Turning Your Garden, Window Box

or Backyard into a
Beautiful Home for Butterflies

Sjjtt ^up

1 1
THE BUTTERFLY
GARDEN
Buddleia, or butterfly bush, here attracting the Red Admiral (left) and Cabbage White (right).
BUTTERFLY
GARDEN
MATHEW TEKULSKY
Illustrated by Susanah Brown
Introduction by Robert Michael Pyle

THE HARVARD COMMON PRESS

Harvard and Boston, Massachusetts

 The Harvard Common Press
535 Albany Street
Boston, Massachusetts 02118

Copyright © 1985 by Mathew Tekulsky

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING IN PUBLICATION DATA

Tekulsky, Mathew, 1954—
The butterfly garden.

Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Butterflies. 2. Wildlife attracting. 3. Gardening. I. Title.
QL544.T45 1985 638'.5789 85-8609
ISBN 0-916782-70-0
ISBN 0-916782-69-7 (pbk.)

Book design by Joyce Weston

Cover art by Susanah Brown

10 9 8
 CONTENTS

Introduction 1
1. What Is Butterfly Gardening? 7
2. Butterfly Lives 17
3. Regions and Seasons 33
4. Getting Started 41
5. Nectar Sources 52
6. Larval Food Plants 65
7. Butterfly Gardening Activities 75
8. How to Rear Butterflies 86
9. Conservation of Butterflies 97
Appendices 105
Index 141

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my appreciation to the many people who

were so generous with their time and expertise. In particular, I would
like to thank Robert Michael Pyle for his technical and editorial
advice and encouragement; Jane Jordan Browne, my literary agent,
and Bruce Shaw, of The Harvard Common Press, for believing in
this book; Linda Ziedrich, Scott McEathron, and especially Anne
Vilen, for their editorial contributions; Leslie Baker and Joyce Wes¬
ton, for their production work; and Susanah Brown, for her illus¬
trations. For their technical assistance, I would like to thank Julian
Donahue, John Emmel, John Garth, Charles Hogue, Steven Kutcher,
Tony Leigh, Rudi Mattoni, and Everett Olson. I would also like to
thank Linda Hardie-Scott, for her help regarding wildflowers. Thanks
as well to the Lorquin Entomological Society in Los Angeles.

VI
 To my parents,
ivho first instilled in me an appreciation for and love of nature.
THE BUTTERFLY
GARDEN
 INTRODUCTION
Robert Michael Pyle

A
jL jLs a young boy, I developed a pas¬
sion for seashells and land snails. My obsession was doomed to be frus¬
trated, on account of my habitat. The plains east of Denver, Colorado,
offered little hope of gratification for the young conchologist. My hobby
handbook insisted that “snails frequent damp gardens.” So, sustained by
treasures from the Denver Museum of N atural History gift shop and fixes
from the “Shell of the Month Club,” I prowled the raw new gardens of
suburbia after every thundershower. Not a snail revealed itself to my
prying eyes and muddy fingers.
Many a young would-be naturalist has probably died a death from
such withheld gratification. Fortunately, those garden-prowls turned up
other finds that, in time, turned my eye toward a more rewarding resource
for a Colorado lad. For I found cocoons of moths and beetle pupae,
earwigs and sowbugs and caterpillars. These items were not without their
own charm and interest to my eyes. About the same time I began to
notice butterflies and moths coming to the flowers my mother had so
lovingly nourished on the bare, bulldozed ground of the post-plains home-
site. Returning to my young collector’s handbook, I learned the amazing
fact that such winged visions came from the very kinds of creatures I d
been discovering on leaf and under stone.
Naturally, I became an insect collector. 1 lost the chase to Mourning
Cloaks, stuffed unfortunate Painted Ladies in makeshift containers with¬
out a clue how to kill them, impaled sphinx moths on common pins as
I held chloroform to their nostril-less “noses.” In time my techniques
improved, and I went farther afield. But I never left my garden entirely,

1
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

for as it matured, more and more different kinds of butterflies showed

up in my own backyard. Tawny Skippers and Tailed Blues dallied over
the clover. Mourning Cloaks and Weidemeyer’s Admirals, grand animals
that they were and still are to me, each claimed boughs of our weeping
willow from which to patrol territories only they could see. A male
Hackberry Butterfly returned each summer (not the same one, I finally
figured out) to reclaim such a post on a Chinese elm, in spite of the fact
that the nearest hackberry tree stood a full block away. And most desired,
Tiger Swallowtails drank draughts from the lilacs that intoxicated me as
well, just as they did in a painting from a treasured article in an old
National Geographic.
Those lilacs! Without knowing it, my mother practiced butterfly
gardening for her future lepidopterist when she planted them. Black
Swallowtails, Satyr Anglewings, and White-lined Sphinx Moths also
loved their nectar. But their greatest utility came when I first attempted
to rear Cecropia Moths from a vial of eggs I’d bought. Having read they
would eat lilac leaves, I began feeding the young larvae individually in
their test tubes; then, en masse in a laundry tub. But they required so
many leaves, so often, and produced so much frass that needed cleaning
out, that in desperation I finally dumped the whole lot—about 200
fingerling larvae, each ravenous—onto the lilac bushes themselves. In
a fortnight they had become great green serpents, blue-and-red-bumped
and the size of a coal-miner’s thumb. Although far fewer survived to
make their huge cocoons, they did so at the dear expense of those poor
lilacs. The nearly defoliated bushes barely survived the ordeal, and my
insect gardening continued only by dint of a highly indulgent, nature-
loving mother. Quite possibly, the origin of the East Denver Cecropia
Moth population dates from that debacle.
Other gardens, other memories. When I worked with my grand¬
mother in her rich, mature mid-Denver garden, I remained ever alert
for the vast shadow that meant a Two-tailed Tiger Swallowtail sailing
in to rob the sweet rockets’ nectar. My mother and I would prowl the
parkways of the neighborhood, watching and sometimes catching colorful
forester moths and day-flying hawkmoths on great patches of phlox and
rocket. We often took things home to rear, and we began planting special
seeds for the host plants and nectar lures they would yield.
I noticed that other yards on the block offered species that seldom
called at my house. To find Hackberry Butterfly larvae and pupae, bright

2
 INTRODUCTION

green booty respectively tailed and serrated, I had to visit the hackberry
trees down the block. Painted Ladies dawdled briefly at our zinnias but
really hung out at the butterfly bushes three houses away. How I coveted
those buddleias, and what a pest I must have been to their owners. Even
today the purple pungency of a butterfly bush recalls the sweet intensity
of the pre-adolescent chase, when butterflies were all.
Through all the distractions and vicissitudes of the quarter-century
since, butterflies have remained a mainmast of mine. I have been for¬
tunate to watch butterflies from the Highlands of Scotland to the High¬
lands of New Guinea, from the Monarch forests of Mexico to the rainforests
of Costa Rica, and across much of North America. And still, gardens
play a major role in my butterfly-life. Wherever I travel, I head for
botanical gardens. I had some of my best Russian butterfly watching in
the botanical garden of Turkmenia in Ashkhabad. Likewise, as a house-
guest I am likely to spend more time in my hosts’ gardens than their
homes. I will never forget a brief convalescence in Hong Kong, when
my fever was beautifully cooled by a tropic rain and the Paris Swallowtail
that nectared by my garden window in the fresh air of its aftermath. A
few days later, I finally photographed the tailed maroon satyr I’d been
seeking—in a formal Chinese garden.
Now I have a home of my own and travel less. Sunny summer days
in western Washington being rather rare and precious, it is especially
important to me to have an immediate environment where I can dash
outside and catch the sunshine—and watch butterflies—whenever the
clouds choose to part. I reside, perhaps, in one of the poorest parts of
the country for butterfly abundance and diversity. Yet this fact hardly
matters when the Western Tiger and Pale Tiger Swallowtails weigh down
the rhododendrons, ruby-spotted Clodius Parnassians flock to the bram¬
ble blossoms, and Woodland Skippers shoot between the asters like
nuggets from a slingshot. These and others I can encourage by the plant¬
ings I choose to make and the ways in which I decide to manage the
inexorable growth of green that colors the Maritime Northwest.
It is important for all would-be butterfly gardeners to realize that
gardening is a form of land management. We might like to manage the bits
of land that are “ours” to care for through benign neglect: a bit of butterfly
weed here, a carrot patch over there, a milkweed pod crushed and cast
to the wind—and the rest all left to time, rain, and nature. If I did that,
my old Swedish homestead with its century-old oaks and odd hybrid

3
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

ecosystem would be so quickly engulfed in brambles and coarse grasses

that scarcely a path could be walked or a butterfly spotted. The Parnas¬
sians’ bleeding heart would wither from the competition, the heath and
wild pea-patch where I hope to establish Silvery Blues and Brown Elfins
would disappear. The least possible interference may well be the best,
in some cases and places. But for most gardens, management decisions
make them what they are, or are capable of becoming. In its planning
and execution, management provides much of the challenge of this odd
but joyful enterprise we call butterfly gardening.
If you are lucky enough to own a piece of undisturbed wildland, by
all means keep it that way. The native species will not benefit from your
ministrations to any great extent. But most of us occupy city lots, sub¬
urban plats, or rural realms of weeds and wildflowers mixed so as to
resemble the native landscape little or not at all. To all these brands of
cultivated countryside, we can bring a measure of butterfly numbers and
kinds that would not otherwise exist—through appropriate garden man¬
agement, aimed at the specific needs of these delicate visitors. It is not
necessarily easy (although it may be relaxed) and it can become a lot of
hard work. But if we are diligent, we may attract quite a few species;
and if we are clever or lucky, we may even induce the courted creatures
to remain. The satisfactions are immense.
What we have lacked, until now, was a comprehensive handbook
to the practice of butterfly gardening. A flock of magazine articles, a
handful of pamphlets, and a short shelf of British books introduced the
subject and beguiled many with the bright possibilities of wooing but¬
terflies to their very doorstep. But with our vast national passion for
gardening and our primitive awareness of butterflies, we needed a pe¬
culiarly North American approach to the subject.
Mathew Tekulsky has filled the gap with this excellent book. Taking
the broad view from Maine to Malibu, Miami to my own Northwest, he
has created a text of great usefulness. Matt assumes that you know little
about butterflies to begin with, insures that you will know quite a lot
when you finish. With thoroughness and a zeal bom of personal love
for the butterflies themselves, he takes us through the process of building
a butterfly garden, from scratch. Explaining all the necessary steps in a
clear, interpretive style, he leaves plenty of room for the creative imag¬
ination of each reader/gardener/butterfly lover. I, for one, wish I had
owned such a book long ago.

4
 INTRODUCTION

Whether you come to this book as a butterfly person or a plant

person or neither, you will forever after be both. And as a butterfly
gardener, your life will never be quite the same. The power to enrich a
patch of Earth with beautiful butterflies, no matter how humble the plot
or simple the effort, is awesome. And the Earth needs this kind of power.
As the author explains, butterflies have had some hard times lately.
Whatever we can do as individuals to help stanch the wounds a careless
society inflicts on the land, we must do. Butterfly gardening is such an
act. It will never replace the setting aside of nature reserves for the
preservation of natural diversity, but it can help. Perhaps most impor¬
tantly, it keeps people in touch with nature on an everyday, first-name
basis; and that in itself can only lead to better, more sensitive Earth
stewardship on the part of the people as a whole.
Whether you really go to town with your butterfly garden or settle
for modest efforts and expectations, develop and engineer a master plan
for acres, or blow a milkweed pod over your backyard and lie back in
the hammock to see what happens, you will have fun. That is the most
important message in Mr. Tekulsky’s book. Butterflies mean fun and
deep pleasure, and butterfly gardening gives you a means of finding them.
Along with valuable lists of nectar and host plants, supply sources, helpful
groups, and literature both instructive and inspirational, Mathew Tek-
ulsky has written an entertaining account of getting to know the insects
in question. He gives us activities for their enjoyment, tips for their
rearing, and much of what we need to know to bring home the butterflies.
The rest is up to us.
There is no such thing as a typical butterfly garden, or gardener.
For one person the ideal might be a window box full of zinnias and
everlasting, supporting a colony of West Coast Ladies. For another, an
average suburban yard planted with forage and nectar for a score of
species. Farmers may wish to manage their marginal lands for all wildlife,
including butterflies. Still other people construct butterfly greenhouses,
great or small, where tropical species carry out their life cycles in full
view. Clearly, you may suit yourself as you seek to suit butterflies. Imag¬
ination and the insects themselves provide the only limits to ambition.
As in nature herself, vive la difference.
The chief traits all butterfly gardeners have in common are the
desire and design to provide for the needs of butterflies, however briefly,
and thus to attract them. Winston Churchill did it with Peacock but-

5
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

terflies and nettlebeds, much to the consternation of his head gardener.

Edwin Way Teale did it with an old orchard, for which he leased the
“insect rights.” Roger Tory Peterson does it with black-eyed Susans and
Great Spangled Fritillaries. And thousands of ordinary nature lovers do
it with butterfly bush and butterfly weed, carrots and phlox, monarchs
and swallowtails, to their everlasting joy and satisfaction. Shouldn’t you
do it too?

R.M.P.

6
 ONE

WHAT IS BUTTERFLY
GARDENING?

y X ou are standing deep in meadow

wildflowers, beneath a bright, sun-filled sky. A whisper of breeze tussles
the fireweed, bleeding hearts, thistles, and black-eyed Susans around
you. Suddenly your eye catches a Monarch butterfly, royally adorned in
its brilliant orange and black velvet, lifting itself skyward from a throne
of daisies. It flutters, teeters crazily in a sudden down-current of air and
settles gently onto the ball-shaped white head of a buttonbush. Despite
your attentive gaze, it goes on with its business sipping through its pro¬
boscis at the scores of tiny white blossoms. Then this most enchanting
of insects withdraws, lifts its fragile wings, and disappears over a distant
bed of lavender.
Throughout history, man has watched the ethereal flight of but¬
terflies with awe and wonder. Butterflies have been the inspiration of
poets and the solace of pouting children. In recent times, entomologists,
both professional and amateur, have studied, and remarked on the adapt¬
ability of butterfies to environments radically changed by man. Today,
that adaptability is being taken advantage of by a new breed of observers—
butterfly gardeners. Whether a suburban resident, owner of a small urban
garden plot, apartment dweller, or keeper of a country estate, you can
enjoy frequent butterfly visits to your garden or window box. All you
need to get started is a basic knowledge of butterfly characteristics and
behavior and a desire to learn the specific needs and habits of butterfly
species which are common in your neighborhood.
The greatest inspiration and incentive to become a dedicated but¬
terfly gardener will probably arrive with your first flock of friendly frit-

7
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

illaries or the uninvited compliment of a solitary Mourning Cloak settling

onto your shoulder. Spurred on by these firsthand encounters with the
mysterious butterfly world, you may decide to expand your efforts to
include what Dr. Herbert Kulman, an entomolgist at the University of
Minnesota, calls “butterfly production management,” the manipulation
of butterfly habitats to insure a maximum number and diversity of but¬
terflies in a selected area. By cultivating the specific food plants of selected
butterfly species and providing propitious conditions for egg laying, cater¬
pillar survival, and metamorphosis, you can actually regulate what kinds
and how many butterflies attend your garden.
Perhaps most satisfying, you might help insure the continued and
increased prosperity of common butterflies that are threatened by the
destruction of their wild habitats. Since most rare butterfly species do
not inhabit gardens, it may be an exaggeration to suggest that gardens
can play a primary role in preserving the diversity of species found in
the wild. Still, your efforts on behalf of butterflies generally may help
educate your neighbors to the preservation needs of endangered species
of Lepidoptera. And, as British biologist Dr. Denis Owen has noted,
surburbia, with its rich diversity of native and exotic plants supporting
“an almost incredible variety” of insect species, is expanding, and likewise
its responsibility to accommodate and preserve the creatures which in¬
habit it.

