Internet of Things (P22ETC105)

Basics of Networking
PUTTASWAMY B S
Assistant Professor
Dept. of CS&BS
 Networking

• Networking refers to the linking of computers and communication network devices (referred to as

hosts), which interconnect through a network (Internet or Intranet) and are separated by unique

device identifiers (Internet protocol, IP addresses and MAC addresses).

• These hosts may be connected by a single path or through multiple paths for sending and

receiving data.

• The data transferred between the hosts may be text, images, or videos, which are in the form of

binary.
 Network Types

Computer networks are classified according to various parameters:

1) Type of connection

2) Physical topology

3) Reach of the network

• These classifications are helpful in deciding the requirements of a network setup and

provide insights into the appropriate selection of a network type for the setup.
 Network Types
1. Connection types

Depending on the way a host communicates with other hosts, computer networks are;

1. Point-to-point

2. Point-to-multipoint.

Point-to-multipoint
 Network Types
1. Connection types

1. Point-to-point

• Point-to-point connections are used to establish direct connections between two hosts.

• Example: Remote control for an AC or TV.

• These networks were designed to work over duplex links and are functional for both

synchronous as well as asynchronous systems.

 Network Types
1. Connection types

2. Point-to-multipoint

• In a point-to-multipoint connection, more than two hosts share the same link.

• Point-to-multipoint connections: popular use in wireless networks and IP telephony.

• The channel is shared between the various hosts, either spatially or temporally.

• Spatial sharing of the channel is frequency division multiple access (FDMA).

• Temporal sharing of channels includes time division multiple access (TDMA).

• Each of the spectral and temporal sharing approaches has various schemes and protocols for

channel sharing in point-to-multipoint networks.

 Network Types
2. Physical topology

Depending on the physical manner in which communication paths between the hosts are

connected, computer networks can have the following four broad topologies

1) Star

2) Mesh

3) Bus

4) Ring
2. Physical topology Network Types

Star Mesh

Bus Ring
 Network Types
1. STAR Topology

Advantages
• Easy installation and ease of fault identification within the network.
• Link failures between a host and the hub do not effect on the
network, except for the host that is affected.

Disadvantages

• If the hub fails, the whole network fails.

• In star topology, every host has a point-to-point link to a central controller or hub.
• The hosts cannot communicate with one another directly, they can only do through the central hub.
• The hub acts as the network traffic exchange.
• For large-scale systems, hub, has to be a powerful server to handle all the traffic.
• As there are fewer links (only one link per host), this topology is cheaper and easier to set up.
 Network Types
2. MESH Topology

• Every host is connected to every other host using a dedicated link (in a point-to-point manner).
• This implies that for n hosts in a mesh, there are a total of n (n-1)=2 dedicated full duplex links
between the hosts.
• This massive number of links makes the mesh topology expensive.
Advantages
• Robustness and Resilience of the system.
• If a link is down, the network is still fully functional.
• Security and Privacy: Data is only seen by the intended recipients and
not by all members of the network.
• Reduced data load on a single host, as every host in this network takes
care of its traffic load.
Disadvantages
• Owing to the complexities in forming physical connections and the cost of establishing
these links, mesh networks are used very selectively, such as in backbone networks.
 Network Types
3. BUS Topology

• Bus topology uses a single cable which connects all the included
nodes.
• The main cable acts as a spine / backbone for the entire network.
• One of the computers in the network acts as the computer server.
• The hosts are connected to the main bus employing drop lines or
taps.
Advantages

• Ease of installation.
• Cost of the cable is very less as compared to other topology

Disadvantages

• Difficulty in fault localization within the network.

 Network Types
4. RING Topology
• Ring topology is a computer network configuration where the
devices are connected to each other in a circular form / closed
loop.
• Every device/node is connected to exactly two other nodes
one on either side of it in closed loop fashion.
• Each packet is sent around the ring until it reaches its final
destination. Advantages
• Ease of installation.
• Cost of the cable is very less as compared to other topology

Disadvantages
• Expensive, difficult to install and manage.
• High probability of a single point of failure & If one repeater fails,
the whole network goes down.
Table 1.1 Network topology comparison
Network reachability
 Network reachability
PAN (Personal Area Network)
• The PAN, used for interconnecting the devices which are

centred on a person’s workspace.

