CHAPTER I: CONCRETE AND CONCRETE WORKS

CEMENTS
PORTLAND CEMENT
Made from materials which must contain the proper proportions of lime, silica, alumina and iron
components. Four parts of limestone to one part clay are the basic ingredients. These are mixed, burned
then pulverized. Portland cement is solid either in cement bag of 40 kilos weight or in BULK into cement
trucks.

SPECIAL CEMENTS

White Portland Cement

Same materials as normal Portland except in color. The manufacturing process is
controlled to produce pure white, non-staining cement. It is used primarily for architectural
purposes such as curtain wall and facing panels, decorative concrete stucco and tile grout, or
wherever or colour concrete or mortar is specified.

Masonry Cement
Has been specially designed to produce better mortar than that made with normal
Portland cement or with a lime-cement combination. The mortar made with this cement has
particularly good plasticity and workability, good adhesion and bond.

Air-entraining Portland cement

Small amount of certain air-entraining agent are added to the clinker and ground with it
to produce air entraining cement, effective use for resistance to severe frost.

Oil Well Cement

This is special Portland cement used for sealing oil wells. It must be slow setting and
resistant to high temperature and pressure.

Waterproofed Portland cement

Normally produced by adding a small amount of stearate, usually calcium or aluminium
to the cement clinker during the final grinding.

TYPES OF AGGREGATES USED IN CONCRETE

Concrete can be considered to be an artificial stone made by binding together particles for some inert
material with a paste made cement and water. These inert materials are the aggregate. Aggregates used
are sand, gravel crushed stone, cinder, crushed furnace slag, burned clay, expanded vermiculite, and
perlite.
SAND – found in riverbeds, free of salt and must be washed.
FINE AGGREGATE - smaller than ¼” Diameter stones.
COARSE AGGREGATE – bigger than ¼” diameter stones.

CONCRETE MIXES
Class “AA” - 1:1½ :3 - concrete under water. Retaining walls
Class A - 1:2:4 - footings. Columns beams, R.C. Slabs
Class B - 1:2 ½ : 5 - slab on fill, non-bearing walls
Class C - 1:3:6 - concrete plant boxes, etc.

Example of Class “A” mix:

One part cement is to two parts sand plus four parts gravel.
The designing of concrete mixtures is based primarily on the water-cement ratio theory, which
states that the strength of concrete is inversely proportional to the amount of water used per
unit (lb.) of cement.

This means that if, for example 68 lb. of water per lb. of cement will produce concrete capable
of developing 2,500 psi in 28 days, then less water per bag will produce stronger concrete and
more water will produce concrete of lesser strength.

Compressive strength of concrete for various water-cement ratios

Water cement ratio Probable compressive at
Lb. per lb. of cement 28 day, psi Plain concrete

0.75 2,000
0.68 2,500
0.62 3,000
0.56 3,500
0.50 4,000
0.45 4,500
0.38 5,000
0.34 6,000

CONTROL OF CONCRETE MIXES

Slump Test – When freshly mixed concrete is checked to ensure that the specified slump
is being attained consistently. A standard slump cone is 12 inches high (0.30) and 8 inches (0.20)
in diameter at the bottom and 4 inches (0.10) on top which is open on both ends.
The cone is filled in three equal layers, each being tamped or rodded 25 times with a standard
5/8” bullet nosed rod. When the cone has been filled and leveled off, it is lifted carefully and the
amount of slump is measured.

Allowable Deflection “X”

Beams and columns 7.5 cm (0.075) 3”
Slabs and tunnel inverts 5.0 cm (0.05) 2”
Tops and walls, piers, parapet & curbs 5.0 cm (0.05) 2”
Side walls and arch in tunnel Lining 10.0 cm (0.10) 4”
Canal lining 7.5 cm (0.075) 3”
Heavy mass construction 5.0 cm (0.05) 2”

Compressive Strength Test – Common quality-control test of concrete, based on 7- and 28-day
curing periods. Specimens are usually cylindrical with a length equal to twice the diameter.
Standard size is 12 inch high and 6-inch diameter. Filing is done the same way as the slump test
but taken out from the mod in 24 hours. It is then sent to a compression testing laboratory, by
making the cylinder while still wet. Some compressive stresses are 2,000 psi, 2,500 psi, 3,000
psi.