BUTTERFLY CLASSIFICATION

In preparation for butterfly gardening, you will need to learn which

of the nearly seven hundred species in North America north of Mexico
are indigenous to your area, which are most plentiful and easiest to
attract, and what flowers and vegetation they nectar and lay eggs on. A
basic lesson in butterfly classification is a helpful beginning.
The fifty common garden butterflies listed in the appendix, and
most other butterflies as well, fall into seven general families based on
coloration, shape, and other characteristics. Brush-footed butterflies,
or nymphalids, comprise butterflies which have stunted front legs that
barely reach the ends of their bodies. About one third of all North
American species, including the commonly sighted Viceroy and Mourn¬
ing Cloak, fall into this category. Gossamer wings include many small
brown and blue butterflies like the Silvery Blue and Brown Elfin. The

8
 WHAT IS BUTTERFLY GARDENING?

milkweed butterflies’ most prominent member is the well-known Mon¬

arch. Satyr or brown butterflies frequently rest on tree trunks where
they are disguised from predators. Skippers, like the Tawny-edged Skip¬
per, look like miniature fighter planes or small dark butterfly miniatures
that dart or skip about close to the ground. Swallowtails have a tail on
the end of each wing, and the Two-tailed and Three-tailed Tiger Swal¬
lowtails—as their names imply—have more than one. Finally, whites
or sulphurs, are white or yellow in color and include such common
members as the Cabbage White (or Cabbage Butterfly).
Butterflies can be further distinguished by wing pattern. Hairstreaks
have streaky lines on their underwings and usually have one or two thin
tails extending from each hindwing. Checkerspots have irregular, check¬
ered patterns of black, brown, orange, yellow, and white on their wings.
Crescentspots have pearly or silvery chevrons on their underwings.
Longwings have narrow, curved wings with a wide span. Lastly, angle-
wings have jagged angular wings. Two anglewings, the Comma and the
Question Mark, are aptly named for the peculiar markings which punc¬
tuate the undersides of their hindwings.

The Cabbage White caterpillar feeding on common nasturtium, one of its favorite food plants.
An adult hovers nearby.

9
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Less conspicuous characteristics like eye color and antenna shape

also distinguish butterfly species from each other and from their co-
members of the Order Lepidoptera (derived from the Greek lepis, scale,
and ptera, wing)—the moths. These differences will be described in
Chapter Two.
It is also important to know that while some species of butterflies,
most notably the Monarch, migrate through many regions of this country,
or move north temporarily during the warm seasons, others live out their
entire lives within a single region and will rarely be seen elsewhere.
Which butterflies are most common in your region will be addressed in
Chapter Three. For further information on the numerous plant and
butterfly species used as examples in this text, refer to the appendix.

THE LIFE CYCLE OF YOUR GARDEN

In order to design a successful butterfly garden, you will also need

to know something about the butterfly life cycles. The butterflies we
typically think of are adult butterflies, which spend their days sipping
flower nectar through tube-like proboscises which they uncoil from under
their heads. To bring these adult butterflies into your garden, you will
need to plant the nectar sources and food plants which are frequented
by the various species in your neighborhood.
Although some butterfly species are attracted to a wide range of
nectar sources, others express definite preferences in size, shape, or color
of flowers. The Eastern Tailed Blue, a small butterfly with a short pro¬
boscis, for instance, finds short-tubed or open flowers like clover, cinque¬
foil, and fleabane most tasty, according to Dr. Paul Opler, author of
Butterflies East of the Great Plains. What motivates these preferences and
how you can employ them to your garden’s advantage will be addressed
in a later section of this book.
Having attracted adult butterflies to your garden, you can prolong
their stay by encouraging them to mate and lay eggs in your garden.
Female butterflies are much more selective of the plants on which they
lay eggs than they are of nectar plants, because only certain species-
specific plants contain the chemical constituents needed to nurture their
caterpillars.
In a 1967 Scientific American article, Drs. Paul Ehrlich and Peter
Raven contend that this phenomenon can be explained by the coevo-

10
 WHAT IS BUTTERFLY GARDENING?

lution of plants and their insect predators. Over the millennia, plants
have evolved chemicals that repel most insects. However, some cater¬
pillars have become so adapted to cope with the substances of their
particular hosts that they have actually come to require them in their
diets. Hence, different species of butterflies have minimized their com¬
petition with each other and other insects by developing tolerances for
feeding only on certain larval food plants. The larvae of some whites,
for example, feed primarily on the plants of the mustard and caper
families, which contain oils that repel other herbivorous insects.
The specialization of various species of larvae illustrates the intimate
interaction between the plant world and the butterfly world. Samuel
Hubbard Scudder, a nineteenth-century botanist, wrote in his classic
work Frail Children of the Air, “In many, perhaps the majority of instances,
the plants upon which allied species or genera of caterpillars feed, them¬
selves belong to allied families of the botanical system.” Almost a century
later, Ehrlich and Raven, working on the same principle, have suggested
that the citrus and parsley families, although previously not considered
related, may actually have much in common because various swallowtail
caterpillars feed on the essential oils present in both the citrus and parsley
families of plants.
To encourage the butterfly species which live in your garden to
remain throughout their life cycle, therefore, you will have to know
which host plants they prefer. Frequently these plants are also human
food plants, in other words, vegetables. So, you may need to plant an
extra allotment to satisfy both your culinary and entomological tastes.
Jo Brewer, a Massachusetts butterfly gardener, reports that she shares
her parsley with Black Swallowtail larvae, which also enjoy other wild
and cultivated members of the carrot family. California entomologist
Steven Kutcher harvests fennel for his salads, but leaves a generous
helping for his garden’s Anise Swallowtails. He also raises radishes and
broccoli for the Cabbage Butterfly and shares his tomato plants with the
larvae of the Five-spotted Sphinx Moth, less solicitously dubbed the
tomato horn worm.
An avid vegetable gardener’s concern about caterpillar infestation
is understandable, but usually unwarranted, since the predators and par¬
asites which co-exist with caterpillars in a natural garden usually keep
them under control. Spiders, wasps, ants, flies, and beetles join forces
with birds, small mammals, and inclement weather against caterpillars

11
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

The Spicebush Swallowtail expresses a fondness for Japanese honeysuckle.

to protect plants from irreparable damage and insure the prosperity of

your garden as well as your butterflies.
In one study, butterflies were even found to regulate their own
population. In the autumn of 1963, V.G. Dethier and Robert MacArthur
placed an additional 19,800 Harris’ Checkerspot caterpillars into a field
already containing a modest 800 or so larvae. A year later, the larval
population had fallen to 400, which, the scientists claimed, was “about
what it would have been had there been no new larvae introduced.”
Having also observed the adult females’ newfound liking for a nearby
patch of asters, Dethier and MacArthur concluded that the females had
laid far fewer eggs in the field after the artificial infestation, in order to
insure an adequate food supply for their larvae.
If the caterpillar overpopulation does become a problem in your

12
 WHAT IS BUTTERFLY GARDENING?

garden, the larvae can be gathered and transferred to a plant of the same
kind some distance from your yard or to a wild plant. Careful spraying
is condoned in extreme cases but discouraged, since pesticides kill not
only butterfly larvae but their predators, thereby altering the tenuous
balance of nature. Also, it is instructive to remember that some butterflies
contribute greatly to weed control. During mass migrations, Monarchs
devour millions of milkweed plants. Painted Ladies cut back wide areas
of thistles. And the Red Admiral, Comma, Satyr Anglewing, and Mil-
bert’s Tortoiseshell consume countless patches of stinging nettles each
year. The Fiery Skipper may even trim your Bermuda grass for you.
When a caterpillar becomes full-grown, it pupates and begins its
magical transformation, or metamorphosis, into an adult butterfly. When
it emerges, days or even months later, you will want to have its favorite
nectar sources available. You may even consider building a butterfly house
or cage, complete with the proper food plants, in which the silent chry¬
salises can develop and open before your eyes. A detailed explanation
of how to build and care for such containers will be given in Chapter
Eight.

THE FIRST STEP

Undoubtedly the most challenging initial step of starting a butterfly

garden is learning which species of butterflies it is possible to attract to
your garden and what nectar sources and food plants these species like.
Begin, with the help of a good indentification field guide, by conducting
a local survey of common butterflies in your neighborhood. Visit local
fields, forests, and parks, as well as gardens; jot down which kinds of
flowers you see the butterflies feeding on. Certain species and flowers
are more plentiful during one season than another, so make your obser¬
vations throughout the year.
Don’t be deterred by the apparent scarcity of butterflies in urban
areas or by the fact that you live in an apartment building. Many wild
plants which attract butterflies to rural areas can be transplanted into or
cultivated from purchased seed in city gardens. As an apartment dweller,
I have reared several different species of butterflies, including Gulf
Fritillaries, Monarchs, and Anise Swallowtails. And without leaving my
urban neighborhood, I have observed a colony of Gray Hairstreaks en-

13
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

joying a boulevard hibiscus, Fiery Skippers playing in the lawn, Cabbage

Butterflies laying their eggs on nearby nasturtiums, Mourning Cloaks
bedding down in the streetside elms, and occasionally a Checkered White,
Sleepy Orange, or Western Tiger Swallowtail nectaring on coreopsis,
sweet alyssum, or geraniums.
Remember too, butterfly populations and ranges can fluctuate from
year to year and are constantly influenced by changing environmental
factors and, seemingly, by the charming but fickle whim of the butterflies.
Common Sulphurs may fill up your garden one year and be hardly visible
the next. Indeed, you may think the world has run out of Silvery Blues,
only to discover that the fellow down the street has a whole colony of
them in his garden. Nevertheless, over several seasons, as your knowledge
and insight increase, you will learn to manipulate the environment of
your garden to suit the butterflies in your area and will spend more and
more hours reaping the aesthetic pleasures of butterflies on the wing.

ENTHUSIASTS TO EMULATE

As inspiration, consider the centuries of butterfly gardeners who

have preceded you. Among the people whose encounters with butterflies
have changed their lives, were Californian Charles McGlashan and his
daughter Ximena, who started a butterfly farm for profit and wound up
publishing The Butterfly Farmer: A Monthly Magazine for Amateur EntO'
mologists. Following this pair’s example, Albert and Amy Carter, during
the 1930’s, ran a small, screened-in public park populated by 16,000
home-grown butterflies.
Perhaps the first historical luminary to express his fascination with
butterflies was the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who described the life
cycle of the Cabbage Butterfly. Several centuries later, Sir Winston
Churchill began a butterfly garden at his Chartwell estate in Kent, Eng¬
land. For several years, the estate was repeatedly stocked with more than
a thousand butterflies—to the great delight of the enamored Churchill,
who even went so far as to convert a summerhouse into a butterfly house
for raising caterpillars and chrysalises.
The late Soviet emigre novelist Vladimir Nabokov was another
butterfly enthusiast, whose eloquence and insight on these fragile, winged
creatures is unequaled. In his autobiography, Speak, Memory, Nabokov

14
 WHAT IS BUTTERFLY GARDENING?

The Mourning Cloak, pictured here on an elm, uses this and other trees as food plants.

recalls the dreamlike butterfly experiences in the garden of his family’s

summer home near St. Petersburg.

From the age of seven, everything I felt in connection with a

rectangle of framed sunlight was dominated by a single passion. If
my first glance of the morning was for the sun, my first thought was
for the butterflies it would engender. . . . On the honeysuckle,
overhanging the carved back of a bench just opposite the main
entrance, my guiding angel . . . pointed out to me a rare visitor, a
splendid, pale-yellow creature with black blotches, blue crenels, and
a cinnabar eyespot above each chrome-rimmed black tail. As it
probed the inclined flower from which it hung, its powdery body
slightly bent, it kept restlessly jerking its great wings, and my desire
for it was one of the most intense I have ever experienced.

Nabokov later became a renowed lepidopterist and named, among

other butterflies, the Kamer Blue (a subspecies of the Orange-bordered
Blue), which exists in various parts of the northern Midwest and North¬
east and is a protected insect in New York State. After that, he continued

15
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

to write passionately and inspirationally about the charmed existence of

butterflies and the enchantment of those who watch them.

I confess I do not believe in time. . . . And the highest en¬

joyment of timelessness ... is when I stand among rare butterflies
and their food plants. This is ecstasy, and behind the ecstasy is
something else, which is hard to explain. It is like a momentary
vacuum into which rushes all that I love. A sense of oneness with
sun and stone. A thrill of gratitude to whom it may concern—to
the contrapuntal genius of human fate or to tender ghosts humoring
a lucky mortal.

16
 TWO

BUTTERFLY LIVES

T X he array of markings, shapes, sizes,

colors, and lesser characteristics displayed by the fifteen to twenty thou¬
sand species of butterflies worldwide is truly mind boggling. But what is
perhaps more surprising is that often these qualities differ even between
males and females or successive generations of a single species. They can
also be used to positively identify species which differ only in a single
minute characteristic or to recognize at a glance remarkably distinctive
butterfly species as well as the butterflies’ relatives, the moths.

