the individual

PRONOUN .​

Pronouns are used to replace nouns in order to avoid repetition and make sentences more efficient. They refer to specific
nouns that have already been mentioned or are understood.

Types of pronouns:

1.​ Personal pronouns: Represent specific people or things (e.g., I, we, you, she, it, he, they).
​
Examples :
Maria is a good dancer. ​ ​ ​ Jerry is a pilot.
​ ​ She wears fashionable clothes​​ ​ He flies airplanes.

2.​ Possessive pronouns: Indicate ownership (e.g., my, your, her, mine, yours, hers, his, our,their, its, ours, theirs ).

Examples:
​ ​ My brother is coming over.​ ​ Their car is parked outside.

3.​ Reflexive pronouns: Refer back to the subject (e.g., myself, yourself, themselves).

Examples:
I taught myself how to play the piano.
She made herself a sandwich.

4.​ Demonstrative pronouns: are pronouns used to point to specific people, places, or things. They indicate which
one(s) are being referred to and help distinguish between items in terms of distance (near or far) and number
(singular or plural).

●​ This (singular, near)

●​ That (singular, far)
●​ These (plural, near)
●​ Those (plural, far)

​
VERB .​

Verbs describe actions or states of being. Every sentence needs at least one verb, and verbs can show tense, person,
number, and mood.

○​ Types of verbs:
■​ Action verbs: Describe physical or mental actions (e.g., run, jump, think, read).
■​ Linking verbs: Connect the subject to more information about the subject (e.g., am, is, are,
seems).
■​ Auxiliary (helping) verbs: Support main verbs in forming different tenses or moods (e.g., have,
will, can).
The past form of regular verbs is formed by adding -ed to the base form of the verb. This is the standard way to form
the past tense of regular verbs in English. However, there are a few rules and variations to follow when adding -ed.

Rules in Forming the simple past form of regular verbs

●​ For most regular verbs: Just add -ed to the base form of the verb.
○​ Examples:
Play → Played
Walk → Walked
Talk → Talked
Clean → Cleaned

●​ For verbs ending in -e: Simply add -d (since the verb already ends with an e, you don't need to add another e).
○​ Examples:
Dance → Danced
Love → Loved
Like → Liked

●​ For verbs ending in a consonant + y: Change the y to i and then add -ed.
○​ Examples:
Cry → Cried
Carry → Carried
Study → Studied

●​ For verbs ending in a single vowel + consonant (except w, x, or y): Double the final consonant and then add -ed.
○​ Examples:
Stop → Stopped
Plan → Planned
Shop → Shopped

●​ (Note: Do not double the consonant if the verb ends with w, x, or y.)
○​ Examples:
■​ Play → Played (no double consonant here)

Past Tense and Past Participle Form of Irregular Verbs

Irregular verbs do not follow the typical pattern of adding -ed to form their past tense and past participle. Instead, they
have unique forms that must be memorized. Irregular verbs can have the same or different forms for the past tense and
past participle.

1.​ Past Tense: The past tense is used to describe actions that were completed in the past.
○​ Example:
■​ Yesterday, I went to the store. (Past tense of "go")

2.​ Past Participle: The past participle is used with auxiliary verbs like "have" or "had" to form the present perfect,
past perfect, or future perfect tenses.
○​ Example:
■​ I have eaten lunch already. (Past participle of "eat")
■​ She had written the report before the deadline. (Past participle of "write")

ADJECTIVE .​

An adjective modifies or describes a noun, giving more information about it. Adjectives often answer questions like "What
kind?" "How many?" or "Which one?"

○​ Examples: tall, beautiful, three, blue

Types of adjectives
1.​ Descriptive adjectives: Describe qualities or characteristics (e.g., happy, large, rough, lovely, expensive).
2.​ Proper adjectives: formed from a proper noun (e.g., German sausage, Philippine mangoes, Spanish coins)
3.​ Noun adjectives: nouns used to describe another noun (e.g., dinner party, evening gown, street lights)
4.​ Possessive adjectives: show possession (e.g., my chair, your report, their parents)
5.​ Numerical adjectives: describe number or numerical order of things ( eleven players, hundred delegates)
6.​ Demonstrative adjectives: Specify a noun (e.g., this coin, that house, these bags, those birds).

Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives

ADJECTIVE POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Big Big Bigger biggest

Short Short Shorter Shortest
Beautiful Beautiful More/Less beautiful Most/ Least beautiful
Ugly Ugly Uglier Ugliest
Bad Bad Worse Worst
Good Good Better Best

Order of Adjectives

ADVERB .​

An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb, providing more details about how, when, where, or to what
degree something is done.

○​ Examples: quickly, very, well, tomorrow

Types of adverbs:

1.​ Manner: are adverbs that describe how an action is performed. They explain the manner, way, or style in which
something happens. They usually modify verbs, answering the question "How?" or "In what way?"
 2.​ Time: provide information about when, how often, or for how long something happens. They answer questions
like "When?", "How often?", or "For how long?"

Example Sentences:
When?
○​ I will finish my homework later.
○​ He is coming tomorrow.
How often?
○​ They usually visit their grandparents on weekends.
○​ I never drink coffee in the evening.
For how long?
○​ She has been working here for five years.
○​ We stayed at the hotel until noon.

3.​ Location: Adverbs of location (also known as adverbs of place) describe where an action takes place. They
provide more information about the location or direction of the action in a sentence.

4.​ Frequency: describe how often an action occurs. They tell us the regularity or occurrence of an event or action.
These adverbs answer the question "How often?"
 5.​ Intensity- adverbs of intensity are words that modify adjectives and other adverbs. They are used to enhance or
weaken the degree of effect of the words they modify.
a.​ Strong Intensity Adverbs

These adverbs indicate a high degree of intensity or strength. They emphasize actions, qualities, or states in a very
powerful way.

●​ Examples:
○​ Extremely (extremely tired, extremely happy)
○​ Totally (totally agree, totally sure)
○​ Completely (completely forgotten, completely different)
○​ Absolutely (absolutely amazing, absolutely essential)
○​ Utterly (utterly impossible, utterly exhausted)

b.​ Medium Intensity Adverbs

These adverbs suggest a moderate level of intensity. They indicate a middle ground, not too strong, but still notable.