BRANDS OF PORTLAND CEMENT

1. Island Cement 6. Filipinas cement
2. Continental cement 7. Pacific cement
3. Hi-cement 8. Fortune cement
4. Union cement 9. Republic cement
5. Rizal cement 10. Northern cement

BRANDS OF WHITE CEMENT

1. Prime White cement
2. Keene
3. Trinity
4. Snow Crete

CONCRETE ADDITIVES
In addition to the basic ingredients of concrete, other materials are often added to the mix or
applied to the surface of freshly placed concrete to produce some special result. These materials
are known as concrete additives and may be used for one of the following reasons:
1. To speed up the initial set of concrete
2. To retard the initial set.
 3. To make the concrete more resistant to deterioration due to repeated freezing and
thawing cycles.
4. To prevent bleeding of water to the surface of concrete.
5. To improve the workability of the mix.
6. To improve the hardness or denseness of the concrete surface.
7. To render the concrete more water tight.
8. To improve the bond between two concrete surfaces.
9. To inhibit the set of cement paste.
10. To produce a colored surface.
11. To produce a nonskid surface.
12. To prevent the evaporation of water from the newly placed concrete.
13. To help develop all the potential strength of a given water-cement paste.
14. To decrease the weight of concrete per cubic foot.

ACCELERATORS

An admixture which is used to speed up the initial set of concrete. Such as material may be
added to the mix to increase the rate of early-strength development for several reasons. For
example, this will allow earlier removal of forms and in some reduces the whole curing period.

RETARDERS

The function of a retarder is to delay or extend the setting of the cement paste in concrete. In
hot weather hydration is accelerated by the heat, thus cutting down the time available to place,
consolidate, and finish the concrete. High temperatures, low humidity and wind cause rapid
evaporation of water from the mix during summer. This drying of the concrete leads to cracking
and crazing of the surface.

An initial set retarder will hold back the hydration process, leaving more water for workability
and allowing concrete to be finished and protection before drying out.

A retarder is usually used in bridge construction, since girders or beams are designed with
camber and will be deflected as the load of the bridge deck is applied. The initial pours may be
deflection takes place, this concrete being no longer plastic, will be subjected to stress and may
crack. It is also important to use a retarder in casting prestressed concrete member. Since
prestresses beds are usually long, up to 300 ft. or more, it takes a consideration time to place
and consolidate the entire pour. It is desirable to keep the concrete plastic until vibrating is
completed to ensure a goof bond between concrete and prestressed steel along the entire
length of the bed.

Retarders are also helpful for concrete that has to be hauled long distances in transit mix trucks,
to ensure that it reaches its destination in a plastic and placeable condition.

AIR-ENTRAINING AGENTS

Air entrained concrete contains microscopic bubbles of air formed with the aid of a group of
chemicals called surface active agents, materials that have the property of reducing the surface
tension of water intended for use when better resistance to frost action is concerned.
DISPENSAL AGENTS

When cement and water are mixed, the cement particles tend to gather in clumps, or to
flocculate. As a result, water does not reach some of the particles and some are only partially
hydrated. Sometimes only 50 percent of the cement is hydrated.

1. Chemical hardeners – liquids containing silicoflourides or fluosilicates and a wetting agent

which reduces the surface tension of the liquid and allows it to penetrate the pores of the
concrete more easily. The silicoflourides or fluosilicates combine chemically with the free
lime and calcium carbonate which are present in the concrete and bind the fine particles
into a flintlike topping, which is highly resistant to wear and dusting.
2. Fine metallic aggregate – are specially processed and graded iron particles which are dry-
mixed with Portland cement, spread evenly over the surface of freshly floated concrete, and
worked into the surface by floating. The result is a hard, tough topping which is highly
resistant to wear and less brittle than normal concrete.

WATER REDUCING ADMIXTURES

A material used to reduce the amount of water necessary to produce a concrete of given
consistency or to increase the slump for a given water content. A typical one is made from the
metallic salts of lignin sulfonic acids.
More water than is actually required for the hydration of the cement must be used in any given
concrete mix in order to give it place ability. Unless the water content is carefully controlled,
excess water may bleed to the surface of the concrete, causing segregation or surface laitance,
or may evaporate, leaving voids which decrease strength and increase permeability. Excess
water will also dilute and weaken the cement paste. Therefore, an agent which will decrease the
among of water required while maintaining consistency and workability is a useful addition to
the mix.

CONCRETE WATERPROOFERS

Water under pressure and in contact with one surface of the concrete can be forced through
channels between the inner and outer surfaces. A measure of the amount of water passing in
this way is a measure of permeability; any admixture used to reduce this flow is really a
permeability reducer.

Water also can pass through concrete by the action of capillary forces. If one side is exposed to
moisture and the other to air, the water reaching the dry side evaporated, resulting in a flow of
moisture through the concrete. Materials used to reduce or stop this type of flow are more
properly called dam proofers.