VARIETY AND DIVERSITY

Males and females in many butterfly species appear markedly dif¬

ferent. Blue males usually have bright-blue wings, whereas females are
often brown or gray, a feature which allows them to camouflage them¬
selves more easily during egg laying. The male Eastern Black Swallowtail
is yellow and black, but the female mimics the black and blue coloration
of the Pipevine Swallowtail. While northern female Tiger Swallowtails
are yellow and black like their mates, a large portion of those in the
South are dark, appearing again, much like the Pipevine Swallowtail.
The successive generations of some species, hatched in different
seasons, may also contrast in appearance. The summer generations of
the Comma and Question Mark have dark hindwings, while the fall
generation’s hindwings are orange. The spring generation of the Zebra
Swallowtail is smaller, paler, and has tails half as long as its offspring
hatched in summer. Variation between broods has to do with seasonal

17
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

changes in atmospheric conditions. Geographic variations, on the other

hand, may be determined either environmentally or genetically. The
Viceroy, for instance, mimics the Monarch’s coloration in most of its
range but in the Deep South it has adapted to resemble the darker,
mahogany-brown Queen.
The unique coloration of some butterflies defies categorization and
enables even the least observant butterfly enthusiast to recognize them
at a moment’s glance. The Buckeye, with its shiny, bluish-purple eyespots
set against a tawny-brown background, is easily identified nectaring among
the asters. The orange-red bars glistening on the black garments of the
Red Admiral earn this butterfly its prestigious name. And the Mourning
Cloak wears its mahogany cape decorated with a creamy, yellow border
and bluish-violet spots as gracefully as the finest nobleman.
Though less conspicuous than coloration, markings, or wing shape,
the texture and color of the proboscis, eye color, and body structure also
differ between individual butterfly species, and between butterflies and
moths. The proboscis of the Gulf Fritillary, for example, is light-brown
in color, while the Anise Swallowtail’s is shiny and black like shoestring
licorice. The latter’s eyes are also black, in contrast to the Gulf Fritillary’s
orange eyes and the Cabbage Butterfly’s light-green ones.
The body structure of moths differs markedly from that of butterflies.
While both butterflies and moths have scaly wings, butterflies have
clubbed antennae with a swelling at the tip, and moths have slim or
feathery antennae which taper to a fine point. The bodies of most but¬
terflies are slender and bare, while moth bodies are often thick and hairy.
When at rest, butterflies hold their wings upright over their backs; moths
tend to hold them out flat. Butterflies fly during the day; most moths
fly at night. Except for the skippers, most butterflies pupate in naked
chrysalises, while most moths spin cocoons in which their pupae develop.
Since there are at least ten times as many moth species as butterflies,
you may also want to invite moths to your garden.
The butterfly kingdom can be observed in astounding variety and
diversity within a single small area of vegetation. In 1955, William H.
Id owe, author of The Butterflies of North America, collected sixty-four
butterfly species on his nine-acre farm in Ottawa, Kansas, and an ad¬
ditional eighteen species within a mile of the property. Thirty-one of
the species he found are included in the “Fifty Common Garden But-

18
 BUTTERFLY LIVES

terflies” section at the back of this book—including the Monarch, Mourning

Cloak, Painted Lady, Buckeye, Red-spotted Purple, and Tiger Swallow¬
tail.

THE LIFE CYCLE

Butterflies go through four distinct stages in their life cycle: egg, or

ovum (plural, ova); caterpillar, or larva (plural larvae); chrysalis, or pupa
(plural pupae); adult, or imago (plural imagoes). Each butterfly species
has a distinctive appearance in each stage. In fact, it is often possible
to identify a species from its immature forms. Some field guides have
illustrations of caterpillars, chrysalises, and even eggs, but when illus¬
trations aren’t available, observation in your garden or rearing butterflies
will help you identify the young of various species.

THE EGG

The coloration and shape of butterfly eggs foreshadows the rainbow

of adult appearances. The Gulf Fritillary’s eggs when just laid are light-
yellow, oblong, and marked by longitudinal striations. The Tiger Swal¬
lowtail’s are yellow-green and spherical. Note too that the eggs of most
species change as the caterpillars inside them mature. The Gulf Fritillary’s
eggs turn amber after a day and remain dark until they hatch. And the
keg-shaped eggs of the Mourning Cloak change from pale to black as
they develop. The majority of eggs are less than a millimeter in diameter
and hatch within a week after being deposited. In some species, however,
eggs are able to withstand the harshness of winter and lie dormant for
as long as two years before hatching.

THE CATERPILLAR

Caterpillars are built primarily for eating. Their large heads have
hard shells, or capsules around them. Each side of the head features a
group of simple eyes, or ocelli. A pair of antennae extend from the front
of the head. Below the antennae is a silk spinneret (on the lower “lip”)
and a pair of mandibles for chewing. A caterpillar’s first three pairs of
legs (the “true” legs) are jointed, and each has a little claw at the end.

19
Different butterfly families are here represented by the Dogface butterfly, Silvery Blue, Milbert’s
Tortoiseshell, Giant Swallowtail, Fiery Skipper, Eyed Brown, and Queen.

Farther down on its body are five pairs of prolegs, which it uses for
gripping. The last pair, called the anal prolegs, are separated from the
others by a wide gap.
Although caterpillars are structurally alike, different species exhibit
differences in size, shape, and color. The Common Blue caterpillar, for
instance, has a sluglike green body covered with short white hairs and
is about three-eighths of an inch long. Black spines bristle from the one-
inch-long body of the black and orange Baltimore. And the Black Swal¬
lowtail larva has a black band with yellow or orange spots on each segment
of its two-inch-long green body.
A caterpillar’s life is dominated by feeding, first usually on its egg¬
shell, and then on the tender leaves or flowers of its host plant. Once
its mouth parts have hardened, a caterpillar is able to chew and consume
nearly any part of its food plant, including stems. Each species also
displays a distinctive feeding pattern, and where there are a great many
individuals of one species, that plant may suffer considerable damage.
Seemingly vulnerable creatures, caterpillars have evolved ingenious
ways to protect themselves from their many predators. Some species feed
primarily at night. Those which feed during the day commonly cam¬
ouflage themselves upon their food plants. The Cabbage Butterfly, for

20
 BUTTERFLY LIVES

instance, adopts different shades of green depending on whether it is

feeding on dark green nasturtium or pale green cabbage. Caterpillars also
tend to feed on the underside of leaves, which keeps them invisible to
aerial predators and shields them from the drying effects of the sun.
Spines or hairs sported by many caterpillars dissuade predators. Other
species, like the larvae of the Monarch, feed on poisonous plants which
make them distasteful to predators. Swallowtail larvae project two-pronged,
light-orange fleshy organs called osmeteria (singular osmeterium) from
the tops of their heads when provoked. The clearly visible osmeteria give
off a pungent, repulsive odor which serves as a double warning to in¬
vestigating predators.
As a caterpillar eats, it expands and soon outgrows its rigid outer
covering, or exoskeleton. Beneath the exoskeleton a new “skin” forms
of the same tough material called chitin. Before shedding its old skin,
or molting, a caterpillar typically remains stationary on a plant for as
long as a day without eating. Finally, when the exoskeleton reaches its
limit of flexibility, the caterpillar crawls out and returns to eating. A
caterpillar usually molts four or five times before entering its chrysalis
stage, and butterfly gardening will give you many opportunities to watch
this fascinating process.
The seemingly magical transformation from caterpillar to chrysalis

21
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Stages in the life cycle of the Anise Swallowtail: (clockwise from top) egg; early and late instar
caterpillars; caterpillar ready to pupate ; pupa; adult emerging from pupal case; courtship; mating;
oviposition.

22
BUTTERFLY LIVES

23
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

is sudden and complete. First a fully grown caterpillar stops feeding and
searches—sometimes for the better part of a day—for a secluded or sheb
tered place to pupate, often the eave of an old bam, the stem of a nearby
plant, or a hidden dead leaf of its food plant. Then it spins a tiny pad
of silk on the substrate into which it hooks its anal prolegs. Finally, it
molts for the last time, but this time, instead of a larger caterpillar
emerging, a chrysalis appears.

THE CHRYSALIS

The appearance of the chrysalis also varies from species to species,

and keen observers can identify butterflies from their chrysalises just as
they tell plants by their leaves or flowers. The chrysalis of the Mourning
Cloak hangs upside down and has thorny spines along its light-brown
body. The Variegated Fritillary also hangs upside down, but features
black, orange, and yellow spots on a pearly blue-green background. The
Falcate Orangetip looks like a long, green bud and hangs rightside up,
supported by a silken girdle. Even the texture of pupal cases is distinctive.
The Monarch’s case, composed of a clear, smooth, wafer-like material,
crackles like thin plastic when the butterfly emerges. The Gulf Fritillary’s
case, on the other hand, is like a fragile dead leaf and is virtually silent
during eclosion.
During the pupal stage, phenomenal changes take place inside the
chrysalis. First the caterpillar breaks down into a viscous substance. The
cells of the butterfly are activated, sparking the development of the wings,
head, thorax, and abdomen. You can see the beginnings of tiny but
developed wings within some pupae after only four or five days. In a
curious display of its living contents, a chrysalis will girate if you touch
it and may ward off a wandering caterpillar or a potential predator by
repeatedly thrusting itself ninety degrees to each side of its vertical, upside
down position.
Shortly before a butterfly emerges, the appearance of its chrysalis
changes noticeably. The clear wing cases of the Cabbage Butterfly turn
from green to white, and the black patch on the comer of the forewing
becomes visible. A day or so before the Gulf Fritillary hatches, its light-
brown chrysalis begins to darken and take on a reddish hue that gradually
deepens and envelops the entire chrysalis. Perhaps no butterfly exhibits

24
 BUTTERFLY LIVES

a more dramatic change in chrysalis coloration than the regal Monarch,

which turns from jade to pale green to dark orange to jet black within
some nine hours.

THE ADULT -

Although most species hatch from their chrysalises in ten to fourteen

days, some overwinter as pupae (a period known as diapause) and hatch
the following season. Most emerge in the morning in order to take
advantage of the day’s sun. Immediately after hatching, a butterfly’s body
is immense and swollen, and its wings appear crumpled and deformed.
A few minutes later, pumped up and flattened out by bodily fluids, the
butterfly’s wings assume their full size, and its body shrinks to its proper
proportions. A newly hatched butterfly holds its wings slightly apart for
an hour or more, allowing them to dry, before it makes its first flight
into the world.
Since it cannot yet fly, the period just after emergence is the best
time to observe the pristine condition of a butterfly unravaged by wind
or the sharp edges of leaves and branches. Dr. Charles Hogue, Curator
of Entomology at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County,
likens the coloration of a butterfly’s wings to the pointillist paintings of
impressionist Georges Seurat. uIn addition to the unbelievable brillance
of many of their pure colors,” he marvels, “different hues are contrastingly
combined and blended in almost breathtaking designs. And the effects
are always created, in the true pointillistic manner, by the allegiance of
thousands of color points—the microscopic scales covering the otherwise
transparent wing membrane on both upper and lower surfaces.
Two types of butterfly scales, pigmented and structural, overlap like
roof shingles to produce the varied, kaleidoscopic coloration of a but¬
terfly’s wings. Pigmented scales appear brown, black, yellow, orange,
white, or red in color. Structural scales appear blue, silver, purple, violet,
or green in hue and refract light to produce a metallic or iridescent sheen.
Viewed through a magnifying glass, the scales appear as exquisite, shining
rectangles of yellow, blue, orange, silver, and many other hues.
The males of many species also have sex scales, or androconia, on
their wings. Distinguishable as small black patches (stigmata) or as narrow
strips, androconia disperse scent hormones, or pheromones, that are

25
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

produced by glands in the wings for mate communication. The black

patches on the Monarch male’s hindwings are good examples of andro-
conia. A butterfly’s scales can easily be rubbed off, leaving a powder on
your fingers and the insect’s wings transparent. While the loss of scales
causes no harm in itself, a butterfly so handled may be fatally damaged.

FLIGHT

In preparation for its first flight, a butterfly opens and closes its
wings repeatedly to dry and warm them. Then, suddenly, its body quivers
and the insect rises from its perch and flutters up into the air. Although
to us the flight of a butterfly seems inspired only by whim, actually each
species follows a unique and instinctive flight pattern. These patterns
range from the darting dash of the skippers to the lilting ease of the
Monarch. The Cabbage Butterfly bobs along frenetically, while the Gulf
Fritillary sails gently by like the moon running through clouds. The Gray
Hairstreak zips up and down like a pestering fly, and the Marine Blue
flutters in tiny circles around a trellis of sweet peas. Swallowtails glide
amiably across yawning spaces, while the Painted Lady travels hurriedly
to its next appointment.
Butterflies usually take to the wing only when the sun is out. Sci¬
entists attribute this phenomenon to the sun’s warming effect and spec¬
ulate that orientation and decreased risk of storms may also be crucial.
On sunny days, temperatures in the low- to mid-sixties will bring but¬
terflies out. But on cloudy days, temperatures even into the low-seventies
are inadequate. In fickle weather, the sudden disappearance of your yard’s
usually gregarious butterflies may indicate the arrival of clouds or an
impending storm.
The poetic perception that butterflies simply waft away their lives
in careless reverie is entirely false, for their entire repertoire of behavior
follows defined, instinctive patterns.

TERRITORIALITY

Territorial behavior is common among butterflies, as it is among

vertebrates. I once repeatedly flushed a Fiery Skipper from its perch on
an evergreen shrub. Each time, it returned within moments to the very
same leaf from which it had been frightened away. Buckeyes and West

26
 BUTTERFLY LIVES

Coast Ladies also frequently return to the same patch of bare ground,
and Mourning Cloaks settle again and again onto the same tree-branch
perch.
Perching and patrolling are two typical butterfly stances. Those
which perch, like the Pearly Crescentspot, take their positions on a
single strategic branch or clod of earth and fly out to investigate inter¬
lopers. Scientists speculate that the Pearly Crescentspot’s particularly
pugnacious attacks may be motivated by its instinct to mate with what
may be fleeting females, or alternatively, by the instinct to drive away
competing males. Patrollers, on the other hand, fly up and down in
regular patterns staking their claims on less tangible territory, in search
of females.
Although individual butterflies can hardly do serious damage to
each other, they do sometimes battle ferociously. In his book Near Ho¬
rizons, Edwin Way Teale describes a Red Admiral which attacked him
repeatedly in defense of a coveted patch of sand. Indeed, Teale recalls,
“this particular butterfly appeared to have little fear in its make-up. On
its swerving, swooping circuits of the hillside, it was ever on the alert
for interlopers. It flew at a Monarch or Yellow Swallowtail far larger than
itself, as quickly as at a Grayling or a Painted Lady. ... It attacked me
as fearlessly as it did the smallest rival butterfly.”

PUDDLING

Butterflies are also fond of sipping water from the damp banks of
puddles and streams or even, as I once observed in an encounter on a
damp path with a Marine Blue, from the moist surfaces of pebbles and
earth. Sometimes flocks of swallowtails, sulphurs, skippers, or blues gather
in one spot, forming “mud-puddle clubs”. Like all creatures, butterflies
need moisture, but they also crave the salt carried in liquids. You may
even be able to tempt an otherwise reluctant rider with the perspiration
on your finger, forehead, or nose. And a puddle in your garden may
prove an effective invitation to thirsty butterflies.

ROOSTING

Late in the afternoon but before the sun sets, butterflies find a well
camouflaged roosting spot for the night. Most butterflies roost singly in

27
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

shrubs, trees, thick foliage, or grasses, but others, like the Zebra Longwing
(or Zebra Butterfly), bed down communally with others of their kind.
Hidden from their predators, butterflies are able to rest peacefully through
the dangerous night hours. In fact, they are so well camouflaged that
the gardener who wishes to observe a roosting butterfly will probably
have to watch it find its resting spot. I once saw a Gulf Fritillary settle
into the shadows of some dead branches of a drooping melaleuca and
fold its wings. Several feet away, it was virtually invisible, and I’m certain
I would have missed it had I not sighted its bedtime preparations in the
making.