●​ Examples:
○​ Quite (quite good, quite large)
○​ Fairly (fairly easy, fairly happy)
○​ Rather (rather interesting, rather cold)
○​ Somewhat (somewhat difficult, somewhat annoyed)
○​ Pretty (pretty fast, pretty close)

c.​ Weak Intensity Adverbs

These adverbs indicate a low degree of intensity. They suggest that the action, quality, or state is not as strong or
pronounced.

●​ Examples:
○​ Slightly (slightly better, slightly worried)
○​ Barely (barely noticeable, barely understood)
○​ Hardly (hardly noticeable, hardly ever)
○​ Faintly (faintly scented, faintly aware)
○​ Lightly (lightly salted, lightly touched)

PREPOSITION .​

Prepositions show relationships between nouns (or pronouns) and other words in a sentence. They usually indicate
location, direction, time, or cause.
○​ Examples: on, in, at, between, under, by
○​ Common prepositional phrases: "on the table," "in the car," "under the tree"

CONJUNCTION .​

Conjunctions are words that connect other words, phrases, or clauses. They help to join parts of a sentence together,
making it more complex.

Types of conjunctions:

Coordinating conjunctions are words that join two or more equal parts of a sentence, such as words, phrases, or
clauses. They are used to connect ideas that are of the same type or importance, making the sentence flow more
smoothly. There are seven coordinating conjunctions, which can be remembered by the acronym FANBOYS.

Examples of Coordinating Conjunctions in Sentences:

●​ For – Used to explain reason or cause.

○​ I’m staying inside for it’s raining outside.
●​ And – Used to connect similar ideas or items.
○​ She likes chocolate and vanilla ice cream.
●​ Nor – Used to present an additional negative idea.
○​ He doesn't like pizza, nor does he enjoy pasta.
●​ But – Used to show contrast or exception.
○​ I want to go to the park, but it’s too cold.
●​ Or – Used to present an alternative or choice.
○​ You can have coffee or tea.
●​ Yet – Used to introduce a contrast, similar to “but.”
○​ He studied hard, yet he didn’t pass the exam.
●​ So – Used to show result or consequence.
○​ She was tired, so she went to bed early.

Subordinating conjunctions are words that connect a dependent clause (also known as a subordinate clause) to an
independent clause. The dependent clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence, while the independent clause
can. These conjunctions show the relationship between the two clauses, often indicating time, cause, condition, contrast,
or purpose.

Common Subordinating Conjunctions:

●​ After
○​ Example: I'll call you after I finish my homework.
●​ Although / Though
○​ Example: Although it was raining, we went for a walk.
●​ Because
○​ Example: She stayed home because she was feeling sick.
●​ Before
○​ Example: We need to leave before the sun sets.
●​ Even though
○​ Example: Even though he was tired, he finished the project.

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together to connect equal parts of a sentence, such as two
words, phrases, or clauses. Both elements connected by correlative conjunctions should be of the same grammatical
type.

Common Correlative Conjunctions:

●​ Both...and
○​ Example: Both the teacher and the students were excited about the event.
●​ Either...or
○​ Example: You can either have coffee or tea.
●​ Neither...nor
○​ Example: Neither the manager nor the assistant knew the answer.
●​ Not only...but also
○​ Example: She is not only smart but also kind.
●​ Whether...or
○​ Example: Whether you like it or not, you have to do your homework.

INTERJECTION .​

An interjection is a short word or phrase that expresses a strong feeling or sudden emotion. It usually stands alone and is
often followed by an exclamation mark.

○​ Examples: wow, oh, ouch, hey, alas

○​ Interjections are often used in informal speech or writing to convey excitement, surprise, pain, or other
immediate reactions.

AFFIXES .

Affixes are groups of letters added to a base word (or root) to change its meaning or function. They are a type of
morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning in a language. Affixes can be added to the beginning, middle, or end of
a root word.

1. Prefixes - Prefixes are affixes added before the root word. They change the meaning of the base word, often giving it
the opposite or a different meaning.

Examples:
●​ Un- (not, opposite of): unhappy (not happy), undo (reverse the action)
●​ Re- (again): replay (play again), rebuild (build again)
●​ Pre- (before): preheat (heat before), preview (view before)

Example Sentences:
●​ She was unhappy with the results. (Prefix "un-" means the opposite of happy.)
●​ He decided to rebuild his house after the fire. (Prefix "re-" means again.)
2. Suffixes - Suffixes are affixes added after the root word. They often change the word’s part of speech (from noun to
adjective, verb to noun, etc.) or can alter the meaning.
Examples:
●​ -ing (present participle, continuous action): running (the act of running)
●​ -ness (state or quality): happiness (the state of being happy)
●​ -ly (adverb): quickly (in a quick manner)
Example Sentences:
●​ He is always running late for class. (Suffix "-ing" indicates an ongoing action.)
●​ Happiness is important to her. (Suffix "-ness" indicates a state or quality.)
3. Infixes - Infixes are affixes placed within the root word itself. Infixes are less common in English but are seen in some
slang expressions or in certain foreign languages.

Example (more informal):

●​ The movie was abso-bloody-lutely amazing. (Infix "bloody" added for emphasis, though this is more
informal/slang.)

4. Circumfixes - Circumfixes are affixes that attach both before and after the root word. These are rare in English, but
they appear in some other languages.

Example (more in other languages like German or Arabic):

●​ In German, the circumfix ge-...-t forms the past participle of many verbs: gearbeitet (worked), gesprochen
(spoken).

TYPES OF SENTENCES .

Interrogative Sentences - are sentences that ask a direct question and end with a question mark. It can also be used to
ask for permission.

1.​ Yes/No Question - answerable by yes or no.

Ex: May I know the recent news?
Do you like ice cream?

2.​ Choice Question / Alternative - questions that provide choices for answers by using the word or between
options.
Ex: Which would you like to hear first, the good news or the bad news?

3.​ Question Words / WH - begins with the interrogative pronouns who, what, where, when, why, whose, whom,
which, and how.
Ex: What happened last night?

Declarative Sentences - are sentences that declare a statement. The main function of a declarative sentence is release
or declare information. It is also used to respond to a question.

1.​ Simple declarative sentence- a sentence containing one independent clause.