Materials used to reduce permeability and also a damproofers.

a. Air-entraining agent – because it increases the plasticity of concrete and therefore

help to make placing easier and more uniform. They also reduce bleeding by holding
the water in films about the air bubbles.
 As damproofer because the small disconnected voids produced by air entrainment
break up the capillaries in the concrete and therefore offer a barrier to the passage
of water by capillary action.

b. Cement dispersal agent - Since it tends to reduce voids formed when water is
trapped in groups of cement particles.

c. Water repellents – Used as damproofing. The materials used are compounds

containing calcium or ammonium stearate, calcium or ammonium oleate, or butyl
stearate. These substances are generally combined with line or calcium chloride.

d. Film applied to surface – preferably the one adjacent to the water source. The
common materials are those containing asphalt or sodium silicate and one which
contains a metallic aggregate.

The asphaltic products from an impervious coating over the surface. The sodium silicate
compounds enter the surface pores and form a gel which prevent water from entering
the concrete. The metallic aggregate type of waterproofer consists of fine cast-iron
particles, to which is added a chemical that caused them to oxidize rapidly when mixed
with Portland cement.

BONDING AGENTS

When fresh concrete is poured against another concrete surface already set and at least
partially cured, it is often difficult to obtain a bond between the two surfaces unless
special precautions are taken. Fresh concrete shrinks when setting, and unless there is a
very good bond thus shrinkage makes the new concrete pull away from the old surface.
a cement – Paste slurry is often applied to such an old surface immediately prior
to pouring new concrete to increase the amount of paste. When such a
treatment cannot be applied, bonding agents are used to join the tow surfaces.

TWO TYPES:
1. Metallic aggregate – iron particles are larger, but with same materials as the
permeability reducer. Bonding takes place through the oxidation and subsequent
expansion of the iron particles.
2. Synthetic latex emulsion – consists of a highly polymerized synthetic liquid resin
dispersed in water. When it is sprayed or painted on a concrete surface, the pores in
the concrete absorb the water and allow the resin particles to coalesce and bond.

CONCRETE COLORING AGENTS

1. Use concrete paint, applied after the concrete surface has been neutralized, either
through exposure or by using a neutralizing agent such as zinc sulfate.
2. Integrating color into the surface concrete while it is still fresh.
a. Natural metallic oxides of cobalt, chromium, iron etc. have distinctive color.
The ochres and umbers are fine dry powders. They are usually mixed into a
 topping mix, since this is the best way of distributing the color evenly
throughout the concrete.
b. The coloring agents made with synthetic oxides are usually

SET-INHIBITING AGENTS

Specifications sometimes require that concrete surfaces be produced in which the aggregates
are exposed for architectural effect.

Certain inhibiting agents will prevent the cement paste from bonding to the surface aggregates
but will not interfere with the set throughout the remainder of the pour

Two materials are used for this purpose.

a. A liquid which is applied to forms for vertical surfaces immediately before pouring
concrete and a

b. Powder which is applied directly to freshly poured horizontal surfaces.

The depth of penetration of the inhibitor depends on the amount used per square foot. Usual rates of
application will vary from 1 ½ to 3 lb. per 100 sq. ft. of surface.

After three or four days of curing, the retarded surface concrete should be hosed or brushed off,
exposing clean aggregate and leaving a rough cast effect.

NON-SKID SURFACES

To avoid making concrete surface slippery, use wood or cork floats which will leave a rough surface
instead of steel troweling operation during the floor-finishing process.

Another method is to use an abrasive material in the topping, applied as a dry shake in another method
the same way as metallic-aggregate topping is applied. The abrasive material is floated, into the top and
the steel trowel operation is omitted. Materials commonly used for this purpose are fine particles of
Flint, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, or emery.
SURFACE SEALING AGENTS
Used for two purposes.
1. To form a watertight coating which will prevent water from evaporating from a concrete
surface and allow it to be retained for hydration

2. To seal the pores of a concrete surface after it has hardened in order to prevent the passage
of water and the absorption of spilled materials such as oil, grease, or paint.
Sealing agents used to prevent water evaporation are usually liquid waxes which can be
sprayed over the surface but which are easily removed after curing is complete.

GAS FORMING AGENTS

Under normal conditions concrete undergoes settlement and drying shrinkage, which is some situations,
can result in undesirable characteristics in the hardened concrete. For example, voids on the underneath
side of forms, blackouts, reinforcing steel, or other embedded parts such as machinery bases may
interfere with the bond and allow passage of water and reduce uniformity strength.

One method of reducing such voids is to add an expanding agent to the concrete. Aluminum powder,
when added to mortar or concrete, reacts with the hydroxides in hydrating cement to produce very
small bubbles of hydrogen gas. This action, when properly controlled, causes a slight expansion in plastic
concrete or mortar and thus reduces or eliminates voids caused by settlement.

POZZOLANIC ADMIXTURES

Materials sometimes used in structures where it is desirable to avoid high temperature or in structures
exposed to seawater or water containing sulfates. These pozzolanic materials are generally substituted
for 10 to 35 percent of the cement. Pozzolans may be added to concrete