CAMOUFLAGE AND DIVERSION

Predators and parasitoids (insect parasites that consume their hosts,

thus killing them) that feed on butterflies are numerous and varied.
Spiders capture caterpillars, pupae, and adults; ants prey on eggs; dragon¬
flies snatch adults out of the sky; and birds attack caterpillars and devour
adults, spitting out the wings. Many species of flies and wasps parasitize
eggs, caterpillars, and pupae. Braconid wasps, for instance, lay their eggs
in young caterpillars. Later the wasp larvae bore their way out of the
caterpillar’s body, on which they have been feeding, and spin tiny, straw-
colored cocoons atop their victims. The mortally wounded caterpillar
dies shortly thereafter. Chalcid wasps bore through the soft case of the
newly formed chrysalis and lay their eggs inside. The wasp larvae feed
on the chrysalis contents and later tunnel their way out, leaving behind
a telltale hole in the lifeless pupal case.
To cope with these hazards, butterflies have evolved numerous cam¬
ouflage and diversionary features which increase their survival rates.
Clearly visible spots, markings, and tails serve as targets which divert
gullible predators away from more vulnerable body parts. The Buckeye,
for instance, has three large, bluish-purple eyespots along the edges of
its wings, which might be mistaken for real eyes. Hairstreaks sport tails
and have bright spots or false heads on the undersides of their hindwings.
When at rest, they rub their hindwings back and forth, drawing attention
to the spots. Swallowtails divert bird attacks away from their bodies to
their more obvious, bright-spotted wingtails, which are frequently lost
to the duped predator with no mortal damage done.
Particular masters of disguises are the rough-edged butterflies, in-

28
 BUTTERFLY LIVES

Dangers are everywhere: a Cabbage White falls prey to a warbler, chalcid wasps emerge from
an Anise Swallowtail chrysalis.

eluding the Comma, Satyr Anglewing, and the closely related Mourning
Cloak. The brown- or gray-mottled undersides of these butterflies’ wings
blend in so well with tree trunks that when the butterflies land, folding
the wings together above their bodies, they become virtually invisible.
Their jagged-edged wings further mask them as old tattered leaves. Some
species even drop to the ground and play dead as if they were leaves!
Moreover, their contrasting uppersides serve as a warning signal, which
in sudden flight may startle a bird momentarily, giving the butterfly time
to escape.
Coloration can also draw attention to a butterfly. Birds regurgitate
after eating the unpalatable Monarch and after that rarely fail to heed
the butterfly’s orange and black warning. Like many species, the Viceroy
has evolved coloration that mimics a similar toxic species. Almost a twin
to the Monarch, the Viceroy feeds on non-toxic plants and is perfectly
edible. But birds that have learned to avoid the Monarch also avoid the
Viceroy.

COURTSHIP

Orange and Common Sulphurs circling high over an alfalfa field

are a common sight to farmers, but many people probably don’t know
that this familiar spectacle signals an early stage of butterfly courtship.

29
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

During courtship, the aggressive males buzz females, fly up into the air
with them if they prove receptive, and then follow them down to a
perch. Here, a courtship “dance” ensues. Robert Michael Pyle reports
in The Audubon Society Handbook for Butterfly Watchers, that the distinctive
steps of these minuets allow members of the same species to recognize
each other and thus avoid crossbreeding. The male and female often
circle each other and touch their antennae to each other’s wings or
abdomens. Females smell the males’ pheromones with their antennae,
either in the air or by brushing up against the males’ androconia, and
this makes them more receptive to mating. When the female is ready,
the male positions himself behind her (back to back) and connects his

Some butterfly defenses: the Comma’s camaflouged wings, the Buckeye’s deceptive eyespots,
and the Giant Swallowtail’s fouhsmelling, hornlike osmeterium.

30
 BUTTERFLY LIVES

abdomen to hers. Mating lasts from twenty minutes to two hours, and
sometimes even overnight, and during that time the pair will sometimes
continue to fly around and feed, remaining all the while connected. An
already mated or unreceptive female tells interested males she is not
available by rapidly fluttering or buzzing her wings or by raising her
abdomen toward the sky.

EGG LAYING

Female butterflies begin laying eggs within hours of mating and may
continue over a number of days or even weeks. Prior to laying them,
the female scouts out the food plant and the location on the plant which
will best nourish her brood, a deliberate hovering and investigative ac¬
tivity which you might observe in your garden. Although sight and
pattern recognition appear to play some role in identifying the proper
host, Samuel Hubbard Scudder claims that smell is the sense primarily
responsible for the correct host choice. Extrapolating from the signifi¬
cance of odors in mate attraction, Scudder speculates that the odors
produced by the appropriate host plant may elicit the egg-laying response
from a sensitized female.
Taste, a sense not often associated with insects, must also not be
ignored. The tarsi located at the ends of the hindlegs are the taste organs
of butterflies. By scratching the leaves of plants with their tarsi, females
sense the chemicals contained in the plant and instinctively know whether
those chemicals are suitable for its caterpillars.
As evidence of butterflies’ sensitivity to taste, E. B. Ford, in his
book Butterflies, reports that a butterfly almost always unrolls its proboscis
when one of its hindlegs is immersed in an apple juice/water solution,
but unrolls it only once in three times when the tarsus is not immersed
in the liquid. Ford concludes that “while the butterfly is capable of
perceiving the scent of the juice, it is much more stimulated if it can
touch it.” Alexander Klots, author of 1001 Answers to Questions About
Insects, confirms Ford’s research, noting that Monarchs respond to sugar
solutions of .0003 percent, indicating a taste sensitivity 1408 times greater
than that of humans. ,
Having found the proper host plant, the female flutters above it,
gently drops down, and while resting briefly on a leaf, stem, or flower
head, swings her abdomen up and deposits a moist, glistening egg. e

31
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Pearly Crescentspot, Baltimore, and Mourning Cloak lay their eggs in

small groups or clusters of hundreds. The Comma and Question Mark
lay theirs in vertical columns of three to ten eggs each. The Great
Spangled Fritillary and some of its cousins lay their eggs near as well as
on the food plant, while some browns haphazardly drop their eggs in the
vicinity of the food plant. Most butterflies, however, lay their eggs singly
and on the underside of the food plant leaf, where they will be protected
from sun and predators.

THE OBSERVANT GARDENER

Butterflies can be approached and watched from a very short distance

in any of the attitudes described here. Remember that you are less likely
to frighten them if you approach them from the side or below, since
anything coming from above could be mistaken for a predator. Besides
observing the behaviors which make up the complicated life cycle of
Lepidoptera, you will, or course, want to engage in simple aesthetic
observation and, perhaps, compile an imaginative account of your but¬
terfly friends’ personal idiosyncrasies. The prim grooming gestures of a
Monarch may remind you of an eminently proper socialite. A Buckeye
shaking its head from side to side and occasionally tilting its palpi out
will look as though it’s yawning and trying to wake itself up. And a
butterfly sipping meditatively from blossom after blossom on a single
flower head may reflect your own contemplative activity—taking in the
contributing beauty of each of your butterfly visitors.

32
 THREE

REGIONS AND SEASONS

I.n Newfoundland, The Memorial

University Botanical Garden at Oxen Pond provides larval food plants
and nectar sources especially for local butterflies. Of the forty-eight but¬
terfly species living on the island, twenty-six have been sighted in the
garden. Curator Bernard Jackson reports that along with wide-ranging
species like the Monarch, Cabbage Butterfly, and Painted Lady, the
garden attracts regional or primarily northern species like the Short-
tailed Swallowtail, Pink-edged Sulphur, Prairie Ringlet, Jutta Arctic,
Northern Blue, and Arctic Skipper.
Thousands of miles west in Seattle, Washington, entomologist Sharon
Collman selects common Pacific Northwest butterflies—Clodius Par¬
nassian, Veined White, Ocher Ringlet, and Woodland Skipper—for her
butterfly garden. And several latitudes to the south, Julian Donahue,
Assistant Curator of Entomology at the Natural History Museum of Los
Angeles County, recommends regional species like the West Coast Lady,
Acmon Blue, and California Dogface to local butterfly gardeners.
These examples demonstrate the strict regionality of many butterfly
species in contrast to the broad ranges of other species. The Monarch,
Orange Sulphur (or Alfalfa Butterfly), and Cabbage Butterfly are found
nearly everywhere in North America, but the Comma ranges almost
exclusively in the East, the Sara Orangetip in the West, and the Queen
in the South. The most common butterflies in your area may not be the
most widespread species and may be quite rare or altogether absent a
short distance away. Consequently, your own observations and research
into local butterfly residents may provide the best guide in designing a
successful butterfly garden.
33
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Biogeographic life zones described primarily by latitude and altitude

can be used as a model for butterfly distribution. The following table
shows the location and representative inhabitants of North America’s
seven life zones.

AVERAGE
MIDSUM¬ REPRESENTATIVE
ZONE LOCATION MER TEMP. SPECIES

Tropical Southernmost part of 80°F + Polydamas Swallow¬

Florida, Texas, Ari¬ tail, Zebra Longwing,
zona, and California and Julia
Lower Deep South and 78.8°F + Palamedes Swallow¬
Austral southern Southwest tail, Gulf Fritillary,
and Pearly Eye
Upper Diagonal strip from 71.6- Regal Fritillary, Diana,
Austral New Jersey to north¬ 78.8°F and Smoky Eyed
ern Georgia, 40-43° Brown
latitude across central
states, the Great
Basin, parts of South¬
west
Transition Northern states and 64.4- Baltimore, White Ad¬
Appalachia 71.6°F miral, and Silver-
bordered Fritillary
Canadian Horizontal strip across 57.2- Faunus Anglewing,
central Canada, and 64.4°F Hoary Comma, and
mountainous areas in Atlantis Fritillary
Northeast, Appala¬
chia, Rockies, and
Sierra Nevada
Hudsonian Across northern Can¬ 50-57.2°F Old World Swallow¬
ada and higher moun¬ tail, Jutta Arctic, and
tain altitudes in Yukon Blue
Northeast and Rockies
Arctic- Far North and above 42.8-50°F White Mountain But¬
Alpine the treeline on moun¬ terfly, Polaris Dingy
tains Frittilary, and Behr’s
Sulphur

34
 REGIONS AND SEASONS

Temperature, affected by altitude, latitude, and distance from the

sea, largely determines how long during the year butterflies will remain
on the wing. Those in the South, therefore, are generally visible for
several seasons, while those in the North may appear for only a few
weeks each year. Rainfall is also an important factor, because it heavily
influences the types of plants which grow in a given area. The majority
of butterflies prefer the moderate climes between wet and dry extremes.
Specific habitat preferences also govern the distribution of butter¬
flies. Anglewings, for instance, harbor in forest edges, roads, and glades.
Some fritillaries take best to grassy prairies, while others prefer mountain
meadows. The Woodland Skipper and the Large Wood Nymph (despite
their names) prefer the grassy areas which contain their food plants.
Other butterflies thrive in areas that through man’s interference or nur¬
turing support ideal food plants for butterflies. These include abandoned
railway lines, vacant lots, roadsides, alfalfa fields, and your garden.
Butterflies react to seasonal as well as regional factors and instinc¬
tively know when to hatch, mate, and emigrate to certain territories.
Within each species, the number of generations bom in a year is largely
dependent on climate and genetic inheritance. Hence, species which
range over more than one region may produce fewer broods in the nothem
parts of their ranges than they do in the southern. In the North and
Midwest, one or two generations is normal, but in the Sun Belt, most
species have three or four broods. In the extreme South, four of five
generations is not uncommon, while a single brood every one or two
years prevails in the Arctic.
Generally, species which breed more often are more readily visible
on the wing, but broods with particularly long-living individuals can also
be observed for many months of the year. Members of the migratory fall
generation of the Monarch, for instance, live six to eight months, and
the hibernating Mourning Cloak and Comma may live more than nine

Early spring butterflies include the Checkered White, Sara and

Falcate Orangetips, Silvery Blue, Satyr Anglewing, Buckeye, and Spring
Azure. In late spring or summer look for the Giant Swallowtail, Dog ace
Butterfly, Great Spangled Fritillary, American Painted Lady, and White
Admiral. In late summer or fall, the Pine White, Leonardus Skipper,
and autumn generation of the Monarch may be seen in their respective

regions.

35
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Regional butterflies (clockwise from top): White Admiral (N), Comma (E), Zebra Longwing
(S), and West Coast Lady (W).

GETTING THROUGH THE WINTER

Butterflies hibernate in all four life stages depending on the species.

Swallowtails will sometimes lie dormant for an entire year before hatch¬
ing, while many Hairstreaks routinely overwinter as eggs. The young
caterpillars of the Viceroy, White Admiral, and Red-spotted Purple con¬
struct hibemaculi in the fall by rolling up willow leaves into tubes, and
securing them to the twigs with silk to prevent their falling off. In the
spring, the caterpillars leave their shelters and begin to feed on the new
growth of the willows. Most swallowtails, whites, and blues overwinter
as chrysalises. Anglewings, Tortoiseshells, and the dusky Mourning Cloak
hibernate through the cold season in hollow trees, crevices, or open
bams, and are occasionally seen taking off-season joyrides on a mild
January breeze by lucky passersby.

36
 REGIONS AND SEASONS

EMIGRATION AND MIGRATION

Some species, including the Buckeye, American Painted Lady, and

Red Admiral, extend their ranges northward during the summer months
and die off in the fall, only to recolonize the region the following year.
Favorable reproductive conditions may yield great swarms of these aerial
emigrants, so that in certain years huge flocks of Painted Ladies fly north
and east from Mexico and the Southwest. Overpopulation may be the
primary motivation for the occasional flight of southern butterflies like
the Gulf Fritillary, Dwarf Yellow, Cloudless Giant Sulphur, and Long-
tailed Skipper, to northern climes. Most species tend either toward no¬
madism or domesticism. The Western Pygmy Blue wanders unpredictably
around several western states, while the Zebra Swallowtail remains stub¬
bornly in its original area.
Only the Monarch, however, possesses true bird-like migration.
From September to October, great swarms of Monarchs make their way

The Baltimore, which favors wet meadows, is shown here with turtlehead, its food plant, and
purple loosestrife.

37
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Mourning Cloaks overwinter as adults and often seek shelter in open structures such as sheds
and bams.

from New England, the Eastern Seaboard, and the Midwest to their
winter destinations thousands of miles away in Mexico. These millions
overwinter in fir forests high in the mountains. Tens of thousands of
western slope Monarchs annually spend the winter clinging to eucalyptus
trees in groves along the California coast.
Early in March, the Monarchs become active again, mate, and begin
their journey east and north. Along the way, the females lay their eggs
on milkweed plants, which nurture several fast summer generations. In
the fall, the last of these summer generations repeats the great migration.
But what force guides these new generations safely through their con¬
tinental passage remains locked in the still unsolved mystery of instinct.
A butterfly garden along the route of the Monarch’s migration may
serve the butterflies with a valuable refueling station and breeding ground,

38
 REGIONS AND SEASONS

and may serve you with a fascinating observation post. But even if your
garden doesn’t lie in the Monarch’s path, a variety of other species are
bound to discover the vegetation and nectar you cultivate especially for
them. So whether you’re catering to the Miami Blue or the Colorado
Anglewing, the California Dogface or the Ozark Swallowtail, you’ll need
to design your garden carefully to satisfy the butterflies’ tastes, and that
will be the subject of the next chapter.

39
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Butterfly gardens can be created in small spaces such as this patio. Potted plants make for quick
and easy changes.