Ex: Physical activities keep our bodies healthy.

2.​ Compound Declarative sentence - with 2 or more independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction
(FANBOYS ).
Ex: Inactivity is bad for our body and playing too many video games is bad for our mind.

Imperative Sentences - make requests, offer suggestions, or issue commands. It is used to give instructions and express
a sense of urgency and importance.

Based on Tone:
●​ Polite- expressed by using politeness markers like please, could you, would you, would you mind, or excuse me.
​ Ex: Please clean your room.
●​ Simple - expressed in a clear and concise manner.
​ Ex: Clean your room.
●​ Firm - expressed a strong and assertive tone without being rude or disrespectful.
​ Ex: Clean your room now.

Based on Function:
●​ Direct - issues a command or order to the listener.
​ Ex: Stop talking.
 ●​ Indirect- issues a request or suggestion by using polite remarks.
​ Ex: Could you please stop talking?

Based on Form:
●​ Affirmative- issues a command on what to do.
​ Ex: Please be quiet.
●​ Negative- issues a command on what not to do.
​ Ex: Please do not make a noise.

Exclamatory Sentences - show a heightened sense of emotion and end with an exclamation mark (!). It makes a
statement just like a declarative sentence, but it conveys a stronger emotion.

Ex: ​ Ouch! Stop choking me!

​ No! I was just walking by.
​ Oh no! You are bleeding.

Exclamatory pronouns : The words how and what are exclamatory pronouns. They are not used as a question word but
emphasizes to heightened the emotion of the sentence.

Ex: ​ What arrogance you have to steal from an old lady!

​ How rude that young man was!

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH .

Direct Speech is repeating or quoting the exact words spoken. The words repeated are enclosed with quotation marks
(“”) without altering a single word the speaker said. Direct speech is often used in narratives, dialogue, interviews, and
other forms of communication.

Ex: ​ “I think it works,” said Michale.

Indirect Speech is a way of reporting or paraphrasing what someone has said without using their exact words. Indirect
speech is often used when the original speaker is not present, or when it is not necessary to convey the exact words that
were spoken.

Ex: ​ Michale said he thinks it works.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE .

Active and passive voice are grammatical voices in English that describe the relationship between a verb and the subject
associated in a sentence construction.

Active Voice - the subject of the sentence performs the action and is placed at the start of the sentence.

Ex: ​ Her parents want her to learn about computers.

Passive Voice- the object of the verb is followed by the verb, the subject, written at the end of the sentence, is the
receiver of the action.
Ex: ​ For her to learn about computers is wanted by her parents.

Active Voice:​ The dog bit the man.​

Passive Voice: The man was bitten by the dog.
Active Voice: ​ They are building a new house.​
Passive Voice: A new house is being built (by them).
Active Voice: The chef cooked the meal.​
Passive Voice: The meal was cooked by the chef.

Simple and Perfect Aspects of Verbs .

Simple Aspect

The simple aspect refers to actions that are regular, habitual, or general. The focus is on the action itself, without
emphasizing whether it is completed or ongoing.

●​ Simple present: Used for habitual actions, general truths, or states.

●​ Simple past: Used for actions that happened at a specific time in the past and are now completed.
●​ Simple future: Used for actions that will happen at a specific time in the future.

Examples:
 ●​ Simple Present:
○​ She reads books every day. (habitual action)
○​ The sun rises in the east. (general truth)
●​ Simple Past:
○​ I visited my grandmother yesterday. (completed action)
○​ They watched the movie last night.
●​ Simple Future:
○​ I will study tomorrow. (future action)
○​ She will arrive at 5 PM.

Perfect Aspect

The perfect aspect focuses on the completion of an action and its connection to another time (either past, present, or
future). It is used to indicate that an action has been completed in relation to a particular point in time.

●​ Present perfect: Describes actions that have been completed at an unspecified time in the past but have
relevance to the present moment.
●​ Past perfect: Describes actions that were completed before another action in the past.
●​ Future perfect: Describes actions that will be completed before a certain point in the future.

Examples:

●​ Present Perfect:
○​ She has read the book. (completed action with present relevance)
○​ They have already left. (completed action with present relevance)
●​ Past Perfect:
○​ I had finished my homework before the movie started. (action completed before another past action)
○​ She had left by the time I arrived.
●​ Future Perfect:
○​ By 5 PM, I will have completed the report. (action completed before a future time)
○​ They will have arrived by the time we reach the airport.

Progressive and Perfect Progressive Aspects of Verbs .

The progressive and perfect progressive aspects of verbs are used to describe actions or states of being that are
ongoing or have been happening over a period of time. Both aspects highlight the duration or ongoing nature of an action,
but in different ways. Let’s break them down:

Progressive Aspect (also called Continuous Aspect)

The progressive aspect describes an action that is ongoing or in progress at a specific time. It emphasizes that the
action is happening right now or was happening at some point in the past, and is formed with the verb "to be" and the
present participle (-ing form) of the main verb.

Tenses in Progressive Aspect:

●​ Present Progressive
○​ Subject + am/is/are + verb-ing
○​ Example: I am reading a book right now.
●​ Past Progressive
○​ Subject + was/were + verb-ing
○​ Example: She was studying when I called her.
●​ Future Progressive
○​ Subject + will be + verb-ing
 ○​ Example: They will be playing soccer tomorrow.

Examples:

●​ Present Progressive: He is working at the moment.

○​ (Action happening right now)
●​ Past Progressive: They were traveling last summer.
○​ (Action happening in the past)
●​ Future Progressive: I will be studying at 8 PM tonight.
○​ (Action happening in the future)

Perfect Progressive Aspect

The perfect progressive aspect combines both the perfect aspect (which emphasizes the completion of an action) and
the progressive aspect (which focuses on the ongoing nature of the action). It is used to describe an action that was
happening continuously up until a certain point in the past, present, or future. It emphasizes the duration of the action.

Tenses in Perfect Progressive Aspect:

●​ Present Perfect Progressive

○​ Subject + has/have + been + verb-ing
○​ Example: I have been working all day.
●​ Past Perfect Progressive
○​ Subject + had + been + verb-ing
○​ Example: She had been waiting for an hour when I arrived.
●​ Future Perfect Progressive
○​ Subject + will have been + verb-ing
○​ Example: They will have been living in that house for 10 years by next month.