• This Network provides data transmission among devices such

as computers, smartphones, tablets, personal digital

assistants, Printers, wireless headphones etc.,

• PANs are wireless networks, which make use of low-range and

low-power technologies such as Bluetooth.

• The reachability of PANs lies in the range of a few cm to a few

meters.
 Network reachability
LAN (Local Area Network)

• The LAN is a computer network which interconnects the

computer within the limited area such as a residence, school

laboratory, university campus or office building.

• LAN spans a relatively small area.

• LANs range from 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps, with very high

fault-tolerance levels.

• Commonly used network components in a LAN are servers,

hubs, routers, switches, terminals, and computers.

 Network reachability
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• The MAN is a computer network which is similar to the

LAN but spans an entire city or campus.

• Example of a MAN is an Internet service provider (ISP)

supplying Internet connectivity to various organizations

within a city.

• Typical networking devices/components in MANs are

modems and cables.

• MANs tend to have moderate fault tolerance levels.

 Network reachability
WAN (Wide Area Network) • WANs typically connect diverse geographic locations.

• WAN is the telecommunication network which extends

over the large geographical area for the primary purpose of

computer networking.

• Typically, WANs connecting two LANs or MANs may use

public switched telephone networks (PSTNs) or satellite-

based links.

• Due to the long transmission ranges, WANs tend to have

more errors and noise during transmission and are very

costly to maintain. Also, WAN have Low fault tolerance.

 Layered Network Model

• The intercommunication between hosts in any computer network, is built upon

the premise of various task-specific layers.

• Two of the most commonly accepted and used traditional layered network

models are the open systems interconnection (OSI) developed by the

International Organization for Standardization (ISO-OSI) reference model and

the Internet protocol suite.

 Layered Network Model

OSI Model

• The purpose of OSI model is to facilitate communication between different

systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware &

Software.
 OSI Model

• OSI stands for Open Systems

Interconnection.

• Developed by ISO in the year 1984.

1. It is a 7 layer architecture with each

layer having specific functionality to

perform.

2. All these 7 layers work collaboratively

to transmit the data from one person to

another across the globe.

 OSI Model

Device A Device B
OSI Model
Layered network models

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):

• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the

physical layer.
• It is responsible for the actual physical connection
between the devices.
• The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
• It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one
node to the next.
• When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received
and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data
Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
 Layered network models

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

• The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node

delivery of the message.
• Main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical
layer.
• When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility
of DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.

*Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

 Layered network models
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

• Logical Link Control (LLC)
• Media Access Control (MAC)

• MAC is responsible for access control and permissions for

connecting networked devices;
• LLC is mainly tasked with error checking, flow control, and
frame synchronization.

*Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

 Layered network models

3. Network Layer (Layer 3):

• The network layer works for the transmission of data from one
host to the other located in different networks.
• It takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path
to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
• The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header
by the network layer.
• The primary tasks of this layer include addressing, sequencing
of packets, congestion control, error handling, and
Internetworking.

*The protocol data unit with this layer is referred to as a packet.

 Layered network models

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):

• The transport layer provides services to the application layer

and takes services from the network layer.
• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
• It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete
message.
• The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an
error is found.

The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a segment or datagram.
 Layered network models

5. Session (Layer 5):

• This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection,

maintenance of sessions, authentication, and also ensures
security.

The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.
 Layered network models

5. Session (Layer 5):

The functions of the session layer are :

• Session establishment, maintenance, and termination.

• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints

(synchronization points) into the data. These synchronization

points help to identify the error so that the data is re-

synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut

prematurely and data loss is avoided.

• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start

communication with each other.

The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.
 Layered network models

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

• The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The

data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network.
The functions of the presentation layer are;
• Translation
• Encryption/ Decryption:
• Compression

The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.
 Layered network models

7. Application Layer (Layer 7):

• Application layer which is implemented by the network

applications.
• These applications produce the data, which has to be
transferred over the network.
• This layer also serves as a window for the application services
to access the network and for displaying the received
information to the user.

Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

The protocol data unit (PDU) associated with this layer is referred to
as data.
OSI Model
 Internet Protocol suite or TCP/IP

TCP/IP model, was designed and developed by Department of Defence (DoD) in 1960s and is based on

standard protocols.

• It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

• The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model.

• It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model.