40
 FOUR

GETTING STARTED

I n Create a Butterfly Garden, L. Hugh

Newman describes the sunny, south-facing, terraced hillside where he
allows wildflowers, grasses, and a large nettlebed to grow uncut until
autumn in order to provide a steady supply of nectar sources and larval
food plants for the butterflies which visit his British garden. Cultivated
flowers complement the wild plants, and hedges and bushes furnish shel¬
ter. The garden is both sun splashed and shade dappled, and its owner
avoids using insecticides entirely. “I have, over a number of years,”
Newman explains, “deliberately tried to produce conditions that but¬
terflies like.”
The Drum Manor Butterfly Garden in Northern Ireland was built
in the walled garden of an old Irish estate turned public park. The nearly
twelve-foot wall, erected to protect the vegetable beds from the harsh
maritime winds, now shelters butterflies. Tall trees provide further pro¬
tection. “There are many hazy days in summer when it takes the shelter
of a south-facing wall or wood border to tempt most butterflies into
activity,” reports former Queen’s University of Belfast Professor Henry
George Heal.
These two successful butterfly gardens illustrate how important it is
to provide the environment butterflies in your region need for survival,
including not only nectar sources and larval food plants, but adequate
sunlight, shelter, and water, which are just as essential. The closer your
garden matches the natural habitat, the greater your chances of attracting
and convincing butterflies to stay. Nevertheless, creativity and imagi¬
nation should always be the guideposts for your gardening. The possible

41
THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN
 GETTING STARTED

Butterfly garden features: sunlight, shelter, puddles, a rocky area, a meadow, and of course
nectar and food sources.
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

combinations of butterfly species, wildflowers, domestic plants, exotic

vegetation, annuals, perennials, trees, vines, vegetables, and garden de¬
signs are endless, and one or more of them are sure to be right for both
you and your location.

FIRST STEPS

But where to begin? Your first goal is to select which butterfly species
you would like to attract and which plants are likely to draw them.
Survey your neighborhood for resident species, and make note of what
plants they are most often seen on. Experts at your local natural history
museum or college may also offer some good advice. If you are fortunate
enough to have a local entomology club, members who have been ob¬
serving butterflies in your area for years will probably be delighted to
share their knowledge.
Your garden’s latitude, altitude, exposure to sun and wind, rainfall,
atmospheric and soil conditions, and proximity to urban or rural areas
will determine its complexion. But these are constraints all gardeners
must cope with and can be advantages as well as disadvantages. By
learning the specific habitats of particular species and whether those
habitats can be incorporated into your yard, you will know which but¬
terflies might establish themselves in your garden. Passion flower (or
passion vine) in southern cities is attractive to the Gulf Fritillary, and
vacant lots tangled with cheeseweed are often frequented by the West
Coast Lady. But the Diana and the Olympia Marblewing will scarcely
be found in such urban settings, preferring Appalachian forests and the
shale barrens of rocky river bluffs respectively.

DESIGNING YOUR GARDEN: SUN

Large, open spaces filled with sunlight are an important element of

any butterfly garden, since butterflies are most active in sunny areas.
The center of the garden is often the most convenient area for sunshine,
but comers may be used as well. Ground cover such as clover, alfalfa,
or other low-growing host or nectar plants combine well with grasses in
open areas. Remember to leave room for nectar sources and food plants
which should be planted around the open areas and still well in the sun.
Different species of butterflies nectar at different times of the day, so you

44
 GETTING STARTED

Wildflowers that serve as nectar sources include (clockwise from top left) goldenrod, cinquefoil,
aster, dandelion, and bee balm.

will want some nectar plants to be in the sun whenever they call. Rock
gardens planted with sedum, aubrieta, and primrose do especially well
in sunny locations and serve as ideal basking spots for warmth-loving
butterflies.

SHELTER

Walls or borders of shrubs or trees will provide adequate shelter

from the wind for butterflies. It is not necessary to completely surround
the garden with windbreaks, but ample protection will attract more
butterflies. Shrubby nectar sources like butterfly bush, honeysuckle, and
New Jersey tea, and food plants like spicebush, hawthorn, and hibiscus
work nicely as windbreaks. Willow, poplar, and wild cherry trees offer
additional shelter. On fences or trellises, hops, pipevine, and passion
flower create wonderful windscreens and larval hosts. Painting a fence
or board to match the colors of the butterflies which frequent the flowers

45
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

in front of it may create a safe haven for camouflaged insects, as well as

providing shelter. Certainly a patch of winter cress backed by a checkered
fence and dotted with Checkered Whites will win the neighborhood
prize for originality!

PUDDLES

At least one and preferably several puddles should be provided for

your butterfly guests. Gouging level surfaces or grading to create an
incline will allow natural rains to rejuvenate these moisture sources. Wet

Cultivated flowers that serve as nectar sources include (clockwise from left) daisy, lobelia, phlox,
and ageratum.

46
 GETTING STARTED

sand, earth, or mud are the best butterfly fountains, as butterflies cannot
drink from open water. Susan Borkin, Assistant Curator of Invertebrate
Zoology at the Milwaukee Public Museum in Wisconsin, suggests burying
a bucket in the ground and filling it with sand to an inch or so from the
top. Place a few rocks or sticks on top of the sand and fill the bucket
with water. Butterflies will perch on the rocks or sticks and drink from
the moist sand. Such an “instant puddle” is best situated in an open
sunny area or along a path. Butterflies are also atracted to urine patches,
so a spot that a pet visits makes an ideal puddling spot.
In her book Theme Gardens, Barbara Damrosch suggests grading the
entire garden to create a bowl-like effect with a “tiny seasonal pond” in
the center. Large flat stones placed in the pond will serve as perching
and sun basking sites for butterflies and may attract them even on hazy
days. And splashing the rocks with stale beer or a sugar- or honey-water
solution will make them especially inviting.

MEADOWS

The meadow habitat is popular with most butterflies and should be

prominent in your garden. A sunny hillside meadow like L. Hugh New¬
man’s will provide hiding places and host plants for eggs and larvae,
wildflowers for nectaring adults, and a brimming pool of color for your
aesthetic pleasure. Jo Brewer, a Massachusetts butterfly gardener, roto-
tilled half her front lawn and planted meadow grasses, wildflower trans¬
plants, and assorted seeds. Soon her daisies, wild asters, yarrow, and
thistles were bustling with butterflies.
The co-author of The Butterfly Gardener, Dr. Miriam Rothschild, has
an acre of meadow in her English country garden. The fervent field
scabious, knapweeds, and thistles furnish sufficient nectar to support
breeding colonies of grass feeders like the Meadow Brown, Wall, Gate¬
keeper, and Small Skipper. “On warm evenings,” gushes the doting
gardener, “I walk through it [the hayfield] after dark and imagine it
stretches away for thirty acres or more on all sides.”

TERRACES, BORDERS, BEDS, AND PATHWAYS

Placing tall plants in the rear of the garden with shrubs and flower
beds in front, produces a terraced effect that provides shelter for your

47
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

California Sisters puddling at the edge of a stream.

butterflies and allows you an unimpeded view of all the garden’s activity.
Similarly, a graded hillside covered with flower beds enhances “the feel¬
ing of being inside a bowl of color, some of it fixed and some of it
hovering in flight,” says Barbara Damrosch.
Perennials and annuals planted in front of a stone wall or wooden
fence provide nectaring and basking sites, and soften the stark edges of
such artificial structures. Marigolds, zinnias, and impatiens are examples
of long-blooming annuals that can be used individually or together to
create beautiful borders that require little care. A number of small flower
beds scattered throughout a garden may be more suitable for urban or
suburban gardens and will serve as tasty oases for butterflies without
dominating the landscape.
Art Douglas, a California butterfly gardener, uses baby’s tears, a
food plant of the Red Admiral, as ground cover in flower beds. Sweet
alyssum and ageratum also provide excellent ground cover and serve as
tempting nectar sources for many species. Pathways, driveways, and alleys
beneath groves of trees serve as butterfly highways, and bordered with
nectar sources and larval food plants will encourage butterflies to dawdle
rather than cruise.

48
 GETTING STARTED

WINDOW BOXES AND PLANTERS

Window boxes or potted plants hung along a fence place nectar

sources in a position that is easier for butterflies to see and reach. Stephen
Austin’s butterfly garden in El Monte, California, features a purple Lari'
tana montevidensis that nearly covers a six-foot-high fence. When I vis¬
ited, skippers, Cabbage Butterflies, and Gulf Fritillaries flocked to the
elevated nectar source. An urban dweller’s window box, planted with
primroses, zinnias, verbena, and alyssum will attract a variety of equally
colorful butterflies, across the paved streets to the oasis of his apartment
windowsill. You will probably be surprised at the number of butterflies
that somehow survive in an urban environment, and a well positioned
window box will serve as haven in the city for them.

SOILS

Wildflowers, a main component of butterfly gardens, grow best in

soils which approximate their natural habitats. Forest and wetland plants
generally prefer acidic soils, while many desert flowers grow best in
alkaline soil. Fortunately, the meadow and prairie flowers that butterflies
like best usually flourish in neutral soils similar to normal garden soil.
But unlike cultivated plants, many wildflowers grow in porous, sandy
soil. Mulching or adding sand to your soil may be a necessary conditioning
step. A soil test will determine the chemical makeup of your soil and
indicate whether you need to add leaf mold or sulphur to make it more
acidic, or lime to make it more alkaline.
In their book Wildflower Gardening, James Underwood Crockett and
Oliver Allen suggest burying nine-inch-wide rigid, plastic or rust-resistant
metal bands flush with the soil surface around flower beds in order to
keep undesired chemicals from invading the soil. A band two inches
away from a lime-containing masonry wall and separated from the wall
by a sand buffer will keep alkaline chemicals away from the rest of the
garden. This technique is especially valuable for butterfly gardens, which
frequently have walls. Also pay attention to variations in soil conditions
within your garden and plant wildflowers, shade plants, and marsh grasses
accordingly.

49
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

DISCOURAGING BIRDS AND PESTS

Hugh Newman cautions butterfly gardeners not to provide nesting

boxes for birds which prey on butterflies and damage flowers and fruit.
Swallows, housemartins, flycatchers, and sparrows are particularly fond
of butterflies, and tits are known to eat caterpillars. Avoid cultivating
plants which have fruits or seeds that birds eat and which do not attract
butterflies, as birds may prey on your garden’s guests. Keep in mind too
that hackberry, blueberry, spicebush, hawthorn, dogwood, juniper, al¬
falfa, clover, asters, honeysuckle, viburnum, sumac, sunflowers, daisies,
marigold, zinnia, and butterfly weed attract both butterflies and birds.
Protective covering in the form of a thin loosely draped netting will
reduce the number of eggs, caterpillars, and pupae that fall prey to birds.
Instead of using insecticides and herbicides, use selective pest-control
methods and encourage the propagation of ladybird beetles and other
insects that prey on garden pests. Adrian Wenner of Santa Barbara,
California uses a menagerie of traps, gadgets, and devices to keep pests
out of his garden. In the space of ten weeks he caught more than 1600
walnut husk flies in a number of traps hung in fruit and nut trees.
Punctured film canisters containing ammonium carbonate chunks also
attract and kill flies. Sticky tape around the trunks of his dwarf naval
orange trees keeps ants from going up the trunks and protecting scale
insects and aphids from predators and parasitoids. This allows ladybird
beetles to fly in and prey on the scale insects and aphids. Meanwhile
Monarchs and Gulf Fritillaries soar unimpeded around his milkweeds and
passion flower.

LIVESTOCKING

Stocking is an effective way to encourage large butterfly garden

populations. Eggs, caterpillars, or, with more difficulty, pupae can be
obtained from the wild, and a few species in various stages can be bought
from butterfly suppliers. Eggs or caterpillars found in the wild can be
brought back to your garden and placed on appropriate food plants. Eggs
or pupae should not be removed from the leaf they are found on. Instead,
the entire leaf or branch should be removed and transported to the new
location. Alternatively, catch a mature female (most will already have
mated) and place it in a cage along with some potted or cut food plant,

50
 GETTING STARTED

cut flower heads, and a shallow dish full of tissue paper saturated with
sugar water. Within a few days she will lay her eggs and can then be
released.

CAUTION ON EXOTIC BUTTERFLIES

Exotic species of butterflies should not be introduced to gardens

outside of their natural regions. In the absence of natural enemies, they
are likely to become pests and may damage the gene pools of native
fauna or disrupt the biogeographical records of scientists. Since its in¬
troduction to Quebec from Europe in 1860, the Cabbage Butterfly has
created a nuisance for farmers and gardeners who raise crucifers. Newly
introduced butterflies that flourish in the absence of natural enemies may
decimate indigenous plant species and compete mercilessly with native
butterfly species. Moreover, any diseases, parasites, or parasitoids they
carry could harm endemic flora and fauna. The U.S. Department of
Agriculture strictly regulates the importation and interstate transporta¬
tion of “noxious weeds” and plant pests (including butterflies), as do
state and local agencies. These regulations should be unerringly re¬
spected.

SPECIAL TOUCHES

Unique mini-environments may draw additional and, sometimes,

less common species to your garden. A small wooded area will entice
satyrs and Mourning Cloaks in from the wilds, and you can observe them
from a convenient stump or well-placed bench. Buckeyes and Red-spotted
Purples, which are fond of open trails, may be attracted to a patch of
bare ground in a sun-dappled glade. One particularly enterprising gar¬
dener I visited was building a large mound of dirt in the center of his
garden to simulate the mountainous habitat of some regional species. By
placing large rocks on the mound and making other nooks and crannies,
he hoped to attract butterflies in need of shelter from wind, heat, and
cold. The watchword, as this butterfly gardener obviously knew, is imag¬
ination. Experimentation and creativity will yield an infinite number of
garden designs, and one of them is bound to surprise you with the number
of butterflies it engenders. But now that you’ve planned your garden
design, you’ll need to know just which nectar and larval food plants will
best satisfy the butterflies’ tastes and your own aesthetic criteria.

51
 FIVE

NECTAR SOURCES

In 1950 a team of biologists from

the New York Zoological Society began studying butterflies at a jungle
field station in Trinidad. Seven years later, with the project continuing
to yield valuable information about insect evolution, courtship, and
habits, scientist Jocelyn Crane reported that butterflies

are as particular about their food as a spoiled child getting over the
measles. The morphos, for instance, would much rather eat rotten
bananas than sip the sweetest nectar. The heliconiids prefer a diet
of nectar from lantana plants. . . . Little by little we discovered the
preferred foods of our more finicky guests. They don’t like much
variety; each kind goes to its own favorites, day after day, like a
small girl who always orders chocolate sodas while her best friend
sticks to vanilla malts.

Studies like the Trinidad project indicate that butterfly preferences

are determined by a combination of the color, shape, and fragrance of
flowers or other food sources. Many ornamental blossoms, and hybrids
like roses and hydrangea, which often have no nectaries, are shunned
by butterflies. But a variety of nectar sources appeal to many butterflies
and, given prominence in your garden, may be the butterfly attraction
of the neighborhood.

COLOR SENSITIVITY

Color is an important determinant of preference, because butterflies

have “the broadest [range of sensitivity to light wavelength] known of
any animal,” according to Dr. Gary Bernard, a Yale University scientist.