Examples:

●​ Present Perfect Progressive: I have been reading for two hours.

○​ (Action started in the past and is still continuing in the present)
●​ Past Perfect Progressive: They had been studying for several hours before the test.
○​ (Action that was happening continuously in the past, before another past action)
●​ Future Perfect Progressive: By this time next year, I will have been working here for 5 years.
○​ (Action that will have been happening continuously up until a certain point in the future)

FIGURES OF SPEECH .

1. Simile - A comparison between two things using "like" or "as."

●​ Example: Her smile was as bright as the sun.

2. Metaphor - A direct comparison between two things without using "like" or "as."
●​ Example: Time is a thief that steals our moments.

3. Personification - Giving human qualities to nonhuman things or abstract concepts.

●​ Example: The wind whispered through the trees.

4. Alliteration - The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of words in close proximity.
●​ Example: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
5. Onomatopoeia - A word that imitates a sound.
●​ Example: The clock ticked loudly in the quiet room.
●​ Example: The leaves rustled in the breeze.

6. Hyperbole - An exaggerated statement used for emphasis or effect.

●​ Example: I'm so hungry I could eat a horse.
●​ Example: He’s older than the hills.

7. Irony - When something happens that is the opposite of what you expect.
●​ Situational irony: A fire station burns down.
●​ Verbal irony: Saying "What a beautiful day" during a storm.

8. Oxymoron - Two contradictory terms placed together for effect.

●​ Example: Deafening silence.
●​ Example: Bittersweet memories.

9. Assonance - The repetition of the vowel sound.

●​ Example: The light of the fire is a sight.
●​ Example: Go slow over the road.

10. Consonance: The repetition of the consonant sound. It can appear in the beginning, middle, or end of the word.
●​ Example: Sally sells seashells by the seashore.
●​ Example: It will creep and beep while you sleep.

11. Paradox - appears to be self-contradictory but reveals the truth.

●​ Example: The only rule is there is no rule

12. Pun - plays on words to suggest humorous meaning based on different meanings of words with the same spelling or
words that sound alike.
●​ Example: Fish are smart animals because they travel in school.

13. Euphemism - used to substitute an agreeable expression for one that may be considered offensive.
●​ Example: His grandfather is no longer with us.

PARTS OF A BOOK .

1. Cover - The front cover is the first thing a reader sees. It typically includes the title, author, and possibly a visual or
design related to the book's content.

2. Title Page - The title page features the book's full title, the author’s name, and sometimes the publisher’s name and
logo.

3. Copyright Page - This page contains copyright information, publishing details, and sometimes legal disclaimers (like
rights reserved). It may also include ISBN numbers, edition information, and credits for illustrations or design.

4. Table of Contents - A list of the chapters or major sections in the book with their corresponding page numbers,
allowing the reader to easily navigate the text.

5. Preface or Introduction - The preface is usually written by the author or another person and serves as an introduction
to the book. It might explain the motivation for writing the book or offer context on the subject matter. The introduction
often provides background information and sets up the themes or structure of the book.

6. Appendix - An appendix includes additional material that’s relevant but doesn’t fit neatly into the main body of the
book, like charts, graphs, or detailed data.

7. Glossary - A glossary provides definitions for terms that are specific to the subject matter of the book, often found in
non-fiction or technical works.

8. Bibliography/References - A bibliography lists the sources the author consulted or cited while writing the book. In
non-fiction works, a list of references or works cited is often included to support the book’s research.

9. Index - An index is typically found at the back of a nonfiction book and helps readers locate specific topics or terms
mentioned in the book, along with their corresponding page numbers.

ELEMENTS OF A STORY .

1. Plot - The sequence of events that make up the story. It involves the introduction of characters and conflicts, and the
unfolding of actions that lead to the resolution.

●​ Structure: The plot often follows a pattern:

 ○​ Exposition: Introduction to characters, setting, and background.
○​ Rising Action: Events that build tension and lead to conflict.
○​ Climax: The turning point or most intense moment of the story.
○​ Falling Action: Events that follow the climax and begin to resolve the conflict.
○​ Resolution (Denouement): The conclusion where the conflict is resolved, and loose ends are tied up.

2. Characters - The individuals who populate the story, driving the plot forward through their actions, decisions, and
development.

●​ Types of characters:
○​ Protagonist: The main character, often the hero or the character with whom the reader identifies.
○​ Antagonist: The character (or force) that opposes the protagonist, creating conflict.
○​ Supporting characters: These help to move the story forward or provide additional context.
○​ Dynamic characters: Characters who undergo significant internal change.
○​ Static characters: Characters who remain the same throughout the story.

3. Setting - The time and place in which the story takes place. This can include the physical environment, historical
period, social context, and even the emotional atmosphere.

●​ Elements of setting:
○​ Time: When the story takes place (e.g., past, present, future).
○​ Place: Where the story takes place (e.g., a city, a forest, a distant planet).
○​ Mood: The emotional tone or atmosphere of the setting (e.g., eerie, hopeful, tense).

4. Conflict - The central problem or challenge that the characters must face. Conflict drives the plot and propels the
characters’ actions.

Types of conflict:

●​ Man vs. Self (Internal Conflict): A character struggles with their own thoughts, emotions, or decisions.
○​ Example: A person battling guilt or self-doubt.
●​ Man vs. Man (External Conflict): A character faces opposition from another character.
○​ Example: A hero fighting a villain.
●​ Man vs. Nature: A character struggles against natural forces like weather, animals, or disasters.
○​ Example: Surviving a storm or wild animals.
●​ Man vs. Society: A character fights against societal norms, laws, or expectations.
○​ Example: A person challenging unjust laws.
●​ Man vs. Fate (or Supernatural): A character struggles against destiny, prophecies, or supernatural forces.
○​ Example: Trying to avoid a cursed fate.
●​ Man vs. Technology: A character faces opposition from machines or technology.
○​ Example: A fight against an all-controlling AI.
●​ Man vs. Unknown: A character faces fear or uncertainty about uncharted territory or existential questions.
○​ Example: Exploring space or unknown mysteries.

5. Theme - The central idea or message of the story, often a universal concept that the author explores through the
characters and plot.

