Exercises 71

Fig. 2.6 Spherical x2

coordinates in
three-dimensional space
g3

g1
x
g2
e2
φ x1
e1
ϕ
e3 r

x3

∂ θ̄i
2.2. Evaluate the coefficients k (2.43) for the transformation of linear coordinates
∂θ
in the spherical ones and vice versa.
2.3. Evaluate gradients of the following functions of r:
1
(a) , (b) r · w, (c) rAr, (d) Ar, (e) w × r,
r
where w and A are some vector and tensor, respectively.
2.4. Evaluate the Christoffel symbols of the first and second kind for spherical
coordinates (2.219).
2.5. Verify relations (2.100).
2.6. Prove identities (2.103)–(2.104) by using (1.94).
2.7. Prove the product rules of differentiation for the covariant derivative (2.105)–
(2.107).
2.8. Verify relation (2.138) applying (2.116), (2.134) and using the results of Exer-
cise 1.23.
2.9. Write out the balance equations (2.120) in spherical coordinates (2.219).
2.10. Evaluate tangent vectors, metric coefficients, the dual basis and Christoffel
symbols for cylindrical surface coordinates defined by
s s
r (r, s, z) = r cos e1 + r sin e2 + ze3 . (2.220)
r r
72 2 Vector and Tensor Analysis in Euclidean Space

2.11. Write out the balance equations (2.120) in cylindrical surface coordinates
(2.220).

2.12. Prove identities (2.143)–(2.156).

2.13. Prove the following identities:

(curlu) × v = (gradu) v − v (gradu) , (2.221)

grad (u × v) = ûgradv − v̂gradu, (2.222)

curl (u × v) = (gradu) v − (gradv) u + (divv) u − (divu) v. (2.223)

2.14. Prove the following identity for a tensor field A (r):

"

div r̂A = r̂divA + 2A. (2.224)

2.15. Calculate divA (r), grad divA (r) and curl divA (r), where A (r)= r ⊗ r (for
n = 3).

2.16. Write out the gradient, divergence and curl of a vector field t (r) in cylindrical
and spherical coordinates (2.17) and (2.219), respectively.

2.17. Consider a vector field in E3 given by t (r) = e3 × r. Make a sketch of t (r)

and calculate curlt and divt.

2.18. A coordinate system r θ1 , θ2 , θ3 in E3 is defined by r = θ1 e1 +
 1 2 3
θ θ e2 + θ1 sin θ2 e3 . For the point θ1 = 1, θ2 = 0, θ3 = 21 (a) calculate the vec-
tors g i (i = 1, 2, 3) tangent to the coordinate lines, (b) calculate the basis g i dual to
g i (i = 1, 2, 3), (c) calculate the Christoffel symbols of the first and second kind i jk
and ikj , (i, j, k = 1, 2, 3), respectively, d) write out the balance equations (2.120)
with respect
 to the given coordinate system, e) represent divt, curlt and gradt, where
t = g1 θ1 , θ2 , θ3 .

2.19. Prove that the Laplacian of a vector-valued function t (r) can be given by
t = t,i|i . Specify this identity for Cartesian coordinates.

2.20. Write out the Laplacian Φ of a scalar field Φ (r) in cylindrical and spherical
coordinates (2.17) and (2.219), respectively.

2.21. Write out the Laplacian of a vector field t (r) in component form in an arbitrary
curvilinear coordinate system. Specify the result for spherical coordinates (2.219).
Chapter 3
Curves and Surfaces
in Three-Dimensional Euclidean Space

3.1 Curves in Three-Dimensional Euclidean Space

A curve in three-dimensional space is defined by a vector function

r = r (t) , r ∈ E3 , (3.1)

where the real variable t belongs to some interval: t1 ≤ t ≤ t2 . Henceforth, we assume

that the function r (t) is sufficiently differentiable and

dr
= 0 (3.2)
dt
over the whole definition domain. Specifying an arbitrary coordinate system (2.16)
as
θi = θi (r) , i = 1, 2, 3, (3.3)

the curve (3.1) can alternatively be defined by

θi = θi (t) , i = 1, 2, 3. (3.4)

Example 3.1. Straight line. A straight line can be defined by

r (t) = a + bt, a, b ∈ E3 . (3.5)

With respect to linear coordinates related to a basis H = {h1 , h2 , h3 } it is equivalent

to
r i (t) = a i + bi t, i = 1, 2, 3, (3.6)

where r = r i hi , a = a i hi and b = bi hi .

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 73

M. Itskov, Tensor Algebra and Tensor Analysis for Engineers,
Mathematical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98806-1_3
74 3 Curves and Surfaces in Three-Dimensional Euclidean Space

Fig. 3.1 Circular helix x3

2πc
e3 r

t e2 x2

e1

x1

Example 3.2. Circular helix. The circular helix (Fig. 3.1) is defined by

r (t) = R cos (t) e1 + R sin (t) e2 + ct e3 , c = 0, (3.7)

where ei (i = 1, 2, 3) form an orthonormal basis in E3 . For the definition of the

circular helix the cylindrical coordinates (2.17) appear to be very suitable. Indeed,
alternatively to (3.7) we can write

r = R, ϕ = t, z = ct. (3.8)

In the previous chapter we defined tangent vectors to the coordinate lines. By

analogy one can also define a vector tangent to the curve (3.1) as

dr
gt = . (3.9)
dt
It is advantageous to parametrize the curve (3.1) in terms of the so-called arc length.
To this end, we first calculate the length of a curve segment between the points
corresponding to parameters t1 and t as

r(t) √
s (t) = dr · dr. (3.10)
r(t1 )

With the aid of (3.9) we can write dr = g t dt and consequently

3.1 Curves in Three-Dimensional Euclidean Space 75

t t t 
√   
s (t) = g t · g t dtˆ = g t  dtˆ = gtt tˆ dtˆ. (3.11)
t1 t1 t1

Using this equation and keeping in mind assumption (3.2) we have

ds 
= gtt (t) = 0. (3.12)
dt
This implies that the function s = s (t) is invertible and

s s
 −1 dŝ
t (s) = g t  dŝ =   . (3.13)
s(t1 ) s(t1 )
gtt ŝ

Thus, the curve (3.1) can be redefined in terms of the arc length s as


r = r (t (s)) = r (s) . (3.14)

In analogy with (3.9) one defines the vector tangent to the curve r (s) (3.14) as


dr dr dt g
a1 = = =  t (3.15)
ds dt ds  gt 

being a unit vector: a1  = 1. Differentiation of this vector with respect to s further
yields

da1 d2 r
a1 ,s = = 2 . (3.16)
ds ds
It can be shown that the tangent vector a1 is orthogonal to a1 ,s provided the latter
one is not zero. Indeed, differentiating the identity a1 · a1 = 1 with respect to s we
have
a1 · a1 ,s = 0. (3.17)

The length of the vector a1 ,s

κ (s) = a1 ,s  (3.18)

plays an important role in the theory of curves and is called curvature. The inverse
value
1
ρ (s) = (3.19)
κ (s)