52
 NECTAR SOURCES

Unlike man, butterflies are able to see ultraviolet light. This sensitivity
allows them to identify otherwise unremarkable flowers from a distance
and to distinguish between blossoms which appear similar to the human
eye. In a study conducted at Cornell University by Dr. Thomas Eisner
and others, the dark centers of the marsh marigold which appeared only
in ultraviolet photographs, taken by the researchers, were determined
to act as “nectar guides” for butterflies which prefer the flower. Many
flowers also have nectar guides that are visible to the human eye, in the
form of lines or patterns that lead into the center of the flower where
the nectaries are situated—the dark pink blotch in the center of some
phloxes, for example. Species of flowers with nectar guides are more
frequently visited than those without and, as a result, are more abun¬
dantly pollinated. Thus, the coevolution of butterflies which seek nectar
guides and flowers which possess them benefits both forms of life.
Other photographs in the Eisner study showed that a group of five
composites, which look similar to humans, have differently sized dark
patches in the ultraviolet, making them distinguishable to butterflies.
Eisner also indicates that butterfly markings that appear only in the
ultraviolet highlight sexual dimorphism, facilitating communication be¬
tween the genders in mating.
Spectral sensitivity also varies between species of butterflies, says
Bernard. His studies show that several species, including the Question
Mark, Sleepy Orange, Cloudless Giant Sulphur, and Eastern Tailed
Blue, are sensitive to the longest red wavelengths, a trait which may
make them prefer red flowers over others. The Hackberry Butterfly,
Mourning Cloak, and Buckeye, among others, are not able to see these
wavelengths.
Studies conducted by researchers C.A. and S.L. Swihart indicate
that successful nectaring on a particular flower may also condition a
butterfly’s preference for that flower’s color. In a series of experiments,
the Swiharts fed butterflies on yellow model flowers that contained sponges
soaked in a honey solution. Two days later, they replaced the yellow
flowers with models in a variety of colors, and found that the conditioned
butterflies visited yellow test models much more frequently than did
unconditioned butterflies.
The shape of a particular flower may also make it more attractive
to certain butterflies, either because it provides a convenient platform
for perching or because the flower tubes are easily accessible to the

53
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

A West Coast Lady uses a daisy’s convenient landing platform while nectaring.

butterfly. Most butterfly nectar sources have tubular flowers arranged

around a flower head—for example, daisies—or in a cluster that provides
ample space for landing and perching. Butterflies seldom use flowers that
hang down from a vine or a stem, or double ornamental blossoms.
Although butterflies are willing experimenters, alighting on a variety
of flowers before they give themselves over to particular species, there
is a method to the madness of their final decisions. And those decisions
usually reveal the most suitable match of butterfly and plant morphology.
For example, as Paul Opler writes in his Butterflies East of the Great Plains,
butterflies with short proboscises generally prefer short-tubed flowers,
and butterflies with long proboscises use long-tubed flowers. As a rule,
says Opler, butterflies visit flower tubes that are half as long as their
proboscises. The length of the tubes of some flowers, like Lantana camara,
may exclude butterflies with small proboscises from nectaring, because
these butterflies can’t reach into the nectaries. In a comparison of the
different species of butterflies which feed on Lantana camara and Lantana
trifolia, University of Illinois researcher Douglas Schemske theorized that
the two plants evolved their differing tube sizes in order to separate their
pollinators and ensure their own sympatric survival.
The relation of butterfly size to the size and availability of a perching
platform on flowers also influences butterfly preferences. The large-winged
swallowtails, for instance, opt for the wide, high platform of a daylily

54
 NECTAR SOURCES

over low-lying alyssum. And though large flowers generally contain more
nectar, small flowers situated in clusters on a stem have the advantage
of allowing butterflies to extend their proboscises to many flowers without
moving off the cluster. Large flowers, preferred by large butterflies, are
usually found higher on the stem than smaller flowers, giving the but¬
terflies ample room for fluttering their wings. Because most butterflies
refuse to climb down into flowers where their wings may be damaged,
butterflies with short proboscises usually shun deep, wide blossoms. Oc¬
casionally, however, certain blues or other butterflies will burrow down
into a blossom to reach its recessed nectaries.
Fragrance is another component in nectar preference. Many of the
most fragrant flowers—heliotrope, mignonette, lilac, lavender, sweet
alyssum, viburnum—draw throngs of butterflies. And, as a rule, flowers
with the same color and shape will be selected by butterflies in order of
the strength of their fragrances.
To satisfy the greatest number of butterfly preferences, you’ll prob¬
ably find that the best menu to offer your butterfly customers is a well-

This lantana’s cluster of tubular flowers allows a Common Blue to obtain a large amount of
nectar in a single visit.

55
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

stocked soda fountain including flowers of all shapes, sizes, colors, and
fragrances. And by mixing wildflowers, cultivated flowers, shrubs, and
trees and planting them in a variety of locations and environments, you’ll
be able to tempt even the most finicky butterflies in your botanical cafe.

RECOMMENDED NECTAR SOURCES

Successful butterfly gardeners integrate wild and cultivated flowers

and use a combination of vegetation with staggered blooming seasons.
Buddleia (or butterfly bush), orange milkweed (or butterfly weed), and
lantana are by consensus the most popular butterfly attractants.
Cultivated plants such as daisies, asters, lobelia, sweet alyssum,
verbena, phlox, scabiosa, and coreopsis are also strong choices. Wild-
flower varieties including goldenrod, Joe-Pye-weed, boneset, wild ber¬
gamot, and dandelion are prime nectar sources, and wild varieties of
such cultivated plants such as phlox, verbena, and aster are other pos¬
sibilities. There are some plants that serve dually as nectar sources and
larval food plants; most common among them are clover, buckwheat,
and thistle. Larger nectar sources that are especially effective for shelter
or bordering include hawthorn, sumac, lilac, buckeye, and New Jersey
tea. If you’re interested in seasonal staggering, spring-blooming flowers
include arabis, primrose, and lilac. Butterfly weed and yarrow come to
flower during the hot months of summer, and in the late summer or
early fall, butterfly bush, goldenrod, and sedum burst into blossom. Par¬
ticularly long-blooming varieties include candytuft (spring through sum¬
mer), phlox (summer into fall), and the everpresent dandelion. The
blooming season of individual plants can be prolonged by periodic re¬
moval of dead blossoms, promoting the growth of new ones.

SUCCESS WITH WILDFLOWERS

Wildflowers usually grow best if started from seed, which can be

collected from nearby fields. Which types of wildflowers you select will
depend on the soil conditions and climate of your region. Indigenous
species are most likely to flourish, but before planting, consult local
authorities about weed regulations that may prohibit certain varieties.
Some species may establish themselves from wind-carried seed without
your interference. Others will resist even the most painstaking care and

56
 NECTAR SOURCES

Many types of plants serve as nectar sources. Clockwise from top left: foe-Pye-weed, zinnia,
hawthorn, coreopsis, clover, and candytuft.

attention. Although wildflowers can be planted together with cultivated

plants, many gardeners prefer to reserve an obscure comer of the garden
for native species or to plant them in rows separate from lawns and
cultivated plant beds. In addition to attracting throngs of butterflies,
wildflowers once established require little ongoing care and add a natural
flavor to your garden setting.

57
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

ANNUALS AND PERENNIALS

Planting combinations of annuals and perennials gives the butterfly

gardener the freedom to change a garden’s appearance from year to year
and assures him that some beds will sprout without replanting. Sweet
alyssum, viper’s bugloss, and mignonette are recommended annuals; sweet
rocket, fleabane, and thrift are possible perennials. Remember too that
both annuals and perennials occasionally spread to other parts of the
garden and that perennials may not flower until the year after planting.
Nectar sources that can be purchased as either annuals or perennials
include candytuft, coreopsis, impatiens, lobelia, lupine, phlox, dianthus,
sage, scabiosa, statice, sunflower, and toadflax.
Art Douglas’s butterfly garden in Los Angeles displays an exemplary
cornucopia of purple, lavender, blue, red, pink, orange, yellow, and
white annuals and perennials. Oleander, impatiens, and lantana com¬
plement his marigolds, cosmos, ageratum, dianthus, and dwarf zinnias.
A row of potted pansies smile amiably across the expanse of color. On
my visit there, I observed a number of Fiery Skippers sipping from the
marigolds and a striking Funereal Duskywing foraging on cosmos. A
Cabbage Butterfly laid its eggs on the nasturtium, the flowers of which
also provide nectar.

GARDEN COLOR SCHEMES

As a gardener and butterfly enthusiast, you are an artist whose

palette and subject matter are unequaled in variety and richness. And
designing the color scheme of your garden gives you the opportunity to
test the bounds of your creativity and indulge your most eccentric tastes.
Vast expanses of snowy, violet, or rose-red blossoms can be painted with
alyssum, candytuft, or sedum. Gold-and-crimson-streaked gaillardias or
yellow marigolds and orange marigolds make an attractive confetti border.
The cottony ocean-blue flowers of ageratum wave peacefully, like the
waters of a sheltered inlet, on a quiet day. Pink and yellow Michaelmas
daisies, or yellow and white Shasta daisies are an attractive and adaptable
filler for yawning spaces. Lantana, which comes in several colors, can
be matched to the color of your house, fence, or even the butterflies you
hope it will attract. A Great Southern White adds a zesty splash to a
bright, orange lantana. And imagine the delightful contrast of a Mon-

58
 NECTAR SOURCES

arch’s orange and black mantle on a tuft of goldenrod or a swatch of

yellow daisies.
Gardens designed around a single color are another tantalizing op¬
tion. Vita Sackville-West’s famous all-white garden at Sissinghurst Castle
in Kent, England features candytuft, lilies, dianthus, pansies, and irises
among other butterfly nectar sources. Anthemis, marigold, sunflower,
goldenrod, black-eyed Susan, beggar-ticks, buttercup, dandelion, com¬
mon groundsel, ragwort, and toadflax could as easily be substituted for
a yellow garden that would bring its own sunshine to cloudy days.
Remember too that nectar sources should be clumped together, as
a greater density of flower heads is especially attractive to butterflies.

Nectar sources have varying blooming seasons. Clockwise from bottom: arabis (spring), yarrow
(summer), and marigold (late summer).

59
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Shrubs with a number of flowers or large beds are most visible to butterflies
at a distance and, therefore, may draw more visitors from around the
neighborhood.

LEARNING FROM YOUR NECTAR SOURCES

Perhaps the best way to discover which nectar sources are preferred
by the butterflies in your area is observation. Recorded favorites may not
be the preference of the butterflies in your garden, and your own com¬
binations may prove extremely popular with butterflies. Flowers which
produce nectar late in the day instead of early may be especially attractive
to late-flying butterflies. Butterflies may even prefer different colors of
blossoms at different times of the year. A.H. Hamm spent five years
recording the number of butterflies which visited a two-hundred-yard
border of closely interspersed reddish-purple, purple, and white Michael¬
mas daisies on the grounds of the Cowley Road Hospital in Oxford,
England. His tabulations indicate that, curiously, the butterflies preferred
the reddish-purple blossoms until they passed the stage of full-bloom in
the mid-October. Then, the butterflies chose the various shades of purple
flowers. The white forms, Hamm observed, were consistently neglected.

BEYOND FLOWERS

Many butterflies, including the White Admiral, Red-spotted Purple,

Question Mark, Mourning Cloak, Red Admiral, Comma, and Viceroy,
eschew flowers in favor of rotting fruit, tree sap, dung, carrion, urine,
and other non-nectar sources of nutrients. If these species are particular
favorites of yours, allow the fruit from your fruit trees to decay on the
ground, leave your pet’s droppings where they lie, or place a bit of raw
lamb chop or fish in a discreet part of the garden.
Sugaring, a technique described in Robert Michael Pyle’s Handbook,
is a cleaner and somewhat less noxious way to tempt these elusive species.
According to Pyle, a concoction of “a couple of pounds of sugar, a bottle
or two of stale beer, mashed overripe bananas, some molasses or syrup,
fruit juice, and a shot of rum,” painted on trees, rocks, stumps or fence
posts will draw an abundance of butterflies. To avoid the unattractive
mess this mixture makes on trees and the mass of unwanted insects that
it is likely to entrap, he suggests hanging mixture-soaked sponges from

60
 NECTAR SOURCES

Some supplements to nectar sources: test-tube “flowers” and rotting fruit.

convenient tree limbs. A large sponge or one suspended on a tray provides

a good landing area for butterflies.
In the absence of fresh flowers, hungry butterflies can be treated to
a soup of sugar-or honey-water. Hugh Newman recommends securing
test tubes filled with the solution and plugged with cotton or paper
toweling to stakes, a fence, or even the stem of a plant. A flower made
of colored paper, opaque plastic, or other waterproof material and ar¬
ranged around the mouth of the tube will provide a perching platform
and a familiar color attractant for butterflies. With luck, the butterflies
will mistake a bunch of these tubes and “petals” for a bush covered with
delicious flowers.
These test tubes can also be set into holes in the top of a butterfly
table, as described by Clive Farrell, director of the London Butterfly
House. Farrell recommends a ten percent solution of white sugar in water,
a five to ten percent solution of fructose in water, a maple syrup-water
solution to imitate tree sap, or—for butterflies that crave salts—a salt¬
water solution. Take care not to make the solutions too strong as this

61
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

might clog the butterflies’ proboscises, and remember to clean the tubes
at least every forty-eight hours.
Rotting fruits, like banana, pear, peach, pineapple, plum, apple,
and orange, placed in one or more dishes on the table serve as additional
attractants. Farrell notes that butterfly catchers in Malaysia and other
butterfly-rich countries use “horse or cow manure, rotting prawns, or a
dead rat or two,” to bait their prey, but in the interests of your neigh¬
borhood and your nose, you may not want to use these items. A few
dishes of sweetened solution scattered discreetly around the garden com¬
pletes the smorgasbord of delectables for butterflies. Such supplementary
sources of nourishment may prove particularly effective in early spring,
late fall, or following periods of bad weather when blossoms are less
available.

BUTTERFLIES, BUTTERFLIES, BUTTERFLIES

When selecting nectar sources and artificial nutrients, the measure

of success is, obviously, the number of butterflies you are able to gather.
Australian Ethel Anderson, in a 1940 article in The Atlantic Monthly,
boasted of the “fluttering thousands” of butterflies which outnumbered
even the flowers in her garden. “I can see five Satyridae to each single
dandelion. And on these lawns dandelions flourish like buttercups in
Berkshire,” she marveled.

Penciled Blues and Fiery Jewels dance above the china asters,
and over the cactus dahlias, Clover Blues and Painted Ladies weave
flight patterns prodigal in beauty. . . . On a Michaelmas daisy’s lacy
white and gold and green, three to a flower, wings up like sails,
banked thick as Silver-washed Fritillaries in an English lane, suc¬
ceeding fleets of Checkered Swallowtails ride at anchor, but are
never still.

“If I were very rich,” she concludes,

I would not have in my garden so very many trees (though I

would have a good many), or flowers (though I would have some,
planted like vegetables in a kitchen garden)—no; I would keep a
scientist to procure me flights of butterflies.

62
 NECTAR SOURCES

“Every morning I should like my butler to say, ‘The scientist, ma’am,

is on the back doorstep, awaiting today’s orders.’ Then I would answer,
Tell him, please, to release the perennial phlox fifty Tailed Cupids.
Over the Prunus he could set free some Jezebels and Wood Whites, and
take a covey of Lacewings and Leopards across to those hawthorns,’ ”
Even without Anderson’s imaginary handy scientist, it’s possible to
have flocks of fluttering butterflies elbowing up to the well-stocked bar
in your garden. And, after drinks comes the main course—the caterpil¬
lars’ food plants. And that is what we will discuss next.