●​ Examples of themes:
○​ Love and sacrifice
○​ Good vs. evil
○​ The quest for identity
○​ The consequences of choices

6. Point of View - The perspective from which the story is told. It determines how much the reader knows about the
characters and events.

●​ Types of point of view:

○​ First person: The narrator is a character in the story, using "I" or "we" (e.g., I walked to the store).
○​ Second person: The narrator addresses the reader directly using "you" (e.g., You are walking to the
store).
○​ Third person: The narrator is outside the story, using "he," "she," or "they." This can be:
■​ Limited: The narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of only one character.
■​ Omniscient: The narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of all characters.

7. Tone - The author’s attitude or approach toward the story’s subject, conveyed through word choice, sentence structure,
and narrative style.

●​ Examples of tone: serious, humorous, sarcastic, melancholic, optimistic.

 FOR GRADE 5 ONLY .

CONTEXT CLUES .

Context clues are hints or pieces of information within a sentence, paragraph, or passage that help readers understand
the meaning of unfamiliar words. They can come from the surrounding text, providing insight into a word’s definition, its
tone, or how it fits into the overall message.

Types of Context Clues:

1.​ Definition Clues: The meaning of the word is directly explained in the sentence or nearby sentences.
○​ Example: The arid desert climate made it difficult for plants to grow, as it is extremely dry.
○​ Here, “arid” is defined as “extremely dry.”

2.​ Synonym Clues: The sentence contains a synonym or a word with a similar meaning to the unfamiliar word.
○​ Example: He was elated, filled with great happiness after hearing the good news.
○​ "Elated" is explained by the synonym “filled with great happiness.”

3.​ Antonym Clues: The sentence presents a word with the opposite meaning of the unfamiliar word, helping to
clarify its meaning.
○​ Example: The task seemed easy at first, but it quickly became difficult.
○​ “Difficult” helps us understand that “easy” has the opposite meaning

4.​ Example Clues: The meaning of the word is explained by providing examples within the sentence.
○​ Example: She loved outdoor activities like hiking, camping, and fishing.
○​ These examples help clarify that “outdoor activities” are being discussed, so "hiking" could refer to
walking in nature.

5.​ Cause and effect context clues are clues that help readers understand the relationship between events or
actions in a sentence. They help you figure out why something happens (cause) and what happens as a result
(effect).
●​ She studied hard all week because she wanted to ace the test.

6. Appositive context clues are a type of context clue where an appositive—a noun or noun phrase—provides
additional information about another noun in the sentence. This extra detail helps clarify or define the meaning of the noun
it follows, which can be especially helpful when trying to figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word.

●​ "My brother, a talented guitarist, is performing at the concert tonight."

●​ Clue: The appositive "a talented guitarist" explains what "my brother" is, helping you understand he is skilled at
playing the guitar.

CHARACTERIZATION .

Characterization is the process by which an author creates and develops characters in a story. It refers to the ways in
which the author provides information about a character's personality, behavior, thoughts, appearance, and motivations.
This process helps readers understand the characters and become emotionally involved with them.

Types of Characterization:

1.​ Direct Characterization:​

In direct characterization, the author explicitly tells the reader about a character’s personality, traits, or
appearance.
○​ Example: "She was a kind and generous woman, always helping others in need."
○​ Here, the author directly describes the character as "kind" and "generous."

2.​ Indirect Characterization:​

In indirect characterization, the author reveals information about a character through their actions, speech,
thoughts, or interactions with other characters. This requires the reader to infer or deduce the character's traits.
○​ Example: "She spent the whole afternoon at the soup kitchen, volunteering without asking for
recognition."
○​ From this, the reader infers that the character is caring and selfless without the author directly saying it.

Methods of Indirect Characterization:

●​ Speech: What a character says or how they speak can reveal their personality.
 ○​ Example: "I can't wait to get started!" - A character who speaks excitedly may be enthusiastic and eager.
●​ Actions: A character's behavior or decisions reveal key aspects of their nature.
○​ Example: A character who helps others in times of trouble may be portrayed as caring or compassionate.
●​ Thoughts: Insight into a character’s inner thoughts can reveal their desires, motivations, and conflicts.
○​ Example: "I knew I shouldn't have done it, but I was so angry that I couldn't stop myself." - This reveals
inner conflict, showing the character's guilt or struggle.
●​ Physical Appearance: A character's looks or how they dress may suggest something about their personality or
lifestyle.
○​ Example: A character dressed in formal attire might be seen as professional or uptight, while someone in
casual clothes might be perceived as easygoing.
●​ Other Characters' Reactions: How other characters feel about or respond to someone can provide insight into
that character’s nature.
○​ Example: If everyone respects and looks up to a character, they might be seen as wise or authoritative.

Types of Characters in a Story:

●​ Protagonist: The main character or hero of the story, around whom the plot revolves.
○​ Example: Harry Potter in the Harry Potter series.
●​ Antagonist: The character or force that opposes the protagonist, creating conflict.
○​ Example: Lord Voldemort in the Harry Potter series.
●​ Round Character: A character who is complex, with many different traits. They often show growth or change
throughout the story.
○​ Example: Elizabeth Bennet from Pride and Prejudice.
●​ Flat Character: A character who is simple and one-dimensional, often defined by one trait or role in the story.
○​ Example: The stepmother in Cinderella.
●​ Dynamic Character: A character who undergoes significant internal change over the course of the story.
○​ Example: Ebenezer Scrooge from A Christmas Carol.
●​ Static Character: A character who does not change throughout the story.
○​ Example: Sherlock Holmes in many stories, who remains logically sharp and confident.

Example of Characterization:

Direct Characterization:​
John was a quiet, shy man who often preferred reading in the library over socializing with others.

Indirect Characterization:​
John sat in the corner of the library, his nose buried in a book, while the others chatted loudly at the nearby table. He
smiled faintly when someone greeted him but quickly returned to his book.

●​ From this, we can infer that John is introverted and enjoys solitude.

MODALS .

Modals are auxiliary verbs (also called helping verbs) that express the speaker's attitude toward the action or state
described by the main verb. They convey meanings like possibility, necessity, ability, permission, and obligation. Modals
can alter the meaning of the sentence in various ways based on the context.