• The layers are:

1. Process/Application Layer

2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer

3. Internet Layer

4. Network Access/Link Layer

Internet Protocol suite or TCP/IP
 Internet Protocol suite or TCP/IP

1. Application Layer

• This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model: Application, Presentation and
Session Layer.
• It is responsible for node-to-node communication and controls user-interface specifications.
• Some of the protocols present in this layer are: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP,
NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X Window, LPD.
 Internet Protocol suite or TCP/IP
2. Transport Layer

• This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model.

• It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data.
• It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data.

The two main protocols present in this layer are :

1.Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• It provides reliable and error-free communication between end systems.
• It performs sequencing and segmentation of data.
• It has acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of the data
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• UDP does not provide features such as error free communications, no acknowledgement etc.
• It is the go-to protocol
• It is very cost-effective.
• TCP is connection-oriented protocol, UDP is connectionless.
 Internet Protocol suite or TCP/IP
3. Internet / Network Layer

• This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer.

• It defines the protocols which are responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network.

The main protocols residing at this layer are: IP, ICMP & ARP.

1. IP: Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source to the destination by looking at the IP
addresses in the packet headers.
• IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6.
• IPv4: most of the websites are using currently.
• IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are limited.

2. ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol.

• It is encapsulated within IP datagrams
• Responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
3. ARP: Address Resolution Protocol.
• Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from a known IP address.
 Internet Protocol suite or TCP/IP

4. Network Access Layer / Link Layer / Network Interface Layer

• It is the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of the OSI model.
• It looks out for hardware addresses.
• the protocols present in this layer allows for the physical transmission of data.
 Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model
TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol. OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.

TCP/IP has 4 layers OSI has 7 layers

TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable

TCP/IP does not have very strict boundaries. OSI has strict boundaries

TCP/IP follow a horizontal approach OSI follows a vertical approach

TCP/IP uses both session and presentation layer in the

OSI uses different session and presentation layers
application layer itself

Transport layer in TCP/IP does not provide assurance In OSI model, transport layer provides assurance
delivery of packets delivery of packets

TCP/IP model network layer only provides connection Connection less and connection oriented both services
less services are provided by network layer in OSI model

While in OSI model, Protocols are better covered and

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP model
is easy to replace with the change in technology
 Chapter – 2
Emergence of IoT
Content to be Discussed

➢ Introduction

➢ Evolution of IoT

➢ Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

➢ IoT Networking Components

 Learning Outcomes

• Explain the chronology for the evolution of Internet of Things (IoT)

• Relate new concepts with concepts learned earlier to make a smooth transition to IoT

• List the reasons for a prevailing universal networked paradigm, which is IoT

• Compare and correlate IoT with its precursors such as WSN (Wireless Sensor Network),

M2M, and CPS

• List the various enablers of IoT

• Understand IoT networking components and various networking topologies

• Recognize the unique features of IoT which set it apart from other similar paradigms
 Internet of things (IoT)
✓Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of smart physical objects

physical objects (e.g. devices, vehicles, buildings, etc.) embedded with

sensors/actuators, computation unit, memory unit, power source, and network
connectivity,

which enables the physical object to collect and exchange data,

analyze the collected data to extract new insight and respond accordingly.
The General components of IoT Applications
Global trend and projection of connected
devices
 Introduction

• The three characteristic features anytime,

anywhere, and anything highlight the

robustness and dynamic nature of IoT.

• IoT is an anytime, anywhere, and anything

network of Internet-connected physical

devices systems capable of sensing an

environment and affecting the sensed

environment intelligently.
 The compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of the IoT market

Source: International Data Corporation

The IoT market share across various industries

Source: International Data Corporation

 Evolution of IoT

Image Source: Nokia Insight

 Evolution of IoT

Image Source: Nokia Insight

 Evolution of IoT

Smart dust is a system of many tiny microelectromechanical systems such as sensors,

robots, or other devices, that can detect, for example, light, temperature, vibration,
1991

1974
The sequence of technological developments leading to the shaping of the modern- day IoT

• ATM: Financial transactions

• Web: Global information sharing and communication platform
• Smart Meters: communicating remotely with the power grid, Remote monitoring of power usage
• Digital Locks: locking and unlocking doors, changing key codes
• Connected Healthcare: devices connect to hospitals, doctors, and relatives

magnetism, or chemicals
• Connected Vehicles: self-diagnose themselves and alert owners about system failures
• Smart Cities: implementation of smart sensing, monitoring, and actuation systems
• Smart Dust: microscopic computers
• Smart Factories: monitor plant processes, assembly lines, distribution lines, etc., all on their own
• UAV: Agriculture, surveys, surveillance, deliveries, stock maintenance, asset management
 Technological interdependencies of IoT with other domains

• M2M: System of connected machines and devices, which can

talk amongst themselves without human intervention.
• E.g: Stocks, health, power status

• CPS: Cyber physical system implies a closed loop control, from

sensing, processing, and actuation using a feedback
mechanism.