63
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

There are many type of food plants. Clockwise from left: wildflowers (lupine), cultivated flowers
(hibiscus), and grasses (Bermuda grass).

64
 S I X

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS

“TJL’m not a green thumb, but I’m

rather excited about growing a butterfly garden this spring in our back¬
yard,” wrote Los Angeles Times columnist Jack Smith after learning that
passion flower vine serves as the food plant for the Gulf Fritillary.

I thought back to springs past, when I had fought savagely but

in vain against the passion vine that was violating our lovely pepper
tree, seducing it with purple flowers and squeezing it lifeless in
irresistible arms. . . . And all the time ... the passion vine was
surrendering its own flesh to my caterpillars, and in time it would
be transformed into the lovely orange, black and silver fritillary that
gave such color and motion to our acre. ... I went down to look
at the pepper tree, on our second level just at the edge of the canyon,
to see if the vine was back. I hoped so. I hated to think of a summer
without butterflies.

Many gardeners, like Smith, have no idea that certain plants in

their yards—milkweed, thistle, nettle, clover—which they have worked
so diligently to get rid of support butterfly larva or that destroying the
plants will also decimate the garden’s butterfly population. But a close
inspection of such plants will reveal a variety of larval species, which,
like the garden’s flowers, will soon burst into the bloom of maturity.

65
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

GENERALISTS AND SPECIALISTS

Just as adult butterflies display preferences in nectar sources, cat¬

erpillars feed on a limited number of food plants, the constituents of
which are required for healthy development. The number of adequate
food plants varies from species to species. Some species frequent a variety
of food plants, while others feed only on closely related members of the
same plant family, and still others require a specific genus or even species
of plant.
Species that eat a variety of food plants, like the Gray Hairstreak,
Buckeye, Painted Lady, Comma, and Mourning Cloak, usually select
the plants which at a given time of the year or in a specific region or
habitat are most succulent and abundant. Consequently, each generation
of the Spring Azure, which feeds on food plants with staggered flowering
seasons, uses a different combination of food plants. In Northern Vir¬
ginia, reports Paul Opler, the first generation chooses common dogwood
and wild cherry, while the second generation chooses New Jersey tea,
osier dogwood, and viburnum. Similarly, the northern Baltimore feeds
on turtlehead, while the southern variety chooses beardtongue. Larry
Orsak found that “the Bright Blue Copper is found on the canyon floors
but never on the south slopes,” because the butterfly’s food plant, com¬
mon buckwheat, receives more water on the canyon floor and therefore
puts out more growth and larger leaves than its siblings on the adjacent
arid slopes. Orsak also discovered that the same butterfly species uses
only three of sixty-five possible buckwheat species in southern California,
because the females prefer the large succulent leaves of the favored trio.
Related butterflies often feed on closely related members of the same
plant families. Some of these are the Monarch and Queen which feed
on milkweeds; most whites which feed on mustards; fritillaries which
feed on violets; sulphurs which feed on clovers; the Comma, Question
Mark, and Satyr Anglewing which feed on nettles; the Eastern Black
and Anise Swallowtails which feed on members of the carrot family; and
the Viceroy, White Admiral, and Red-spotted Purple which feed on
willows.
Most common butterflies which thrive discriminately on a single
food plant feed on one with a wide range, as their population growth
would otherwise be severely impeded. These specialists include some
small blues which use a single species of buckwheat for both food plant
and nectar source.
66
 LARVAL FOOD PLANTS

Thistle and other “weeds” are popular food plants and nectar sources for the Painted Lady and
other butterflies.

PLANNING FOOD PLANTS

Before planting food plants, consult other local butterfly gardeners,

regional field guides, your area’s natural history museum or entomologists,
and the appendix of this book to find out which food plants are frequented
by butterflies in your area. Remember, again, that butterfly-food plant
matches vary from region to region, so the “official” preference may not
apply in your garden. Although Painted Ladies usually feed on thistles,
they may flourish in your succulent mallow patch. And while the Viceroy
is generally fond of willows, it may find your poplar and aspen just as
inviting.

CULTIVATED PLANTS

Although wild plants compromise the majority of caterpillar food

plants, several cultivated varieties also serve as butterfly hosts. Some
which you might try are nasturtium, host to the Cabbage Butterfly;
67
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

hibiscus, frequented by the Gray Hairstreak; violets, which fritillaries

enjoy; spicebush, host to the Spicebush Swallowtail; hawthorn, eaten
by both the White Admiral and the Red-spotted Purple; cassia, food of
the Cloudless Sulphur and the Sleepy Orange; hollyhock, frequented by
the Painted Lady; and passion flower, which, as you now know, is the
food of the Gulf Fritillary. Trees—elm for the Mourning Cloak and
Question Mark, sycamore for the Western Tiger Swallowtail, pawpaw
for the Zebra Swallowtail, citrus for the Giant Swallowtail—are also
caterpillar havens. And several lawn grasses, like Bermuda grass and St.
Augustine grass, sustain satyrs and skippers.
Ty Garrison’s Los Angeles garden features a single cultivated food
plant—a gigantic passion flower vine that curls along a fence and rises
fifteen to twenty feet off the ground, covering a Chinese elm. While I
was there, several Gulf Fritillaries visited the vine. One female, con¬
tentedly sunning herself on the passion flower, was enthusiastically chased
away by three aggressive males. A short while later, she began laying
her eggs on the supple leaves of the passion flower—a concrete reminder
of the butterfly garden’s self-rejuvenation.

SHARING YOUR GARDEN PATCH

Vegetables and herbs also serve as food plants for many caterpillars.
Many whites feed on cabbage, broccoli, and collards; the Black Swallow¬
tail enjoys carrot, parsley, dill, and celery; the Alfalfa Butterfly, as its
name implies, frequents alfalfa; the Gray Hairstreak likes beans; and the
Painted Lady and West Coast Lady feed on mallow as well as other food
plants. Most butterfly gardeners find a generous planting is enough to
supply both the caterpillars and themselves, but if you want to protect
particular plants from being eaten, cover them with netting to deflect
egg-laying females, or gather the caterpillars and transfer them to the
plants you’ve reserved for butterflies.

WILDFLOWER HOSTS

Wildflowers are particular favorites of many butterflies and should

be tolerated and even nurtured by butterfly gardeners. For years Hugh
Newman battled the head gardener of Winston Churchill’s Chartwell
estate who wanted to clear the grounds of all nettlebeds. Finally, Newman

68
 LARVAL FOOD PLANTS

won approval for a number of nettlebeds. Newman advises, “Usually

nothing more than a little neglect is needed in order to establish a
nettlebed.” He further suggests growing the nettlebed “somewhere by
the rubbish heap near the garden shed,” where an open door or window
might harbor hibernating Peacocks or Small Tortoiseshells. “Then in
the spring, when they wake up again and come out to feed, a nettlebed
in the sun just round the comer may well seem inviting enough for a
female to settle there to lay her large batch of green eggs,” Newman
hypothesizes.
Other wildflower hosts include lupine, plantain, cresses, pearly ever¬
lasting, vetches, sorrel, and dock, which nurse the Common and Silvery
Blue, Buckeye, the Sara and Falcate Orangetip, American Painted Lady,
the Eastern and Western Tailed Blue, and the American and Purplish
Copper respectively. Asters, lupines, violets, thistles, milkweeds, clo¬
vers, and carrots are examples of wild food plants that also have cultivated
varieties, but sometimes larvae prefer or even require the wild varieties.
As discussed in Chapter Four, wildflowers often have specific habitat
requirements, which must be fulfilled in your garden if they are to flourish.

Passion flower, shown here with Gulf Fritillary larvae and a chrysalis, is a particularly attractive
food plant.

69
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

The willows, alders, violets, and cranberry which harbor Mourning Cloaks,
Green Commas, fritillaries, and Bog Coppers in the naturally moist
environment of the Oxen Pond botanical garden “can be grown in the
home garden by increasing the soil’s capability to retain moisture,” says
curator Bernard Jackson. He suggests adding moisture-retentive peat moss
or leafmold to the soil but stresses that good drainage is also necessary.
To create a small bog, place a shallow saucer of plastic sheeting a foot
below ground level. Cut a hole in the lowest point of the “bog” for
drainage. Then fill the basin with shredded peat. For the dedicated
gardener, habitat improvement and maintenance is an ongoing project,
he cautions.
But such manipulation of nature’s bounty can also benefit a region’s
butterfly populations. According to Jo Brewer, cudweed, a host plant of
the American Painted Lady, grows only two inches high in its natural
roadside habitat. But in rich garden soil, the plant will grow as high as
four inches and may offer additional sustenance to hungry caterpillars
that often overcrowd the tiny roadside plants.

LAWNS AND WEEDS

“Any plant is a weed if it insists upon growing where the husband¬

man wants another plant to grow. It is a plant out of place in the eye
of man; in the nice eye of nature it is very much in place,” writes Edwin
Rollin Spencer in All About Weeds. “To fail to use a form of nature,”
he continues, “is to admit defeat at its hands. . . . There is a reason, a
utilitarian reason, for loving our enemies. If we are to fight weeds all
our lives, it matters not whether we know their names or personalities,
but if we are to use them as they should be used, we need to know and
to love them.” In addition to nitrate enriching and medicinal properties
that Spencer attributes to weeds, I would add their aesthetic property as
natural butterfly nurseries.
Clover, cudweed, and wild grasses are typical “weeds” that nourish
butterfly larvae. Clover is the food plant of both sulphurs and tailed
blues and also serves as a nectar source for Tawny Skippers, Gray Hair-
streaks, and other species. Cudweed frequently colonizes dichondra lawns
and if left alone will itself be colonized by the larvae of the American
Painted Lady.

70
 LARVAL FOOD PLANTS

Tall grasses left unmowed and mixed with wildflowers create a nat¬
ural meadow that is irresistible to butterflies and ideal for the larvae of
many species. At the Schlitz Audubon Center in Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
an abundance of grasses has sparked an enormous outbreak of the Eu¬
ropean Skipper, an introduced butterfly which has not become a pest
but a valuable aesthetic and interpretive resource.
In contrast, the eradication of acres of tail-grass prairie in the central
United States, has depleted the populations of the Smoky Eyed Brown,
Regal Fritillary, Dakota Skipper, and Powesheik Skipper which feed on
grasses and wildflowers, according to Paul Opler. The preservation of
prairie butterflies, says Opler, requires preserves of at least one hundred,
and preferably one thousand acres in size. Small reserves or corridors
connecting the large conservation areas would aid immigration and col¬
onization, he claims. Butterfly gardens could play an important role in
this prairie preserve system.
In fact, many midwestem gardeners are experimenting with native
prairie grasses as a substitute for Kentucky bluegrass, because these va¬
rieties require no irrigation and nurture a variety of prairie birds, small
mammals, and insects. But suburban and urban gardeners should be
warned that a spreading garden meadow may irritate neighbors and vi¬
olate local weed control ordinances. To prevent colonization of neigh¬
boring yards, cut off flower heads before they go to seed, and try to place
your “hayfield” where it will be least invasive on bordering lawns.
One butterfly gardener I visited had a front-yard meadow dancing
with fennel, milkweed, Queen Anne’s lace, dandelion, and cultivated va¬
rieties including verbena, daisies, gaillardia, geranium, phlox, and violets.
Although his neighbors expressed initial concern, he claimed they no
longer objected to the unconventional look. “I was gonna have a meadow
here, and by George, now I have a meadow,” he remarked, surveying
the Cabbage Butterflies, West Coast Ladies, Gulf Fritillaries, Marine
Blues, and Fiery Skippers flitting over the waving grasses. The same
person hospitably provided passion flower, alfalfa, mallow, cabbage, and
dill in his backyard vegetable plot as food plants for his winged guests.
As tall grasses and meadow flowers are likely to harbor numerous
larvae throughout the butterfly season, the meadow should be mowed
only at the end of the butterfly season, and then with special care to
avoid especially active larval sites. Miriam Rothschild waits until fall to

71
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Many food plants serve related butterflies; here the Monarch (left) and Queen (right) utilize
milkweed.

cut her grass, allows a few days after mowing to enable the caterpillars
to crawl down into the shorter grass before removing the mulch, and
“for the sake of larval butterflies,” always leaves some portion of her
garden uncut.

PLANTING AND CARE OF FOOD PLANTS

In planning larval food plants, select appropriate varieties for the

particular time of year when their corresponding butterfly species are on
the wing. Food plants for early spring butterflies should be started indoors
and brought out in pots or transplanted in time to be available for egg-
laying females. Enough food plant should be planted for all generations
of a particular species, but remember, too, that the complex of variables

72
 LARVAL FOOD PLANTS

determining host choice may make your butterflies prefer different food
plants from year to year.
Food plants can be placed away from nectar sources or cultivated
beds, or scattered among them. Milkweed, thistle, aster, lupine, violets,
and everlastings are a showy complement to cultivated ornamental flow-
ers. But nettles might be better hidden behind nectar sources, where the
butterflies but not the casual observer will find them. The silvery-gray
leaves of everlasting make a beautiful counterpoint to the darker green
foliage of other plants, and fennel’s thin, lacy leaves and umbrella-shaped
flower heads bounce attractively in the shadows of flowering grasses. Like
nectar sources, food plants should be planted in dense patches to attract
a greater number of butterflies and provide ample nourishment for hungry
caterpillars.
Take care to plant food plants in the appropriate habitat for the
species which use them as hosts. Some butterflies prefer dappled sunlight
or even shade for egg-laying, while others oviposit in direct sunlight.
Potted food plants can be conveniently moved to the appropriate ex¬
posure and replaced by others when a new species is in season. Ento¬
mologist Dr. Rudi Mattoni keeps a number of potted food plants on an
east-facing, second-floor balcony at his home, where they receive plenty
of sunlight and are readily accessible for his many ongoing experiments.
The borders of gardens adjacent to walls or fences offer protection
to egg-laying females. The south-facing stone wall at the Drum Manor
Butterfly Garden provides shelter and acts as a sun trap, absorbing and
emitting heat which prolongs the growing season of the garden’s vege¬
tation. Food plants grown under trellises and canopies also receive pro¬
tection from birds and rain. The truly industrious gardener may want to
build a cage around a patch of food plants, or construct a butterfly house,
a subject which will be addressed in Chapter Seven.
Sleeving is a more tedious, but extremely effective way to insure
the survival and maturation of a larval population. Fine-mesh netting
placed over entire plants or around stems and branches of food plants
will protect the eggs, caterpillars, and pupae from birds and spiders. For
branches or stems, make a sleeve of netting that is open on both ends.
Slip it over the branch and tie it tightly on each end. Empty the sleeve
of caterpillar droppings (frass) regularly, by unwinding the string on the
low end and tapping the frass out. When most of the leaves on the
branch have been eaten, the caterpillars can be moved to an adjacent

73
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

branch and resleeved. If you want caterpillars to pupate and hatch in

these enclosures, make sure they have adequate room to maneuver.
Finally, water food plants from below so as not to drown caterpillars,
pupae, and eggs. Excessive moisture accumulation may cause infectious
bacteria or mold, which can kill larvae.