Uses of Modals:

●​ Ability
○​ Can: I can ride a bike.
○​ Could (past ability): When I was younger, I could run faster.
●​ Permission
○​ Can: Can I borrow your pen?
○​ May: May I leave early today?
○​ Might (tentative permission): You might use my car if you need it.
●​ Possibility
○​ May: It may rain later.
○​ Might: She might join us for dinner.
○​ Could: That could be the answer.
●​ Obligation
○​ Must: You must wear a helmet while riding.
○​ Should: You should eat your vegetables.
○​ Ought to: You ought to apologize for being rude.
●​ Advice/Recommendation
○​ Should: You should try the new restaurant.
○​ Ought to: You ought to go see a doctor if you’re feeling sick.
●​ Willingness/Requests
○​ Will: I will help you with your homework.
○​ Would (polite requests): Would you like some coffee?
●​ Hypothetical situations
 ○​ Would: If I had a million dollars, I would travel the world.
○​ Could: If you asked me, I could help you move.
●​ Necessity
○​ Must: You must submit your application by Friday.
○​ Need (necessity): You need to stop procrastinating.

CLIPPING .

Clipping is the word formation process in which a word is reduced or clipped without changing the meaning of the word.

1.​ Back clipping is removing the end of the word. (exam from examination, math from mathematics)
2.​ Foreclipping is removing the beginning of the word. (phone for telephone, chute from parachute)
3.​ Middle clipping is retaining only the middle word. ( flu from influenza)
4.​ Compound clipping is removing multiple parts from multiple words. ( sitcom from situation comedy)

STEREOTYPING .

Stereotyping is the perception that a group of people share a common characteristic regardless of personal differences. It
is a generalized view based on looks or behavior that is usually negative and people assume that it is true for all
individuals that belong to the same group.

1.​ Gender Stereotyping - male or female

2.​ Racial stereotyping - race (Asian, African, etc. )
3.​ Nationality stereotyping - e.g., Chines, Filipino, Korean, etc.
4.​ Age stereotyping - ex: Old people are always right.
5.​ Socioeconomic stereotyping - rich and the poor
6.​ Disability stereotyping - disabled people

Positive Stereotyping

Positive stereotyping involves attributing favorable or admirable traits to a group of people based on certain
characteristics. While it may seem complimentary at first, it can still be harmful because it doesn't acknowledge the
individuality of each person in that group.

Examples of Positive Stereotypes:

●​ "Asians are good at math."

●​ "Women are naturally nurturing."
●​ "Black people are great athletes."

Negative Stereotyping

Negative stereotyping involves attributing unfavorable or harmful characteristics to a group of people, leading to
discrimination, prejudice, and marginalization.
Examples of Negative Stereotypes:

●​ "Black people are more likely to commit crimes."

●​ "Muslims are terrorists."
●​ "Latino people are lazy."

Male stereotyping in Filipino Movies

1.​ The Manly Man - solving his problems with punching and gun fights.
2.​ The Soloist - does not ask for help.
3.​ The Emotional Rock - unwilling to talk about their feelings.
4.​ The ladies Man - focusing in pursuit of ladies.
5.​ The Rich Guy - thinks he is better than everyone else just because he is rich.
6.​ The Dumb Friend - only role is to provide comedic relief.

Female stereotyping in Filipino Movies

1.​ Maria Clara - having the same personality as Maria Clara from Noli Me Tangere. Kind and modest type of girl.
2.​ Housewives - shows that the main responsibility of women is to be housewives. Clean the house, do the dishes,
etc.
3.​ Ugly Duckling - shows that women are unlikable when they are not pretty even when they have other redeeming
qualities.

Race stereotyping in Movies

1.​ African Americans - usually being portrayed as thugs or servants.

2.​ Asians - stereotyped by being casted in roles as Kung Fu Master or Asian nerds who are good at Math.
3.​ Hispanics - stereotyped by playing limited roles as gang members or cleaning ladies.
4.​ Middle Eastern People - portrayed as either terrorists or arm dealers.

Socioeconomic Stereotyping in Filipino Movies

RICH ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ POOR
1.​ Cruel​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 1. Avaricious - poor people that are greedy, doing crimes.
2.​ Greedy​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 2. Subservient - poor but resilient. Willing to endure abuse.
3.​ Involved in Illegal business​ ​ ​ 3. Ugly Betty
4.​ Stingy ​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 4. Generous

Age stereotyping in Films

OLD PEOPLE
1.​ Frail - With old age comes the weakening of the body. But some old people are still strong and have a strong
body.
2.​ Bad in technological devices
3.​ Grumpy

TEENAGERS
1.​ Overemotional - they always feel in a bad mood or are very happy whenever something happens.
2.​ Obsessed with growing up
3.​ Rebels

Disability stereotyping in Films and Television

1.​ Villains - the character usually suffers an accident or has a mental illness that becomes the reason why he
becomes a villain.
2.​ Heroes - Disabled characters are seen as heroes because of the disability they suffer. They gain abilities that
they use to become a hero.
3.​ Victims - They are seen as a victim because of their disability. They are portrayed as helpless.
4.​ Innocent - They are depicted as automatically good and innocent simply because of their ability.

PARTS OF A FEATURE ARTICLE .

A feature article is a detailed, well-researched piece of writing that focuses on a particular topic, providing in-depth
information, analysis, or perspective. It’s often written in a journalistic style but with more creative freedom than standard
news articles.

1. Headline (Title)

●​ The headline is the first impression of the article and is designed to grab the reader's attention. It should be
engaging, descriptive, and give a hint about the topic.
●​ Example: "The Rise of Urban Gardening: How City Dwellers Are Turning Roofs into Farms"
2. Byline

●​ The byline tells the reader who wrote the article. It usually appears just below the headline.
●​ Example: "By Sarah Thompson, Senior Reporter"

3. Lead (Introduction)

●​ The lead, or intro, is the first paragraph of the article. It should hook the reader, providing a compelling reason to
continue reading. The lead often answers the 5 W's (Who, What, When, Where, Why) and the How of the story.
●​ Example: "In the heart of downtown, a growing trend is transforming urban landscapes. Apartment balconies,
vacant lots, and even rooftops are being turned into thriving vegetable gardens, as city dwellers embrace the
benefits of self-sufficiency."