• IoE: Internet of Environment concerned with minimizing and reversing

the ill-effects of Internet-based technologies on the environment.
E.g. Smart and sustainable farming, sustainable and energy-efficient habitats,
enhancing the energy efficiency of systems and processes
 Technological interdependencies of IoT with other domains

• Industry 4.0: 4th industrial revolution: digitization in the

manufacturing industry

• E.g: Smart factories: M2M

• Better resource and workforce management, optimization of

production time and resources, and better upkeep and lifetimes

of industrial systems.

• IoP: Decentralization of online social interactions, payments, transactions, and

other tasks while maintaining confidentiality and privacy of its user’s data.

• E.g: Bitcoin
 IoT versus M2M
M2M IoT

M2M is about direct communication between IOT is about Sensors, Automation & Internet
Machines Platform

Supports Point to Point communication Supports cloud communication

Devices do not necessarily depend on on

Devices depend on on Internet connection
internet connection

Device can be connected through mobile / other

Data delivery depends on the IP network
network

More scalable / Capable of connecting billions of

Limited Scalability / Scope
devices.

E.g. Smart wearables, smart cities, smart cars,

E.g. Sensors and data information
smart homes
IoT versus M2M
 IoT versus CPS
CPS IoT

CPS consists of a collection of computing devices

that communicate with each other and interact IoT is a networked world of interconnected
with the physical world via sensors and actuators devices, objects, and people.
in a feedback loop.
Focus on how these physical objects can be
Focus on how physical systems can be controlled
connected to the internet to do something
and monitored using the cyber space.
meaningful.
CPS are smart embedded systems that integrate
IoT is purely automation (without no Human
sensor networks with embedded computing to
Intervention)
monitor the physical environment.

CPS integrate actuators & sensors with Scope of IoT is not limited to just connecting
networking technologies, work in the feedback things; it allows things to communicate and
loop using human intervention, their behaviour exchange data, which can be analysed and
could be changed based on user’s requirements. processes further into meaningful information.
 IoT versus WoT
WoT IoT

Enables access and control over IoT resources IoT is a networked world of interconnected
and applications devices, objects, and people

It is a software layer to connect everything to the It is a hardware layer to connect everything to the
web using standard web protocols internet

Deals with sensors, actuators computation &

Deals with protocols and web servers
communication interfaces.

WoT makes it easy by using single protocol for

Different protocol for each & every IoT devices
multiple IoT devices

WoT Programming is easier Hard to program due to multiple protocols

IoT standards and protocol are not public.

Can be accessed anywhere, anytime
Privately funded & are not publicly accessible.
Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

IoT is a paradigm built upon complex interdependencies

of technologies (both legacy and modern)

the IoT paradigm is divided into four planes:

1. Services

2. Local connectivity

3. Global connectivity

4. Processing
 Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of
Technologies
1. Service Plane is composed of two parts:
1) Things or Devices
2) Low-power connectivity.

Example:
• Any IoT application requires the basic setup of sensing, and a low-
power, low-range network, built upon the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol.

• Things: Wearables, computers, smartphones, household

appliances, smart glasses, factory, machinery, vending machines,
vehicles, UAVs, robots etc.

• LPC: Responsible for connecting the things in local implementation,

may be legacy protocols such as WiFi, Ethernet, or cellular.

• Modern Day Technologies: are mainly wireless and programmable

E.g. Zigbee, RFID, Bluetooth, 6LoWPAN, LoRA, DASH, Insteon,
and others
Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

2. Local Connectivity: is responsible for distributing

Internet access to multiple local IoT deployments.

• Distribution may be on the basis of;

• Physical placement of the things,
• Application domains
• Service providers.

• Services such as address management, device

management, security, sleep scheduling, etc, fall
within the scope of this plane.
Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

2. Local Connectivity

E.g.: Smart Home Environment

• Smart home environment have local IoT

implementations, which have various things
connected to the network via low-power, low-range
connectivity technologies.
• The traffic from these devices merges into a single
router or a gateway.
• The total traffic from these devices leaves through a
single gateway or router, which may be assigned a
single global IP address (for the whole house).
• This helps in the significant conservation of already
limited global IP addresses. ( IoT Mgmt.)
Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

3. Global Connectivity

• Enables IoT in the real sense by allowing for worldwide

implementations and connectivity between things, users,

controllers and applications.

• It decides how and when to store data, when to process it,

when to forward it, and in which form to forward it.

• The Web, data-centers, remote servers, Cloud, etc, make

up this plane.

• The paradigm of “fog computing” lies between the planes

of local connectivity and global connectivity.

Fog computing is a decentralized computing infrastructure in which data, compute,
storage and applications are located somewhere between the data source and the
cloud.
Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

4. Processing

• Basic IoT networking framework.

• The continuous rise in the use of IoT in various application

areas such as industries, transportation, healthcare, etc., is

the result of this plane.

• This plane is termed as IoT tools, as they wring-out useful

and human-readable information from all the raw data that

various IoT devices.

Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

4. Processing
The sub-domains of this plane;

• Intelligence

• Conversion (Data and Format conversion, Data cleaning)

• Learning (Making sense of temporal and spatial data patterns)

• Cognition (Recognizing patterns and mapping it to known patterns)

• Algorithms (Control and monitoring algorithms)

• Visualization (rendering in the form of trends, graphs, charts, etc.)

• Analysis (Estimating the usefulness of the generated information,

estimating future trends based on past and present patterns of

information obtained)
 IoT Networking Components

An IoT implementation is composed of several components, may vary with their application domains.

The broad categories of IoT networking components.

1. IoT node

2. IoT router

3. IoT LAN

4. IoT WAN

5. IoT gateway

6. IoT proxy.
A typical IoT network ecosystem highlighting the various networking components from IoT nodes to the Internet
 IoT Networking Components
Various IoT nodes within an IoT LAN are configured to one another as well as talk to the IoT router whenever they are in

the range of it.

• The devices have locally unique (LU-x) device identifiers.

• These identifiers are unique only within a LAN.

• These identifiers may be repeated in a new LAN.

• Each IoT LAN has its own unique identifier, which is denoted by IoT LAN-x.
Figure

• A router acts as a connecting link between LAN by forwarding messages from the LAN to the IoT gateway or

the IoT proxy.

• The proxy is an application layer device.

• It is possible to include features such as firewalls, packet filters, and other security measures besides the

regular routing operations.

• Various gateways connect to an IoT WAN, which links these devices to the Internet.

• The gateway or the proxy may directly connect to the Internet.

• This network may be wired or wireless; however, IoT deployments heavily rely on wireless solutions.

• Wireless technology is the only feasible and neat-enough solution to avoid the hassles of laying wires and

dealing with the restricted mobility

 IoT Networking Components

IoT Node

• These are the networking devices (made up of a sensor, a processor, and a radio).

• These devices communicates with the network infrastructure (either within the LAN or outside it).

• The nodes may be connected to other nodes inside a LAN directly or by means of a common

gateway for that LAN.

• Connections outside the LAN are through gateways and proxies.

 IoT Networking Components

IoT Router

• An IoT router is a networking equipment.

• Purpose: Routing of packets between various entities in the IoT network.

• It keeps the traffic flowing correctly within the network.

• A router can be used as a gateway by enhancing its functionalities.

 IoT Networking Components

IoT LAN

• The LAN enables local connectivity within the purview of a single gateway.

• Typically, they consist of short-range connectivity technologies.

• IoT LANs may or may not be connected to the Internet.

• Generally, they are localized within a building or an organization.

 IoT Networking Components

IoT WAN

• The WAN connects various network segments such as LANs.

• They are typically organizationally and geographically wide, with their operational range lies

between a few KM to hundreds of KMS.

• IoT WANs connect to the Internet and enable Internet access to the segments (LAN)
 IoT Networking Components

IoT Gateway

• An IoT gateway is a router connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN or the Internet.

• Gateways can implement several LANs and WANs.

• Their primary task is to forward packets between LANs and WANs, and the IP layer using

only layer 3.
 IoT Networking Components

IoT Proxy

• Proxies actively lies on the application layer.

• Proxies performs application layer functions between IoT nodes and other entities.

• Application layer proxies are a means of providing security to the network entities under it.

• It helps to extend the addressing range of its network.