4. Body

●​ The body of the feature article is the longest part. It is divided into several paragraphs and provides detailed
information and analysis related to the topic. This section is where the journalist presents the facts, quotes from
sources, and in-depth exploration of the subject.
●​ It often includes:
○​ Interviews: Direct quotes from people involved in or knowledgeable about the topic.
○​ Examples: Real-life stories, statistics, or case studies that support the narrative.
○​ Analysis: Insight or commentary that explains the significance of the subject.
○​ Subheadings: These may break the body into more digestible sections, helping readers follow the flow of
information.

5. Quotes and Interviews

●​ Feature articles often include direct quotes from people who are experts on the topic or who have personal
experience. These quotes help add authority and a human element to the article.
●​ Example: "Urban gardening is a powerful tool for fostering community and reducing food waste," says Tom
Harper, an urban farming expert.
 FOR GRADE 6 ONLY .

ORAL POETRY AND SONGS .

An oral poem or a song is an oral narrative in verse form. An oral poem can be recited, chanted, or sung. Oral poems are
called songs when chanted or sung while they are simply called oral poems without the musical component.

1.​ Courtship songs- sung to express love and happiness towards a person of desire.
2.​ Marriage songs- sung during weddings for the bride and groom.
3.​ Birth songs- sung during childbirth to help a woman give birth or to celebrate a child being born.
4.​ Lullabies- slow songs sung to help a baby fall asleep.
5.​ Work songs- sung together with the sound of physical labor to make work bearable.
6.​ Sacred songs- sung during religious ceremonies about supernatural beings.
7.​ Patriotic songs- sung to inspire feelings of pride for one’s country.
8.​ War songs- sung during war to encourage warriors to fight.
9.​ Dirges- sung during funerals to honor the dead.

FOLKTALES .

Folktales are fictional stories passed down from one generation to the other. They are usually set in a fictional place that is
vague about the time and place. They also contain morals or lessons to help the children learn about the proper values in
society.

1.​ Animal tales- stories about animals acting like humans.

2.​ Fairy tales- about supernatural elements and creatures, like magic and fairies.
3.​ Realistic tales- about human characters and the lessons they learn .
4.​ Religious tales- religious stories containing religious morals and lessons.
5.​ Tales of the stupid ogre- about powerful beings being outsmarted by the hero.
6.​ Formula tales- formulaic stories where characters are in need of help but can only solve their problems by
following a series of patterns.
7.​ Anecdotes and jokes- stories about unhappy married couples and their problems.

LEGENDS .

Legends are traditional stories told about extraordinary events that are believed to actually occur. The stories in legends
are exaggerated for dramatic effect, but some details are facts from history. These stories are told to motivate people and
to inspire them to create ;legends of their own.

1.​ Heroic legends- are stories about the amazing events in the life of the great heroes.
2.​ Religious legends- are stories about the miraculous actions of God and his servants.
3.​ Supernatural legends - are stories about humans encountering supernatural beings.
4.​ Place Name legends- are stories about how and why specific places are named.
5.​ Urban legends- are stories about modern mysteries and unexplained phenomena.

MYTHS .

Myths are stories from oral traditions passed down from the past. These stories are the ancient people’s way to explain
how man, animals, and the world came to be. It tries to explain what happens in the afterlife. It contains stories about
historical figures or events.

1.​ Etiological myths are stories of how ancient civilizations tried to explain how life and the world came to be.
Example: Story of Bathala
2.​ Historical myths- are stories about historical events but do not accurately tell accurate events.
​ Example: The Burning of Witches in Salem
3.​ Psychological myths- are stories that try to explain why people feel certain emotions.
​ Example: Eros in Greek myth or Cupid in Roman myth as the god of love
4.​ Chthonic myths- are stories of how ancient civilizations envision and explain the afterlife.
​ Example: Underworld in the Greek myth

MODALS .

Modals are auxiliary verbs (also called helping verbs) that express the speaker's attitude toward the action or state
described by the main verb. They convey meanings like possibility, necessity, ability, permission, and obligation. Modals
can alter the meaning of the sentence in various ways based on the context.

Uses of Modals:

●​ Ability
○​ Can: I can ride a bike.
○​ Could (past ability): When I was younger, I could run faster.
●​ Permission
 ○​ Can: Can I borrow your pen?
○​ May: May I leave early today?
○​ Might (tentative permission): You might use my car if you need it.
●​ Possibility
○​ May: It may rain later.
○​ Might: She might join us for dinner.
○​ Could: That could be the answer.
●​ Obligation
○​ Must: You must wear a helmet while riding.
○​ Should: You should eat your vegetables.
○​ Ought to: You ought to apologize for being rude.
●​ Advice/Recommendation
○​ Should: You should try the new restaurant.
○​ Ought to: You ought to go see a doctor if you’re feeling sick.
●​ Willingness/Requests
○​ Will: I will help you with your homework.
○​ Would (polite requests): Would you like some coffee?
●​ Hypothetical situations
○​ Would: If I had a million dollars, I would travel the world.
○​ Could: If you asked me, I could help you move.
●​ Necessity
○​ Must: You must submit your application by Friday.
○​ Need (necessity): You need to stop procrastinating.

SPEECH .

1.​ A manuscript speech is a type of speech in which the speaker reads from a written text or script. This format
ensures that the speaker delivers the speech exactly as planned, maintaining control over the wording, structure,
and timing. Manuscript speeches are commonly used in situations where precise language, accuracy, or formality
is required, such as in political speeches, official addresses, or formal events.

2.​ A memorized speech is a type of speech where the speaker memorizes the entire content of the speech rather
than reading from a manuscript or using notes. This allows the speaker to deliver the speech from memory,
creating a more engaging and personal connection with the audience. Memorized speeches are often used when
speakers want to present with confidence and fluency while avoiding reading from a script.

3.​ An extemporaneous speech is a type of speech where the speaker prepares in advance but delivers the speech
without a script, relying on notes or outlines rather than reading word-for-word. The speaker is given a short
amount of time to organize their thoughts and present a well-structured, impromptu-sounding speech. This style of
speaking is often used in public speaking competitions, debates, and situations where the speaker needs to
respond to a topic with minimal preparation time.
 4.​ An impromptu speech is a type of speech that is delivered without prior preparation or rehearsal. The speaker is
usually given a topic or prompt and only a few minutes (sometimes even seconds) to gather their thoughts and
speak on it. This type of speech tests a speaker's ability to think quickly and organize their ideas on the spot.

5.​ An oratorical speech is a type of formal speech delivered with the intent to inspire, persuade, or motivate the
audience. It is typically well-prepared, carefully crafted, and emphasizes eloquent language, emotional appeal,
and rhetorical techniques to engage and move the listeners. Oratorical speeches are often delivered in public
events, competitions, or ceremonies and focus on topics that are meaningful, thought-provoking, and relevant to
the audience.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION .

Primary sources of information are first-hand details of information from people who are directly involved. The sources
are original and without reinterpretations.

●​ Autobiography
●​ Research paper
●​ Speech
●​ Photography
●​ Interview

Secondary sources of information are descriptions, analysis, interpretations, or summaries of primary sources of
information. They are written based on first-hand accounts and are combinations of multiple primary sources to form
connections and show patterns that provide more insights than a single primary source.

●​ Biography
●​ News articles
●​ Textbooks
●​ History books
●​ Literary criticism

CHARACTERIZATION .

Characterization is the process by which an author creates and develops characters in a story. It refers to the ways in
which the author provides information about a character's personality, behavior, thoughts, appearance, and motivations.
This process helps readers understand the characters and become emotionally involved with them.

Types of Characterization:

1.​ Direct Characterization:​

In direct characterization, the author explicitly tells the reader about a character’s personality, traits, or
appearance.
○​ Example: "She was a kind and generous woman, always helping others in need."
○​ Here, the author directly describes the character as "kind" and "generous."
2.​ Indirect Characterization:​
In indirect characterization, the author reveals information about a character through their actions, speech,
thoughts, or interactions with other characters. This requires the reader to infer or deduce the character's traits.
○​ Example: "She spent the whole afternoon at the soup kitchen, volunteering without asking for
recognition."
○​ From this, the reader infers that the character is caring and selfless without the author directly saying it.

Methods of Indirect Characterization:

●​ Speech: What a character says or how they speak can reveal their personality.
○​ Example: "I can't wait to get started!" - A character who speaks excitedly may be enthusiastic and eager.
●​ Actions: A character's behavior or decisions reveal key aspects of their nature.
○​ Example: A character who helps others in times of trouble may be portrayed as caring or compassionate.
●​ Thoughts: Insight into a character’s inner thoughts can reveal their desires, motivations, and conflicts.
○​ Example: "I knew I shouldn't have done it, but I was so angry that I couldn't stop myself." - This reveals
inner conflict, showing the character's guilt or struggle.
●​ Physical Appearance: A character's looks or how they dress may suggest something about their personality or
lifestyle.
○​ Example: A character dressed in formal attire might be seen as professional or uptight, while someone in
casual clothes might be perceived as easygoing.
●​ Other Characters' Reactions: How other characters feel about or respond to someone can provide insight into
that character’s nature.
○​ Example: If everyone respects and looks up to a character, they might be seen as wise or authoritative.
Types of Characters in a Story:

●​ Protagonist: The main character or hero of the story, around whom the plot revolves.
○​ Example: Harry Potter in the Harry Potter series.
●​ Antagonist: The character or force that opposes the protagonist, creating conflict.
○​ Example: Lord Voldemort in the Harry Potter series.
●​ Round Character: A character who is complex, with many different traits. They often show growth or change
throughout the story.
○​ Example: Elizabeth Bennet from Pride and Prejudice.
●​ Flat Character: A character who is simple and one-dimensional, often defined by one trait or role in the story.
○​ Example: The stepmother in Cinderella.
●​ Dynamic Character: A character who undergoes significant internal change over the course of the story.
○​ Example: Ebenezer Scrooge from A Christmas Carol.
●​ Static Character: A character who does not change throughout the story.
○​ Example: Sherlock Holmes in many stories, who remains logically sharp and confident.

Example of Characterization:

Direct Characterization:​
John was a quiet, shy man who often preferred reading in the library over socializing with others.

Indirect Characterization:​
John sat in the corner of the library, his nose buried in a book, while the others chatted loudly at the nearby table. He
smiled faintly when someone greeted him but quickly returned to his book.

●​ From this, we can infer that John is introverted and enjoys solitude.

PARTS OF A FEATURE ARTICLE .

A feature article is a detailed, well-researched piece of writing that focuses on a particular topic, providing in-depth
information, analysis, or perspective. It’s often written in a journalistic style but with more creative freedom than standard
news articles.

1. Headline (Title)

●​ The headline is the first impression of the article and is designed to grab the reader's attention. It should be
engaging, descriptive, and give a hint about the topic.
●​ Example: "The Rise of Urban Gardening: How City Dwellers Are Turning Roofs into Farms"

2. Byline

●​ The byline tells the reader who wrote the article. It usually appears just below the headline.
●​ Example: "By Sarah Thompson, Senior Reporter"

3. Lead (Introduction)

●​ The lead, or intro, is the first paragraph of the article. It should hook the reader, providing a compelling reason to
continue reading. The lead often answers the 5 W's (Who, What, When, Where, Why) and the How of the story.
●​ Example: "In the heart of downtown, a growing trend is transforming urban landscapes. Apartment balconies,
vacant lots, and even rooftops are being turned into thriving vegetable gardens, as city dwellers embrace the
benefits of self-sufficiency."

4. Body

●​ The body of the feature article is the longest part. It is divided into several paragraphs and provides detailed
information and analysis related to the topic. This section is where the journalist presents the facts, quotes from
sources, and in-depth exploration of the subject.
●​ It often includes:
○​ Interviews: Direct quotes from people involved in or knowledgeable about the topic.
○​ Examples: Real-life stories, statistics, or case studies that support the narrative.
○​ Analysis: Insight or commentary that explains the significance of the subject.
○​ Subheadings: These may break the body into more digestible sections, helping readers follow the flow of
information.

5. Quotes and Interviews

●​ Feature articles often include direct quotes from people who are experts on the topic or who have personal
experience. These quotes help add authority and a human element to the article.
●​ Example: "Urban gardening is a powerful tool for fostering community and reducing food waste," says Tom
Harper, an urban farming expert.