EXTENDING YOUR BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Nearby forests, prairies, and even yards can be used to further the
success of your butterfly garden. Mourning Cloaks may come to your
yard for the nectar of daisies and dogbane, but lay their eggs in the
neighbors’ boulevard elm. A nearby meadow may provide mustard and
buckwheat seeds for your fledgling hayfield, as well as a supply of eggs,
larvae, and pupae for you to gather and transplant to your garden. Re¬
member, however, to obtain permission before removing flora or fauna
from private or public property, and take care not to disturb rare native
species.
Perhaps the most natural and beautiful butterfly gardens are those
which manage to erase the boundaries between the altered surroundings
of man and the untainted abode of wild creatures. In the canyon near
my parents’ southern California home, the Western Tiger Swallowtail
feeds on California sycamore, the Anise Swallowtail hovers over fennel,
the California Sister is nursed by coast live oak, the California Ringlet
nestles among the grasses, the Lorquin’s Admiral munches willow, and
the Cabbage Butterfly flourishes on wild mustard. The Buckeye, Fiery
Skipper, Marine Blue, and Funereal Duskywing also visit the canyon.
And buckwheat, lupine, and a number of wild grasses have spread to my
parents’ canyon-facing slope. In their garden, they nurture Felicia daisies,
impatiens, marigolds, agapanthus, and other nectar producers that an¬
nounce an open invitation to the garden’s neighboring butterfly colonies.
Such a garden, as we will see in the following chapter, can be the location
of a thousand captivating observations and pleasurable activities.

74
 SEVEN

BUTTERFLY GARDEN
ACTIVITIES

iSutterfly gardening is a participa¬

tory as well as an appreciative art. Whether you observe on a casual
basis or from a scientific perspective, your study of butterfly variety and
life cycle will give you a better understanding and appreciation of the
multifaceted butterfly kingdom and perhaps engender some original
discoveries. Whatever the extent of your participation, a few pieces of
equipment—butterfly net, hand lens, field guide, and notebook—will
come in handy and enrich your experiences.

A BUTTERFLY NET

Even readers with no intention of making a butterfly collection may

need a net for identifying butterflies that seldom alight or for capturing
egg-laying females for transfer to their food plants. Nets can be purchased
from any biological supply house or hobby shop or, for slightly less cost,
can be made at home. In either case, a sturdy handle and fine netting
through which air passes through easily are essential. Fourth of July
butterfly counts conducted by the Xerces Society hold net-building parties
in which participants fashion their own nets from inexpensive but good
materials. To make your own net, bend a piece of fourteen-gauge gal¬
vanized steel wire into a circular shape and bend back both its ends into
two-inch lips. Fit a pre-made net (available at a biological supply house)
onto the steel rim, and set the lips into either side of a grooved wooden
dowel. Then press the dowel snugly into a three-foot-long piece of half¬
inch PVC piping.

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 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Stalk a butterfly slowly, and quietly, and from behind where it is

least likely to see you. A perching butterfly is easiest to capture. When
the butterfly settles, move your net swiftly across the plane of the but¬
terfly, and immediately flip the net, trapping the butterfly inside. When
the subject is on the ground, clap the net over it and lift the top of the
bag so the butterfly flies up inside.
Persistence and concentration are the keys to netting butterflies—
qualitites adroitly exhibited by my friend Rudi Mattoni one day on a
Malibu mountain road. Spying a Bernardino Blue burst away from a

Some equipment: net, container, field guide, notebook, hand lens, foreceps, glassine envelopes,
and binoculars.

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 BUTTERFLY GARDEN ACTIVITIES

buckwheat plant and across the road ahead of us, Rudi charged to the
site of the target, leading with his long-handled net, swished the net
artfully through the air, and without a hitch fell back into step alongside
me. Sure enough, the tiny blue, dazed but unharmed, fluttered in the net.
Having captured a butterfly, handle the netting gently, taking care
not to damage the fragile creature. Use forceps or tweezers rather than
your fingers to hold the butterfly. Robert Michael Pyle suggests stamp
tongs, which don’t have sharp or serrated edges. Clamp all four wings
of your subject at the base with the forceps, making sure the legs are
visible, which indicates that the wings are correctly situated over the
butterfly’s back. A proper hold will keep the butterfly still and prevent
the wings from tearing.
To release the butterfly, simply relax your grip on the forceps,
allowing the insect to fly away. Butterflies that you intend to take home
should be placed in small glassine envelopes (similar to stamp envelopes),
which can be purchased at biological supply stores. In the field, keep
the envelopes in a cooler (about the same temperature as your refriger¬
ator), which will keep the butterflies still and safe. A Band-Aid box is
an ideal container for protecting the fragile butterflies while you travel.

OPTICS

A hand lens, or strong magnifying glass, is necessary to observe the

intricacies of butterfly anatomy. Under the spell of this optical truth
serum, a butterfly’s eyes become multi-faceted bubbles, the exquisite
engineering of its proboscis fascinates and perplexes. A butterfly egg is
amplified into a tall, shiny, striated being bursting with butterfly poten¬
tial, and a caterpillar’s working mandibles become an efficient miniature
eating machine. A pair of binoculars inverted magnifies just like a hand
lens. Used in the usual way, binoculars allow you to observe distant
butterflies going about their usual business and to spot fleeting butterflies
more frequently in the field.

FIELD GUIDES

Butterfly field guides are available which cover North America,

various states, or specific regions. To locate the one most suitable for
your purposes, consult the bibliography of this book, and contact book-

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 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

stores, museums, or butterfly clubs in your area. A good field guide is

an unequaled resource for the butterfly gardener who wishes to identify
a variety of species or a particular subspecies that occurs only in a defined
area. Some field guides use arrows to point out field marks, or distinctive
markings which distinguish similar species or the sexes of a single species.
The field marks system, developed by Roger Tory Peterson, is a valuable
asset when trying to tell the Lorquin’s Admiral from the California Sister,
for instance. A field guide is also an entertaining source of interesting
butterfly natural history, and a helpful indicator of life-cycle character¬
istics and behavior.

THE FIELD NOTEBOOK

An accurate and thorough record of the observations you make

while studying butterflies, whether as a garden spectator or butterfly house
researcher, will provide an absorbing diary of your butterfly experiences
and important documentation of any incidental discoveries. Notes should
be recorded immediately after observation, so that, for example, an
orange butterfly with a yellow sheen is not described as a yellow butterfly
with an orange sheen.
A field notebook is particularly important for those who rear but¬
terflies. Caterpillar behavior should be recorded daily, hourly, and some¬
times even minute to minute depending on what you are trying to discover.
Time between moltings; response to light, darkness, heat, wind, and
touch; the lifetime of food plants placed in water; the time it takes various
species of caterpillars to consume their food plants; and the total time
it takes to raise larvae to adulthood are all valuable observations you
may want to record.
In the garden, you might want to record the time, date, location,
sex, and abundance of species you spot on the various vegetation. The
former Curator of Insects at the American Museum of Natural History,
Frank Lutz, once made a bargain with the museum’s director in which
they agreed that beginning with the 501st species of insect Lutz found
in his suburban New York lot, he would receive a salary increase of ten
dollars per additional species. The bet was never made official, but Lutz
began counting . . . and counting . . . and counting—and recording.
Eventually he tabulated 1402 species, including 35 species of butterflies
among which were the Great Spangled Fritillary, Pearly Crescentspot,

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 BUTTERFLY GARDEN ACTIVITIES

Baltimore, Question Mark, Mourning Cloak, Red Admiral, American

Painted Lady, Buckeye, Red-spotted Purple, Viceroy, Gray Hairstreak,
Spring Azure, Cabbage Butterfly, Common Sulphur, Eastern Black Swal¬
lowtail, Spicebush Swallowtail, and Tiger Swallowtail. “My salary has
not been increased,” writes Lutz in the book his research fostered, “but
I have had a lot of fun. So can you.”
Not only can you have a lot of fun, you can strengthen the attraction
of your garden to butterflies by discovering and recording their preferences
and actually contribute to the scientists’ and laymen’s understanding of
the butterfly kingdom. Your observations can be shared with neighbors,
local butterfly gardeners, or even with the readers of entomological jour¬
nals or newsletters—spreading your experience far beyond the walls of
your butterfly garden.

EXPERIMENTS

Elaborate experiments, conducted with care and persistence, are a

particularly effective way to find out which plants grow best in your
garden and which butterflies are most attracted to the habitats you’ve
provided.
When performing an experiment, use a scientific approach involving
a control group which varies from the group you are testing in only one
way. Conditions such as caterpillar age; temperature, humidity, and sun
exposure in the test site; and food plant condition should all be consid¬
ered. Complete the experiment several times on different subjects to test
the reliability of your results. An average of several test-runs should
enable you to make an informed conclusion.
A site-management experiment on the introduction of a species that
inhabits the region but has not yet become established in your yard would
be particularly interesting. Would the twenty or thirty Anise Swallowtail
larvae you bring to the fennel plants in your garden survive? How many
would mature to adulthood? Would the adult butterflies remain and
reproduce in their new habitat? What would be the effect of a violent
thunderstorm or a flock of migrating birds on the population? A study
on territoriality might reveal that a certain kind of perching post would
attract more male butterflies to your garden. As a boy, Robert Michael
Pyle noticed that male Hackberry Butterflies habitually perched on a
Chinese elm in his backyard rather than on the hackberry tree down the

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 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

block. The males did travel to the hackberry tree to court receptive
females, but continually returned to the Chinese elm, where the females
never ventured. Such an observation might be the impetus for planting
another Chinese elm or, possibly, a nearby hackberry tree.
Quantitative and qualitative information culled from your experi¬
ments and observations can be compared from year to year for a chron¬
ological, descriptive record. Such information would be valuable to your
local natural history museum or entomology club as the first installment
in a regional butterfly “data bank.” You might even compete, as bird¬
watchers do, with fellow butterfly gardeners to see who can sight and
identify the greatest numbers of species.
Creating a butterfly collection, though not a recommended garden
activity, is also an informative and valuable endeavor. As only a relatively
few specimens are collected and mounted, butterfly populations suffer
minimally, unless the particular species is extremely rare or local. Tech¬
niques for capturing, preserving, and mounting butterflies can be learned
from many field guides or from local museum curators or entomologists.
Collections document, among other things, where each species appears
and how size, markings, coloration, and other anatomical characteristics
are affected by genetic or environmental factors. They may also serve as
an educational tool to stimulate the conservation and study of butterflies.
Children are particularly fascinated with butterfly collections and may
engage in this activity as a first step toward a lifelong interest in biology.

CHILDREN AND BUTTERFLIES

An active butterfly garden can also be a learning environment for

children. A butterfly garden in the school yard could serve as an outdoor
insect laboratory for students studying the life cycle, habits, and classi¬
fication of insects including butterflies. For younger children, games could
be devised around the butterfly theme. Adoption papers listing a but¬
terfly’s species, sex, and physical description could be made out. Butterfly
kite construction would make a colorful and fun rainy-day craft. Games
with children imitating butterfly flight patterns or racing to their food
plants or nectar sources could be originated. Caterpillar races would be
most entertaining, and a butterfly Halloween costume would certainly
add levity to an otherwise frightening repertoire.

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 BUTTERFLY GARDEN ACTIVITIES

PHOTOGRAPHY

Photographing butterflies, whether in the wild or in a controlled

environment like a butterfly house, is an ideal substitute for collecting.
As with any easily frightened subject, photographing an unpredictable
butterfly is quite a challenge, but one that is reduced by the increasing
availability of sophisticated photographic equipment for close-up picture
taking. A telephoto with bellows, or macro lens between 100 and 300
millimeters will be necessary for even slightly distant subjects. When
photographing butterflies in trees or high bushes, take care to adjust for
the increase in sunlight. Additional information on close-up photography
is available in many photography books or from your local camera dealer.

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 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Warm winter days will sometimes draw butterflies out of garden hibernation boxes.

BUTTERFLY ENCLOSURES

Photographing and studying butterflies is less difficult if the insects

are confined, though not harmed, in a butterfly trap or house. A trap,
consisting of a baited platform covered by a fine netting, is also useful
for counting and gathering a number of butterflies. To make a trap,
suspend a two-foot-square piece of netting (or a butterfly net) about six
inches above a platform or tray, either by hanging the tray from the four
comers of the netting, or mounting the netting on poles surrounding
the tray. When the platform or tray is baited with rotting fruit, nectar
blossoms, or other treats, butterflies will alight on the platform; as they

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 BUTTERFLY GARDEN ACTIVITIES

naturally take to the air in a vertical direction, they will not be able to
escape.
Jo Brewer has successfully caught Question Marks, Commas, Mourn¬
ing Cloaks, Red-spotted Purples, and many moths in her cylindrical
hanging traps baited with beer, bananas, brown sugar, and yeast. One
day, she even trapped fifty-three Red Admirals! Jennifer and Denis Owen
of Leicester, England have trapped numerous butterflies in their tailored,
tent-like Malaise trap. The Owens frequently mark and release their
trapped butterflies and have discovered that most do not return to the
garden, leading them to believe that suburban gardens attract a mobile
community of butterflies.

HIBERNATION BOXES

Hibernation boxes, as the name implies, provide an artificial en¬

closure which encourages the butterflies in your garden to remain through
the cold months. A hibernation box consists of a tall narrow hollow
box, with open slits in the front. Butterflies can crawl through the slits
and cling to the inside of the box through the winter. To make one,
build a four-foot-high and approximately six-inch-square box of un¬
planed, unpainted wood. Cut one-half by three-inch (or larger) vertical
slots in the front of the box, and fashion a hinged door for the top of
the box. Ideally, line the inside of the box with rough bark or a similar
substrate to allow butterflies the best gripping surface. Then, mount the
box so that the bottom is about five feet above the ground. Mounted
tin cans, unoccupied birdhouses, and, as Hugh Newman discovered,
garden sheds, though less protected from birds and other predators, also
act as hibernation shelters.
Place hibernation boxes near the host plants of hibernating species,
so that the newly active spring butterflies will more likely lay eggs in
your garden. Hibernation boxes are especially valuable for northern gar¬
deners who may want to invite the Compton Tortoiseshell or Gray
Comma to stay the winter. Hibernating guests can be watched and
counted by opening the hinged top of the box. And your efforts may
one day be rewarded by the surprising emergence of a drowsy lepidopteran
into the warm winter sun. Should this occur, sugar-water or home-grown
blossoms will keep it busy until it retreats once again, as the evening
cools, into the shelter of its cozy box.

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 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

BUTTERFLY HOUSES

Butterfly houses provide a controlled environment for the study and

breeding of butterflies without the hazards of predation and weather.
They range in size from a cage of mesh covering a baby’s playpen to a
greenhouse complete with heating and ventilation systems, artificial light,
and mist sprayers to simulate humidity. Hugh Newman recommends a
cage made of mosquito netting attached to a number of movable stakes sur¬
rounding whatever nectar source is blooming at the time. Jo Brewer uses
a large, boxlike camping tent for rearing and observation. The New York
Zoological Society scientists in Trinidad initially housed their study sub¬
jects in a nine-foot-high enclosure called Flutter Inn. This structure was
later replaced by an aluminum-framed bungalow standing directly adja¬
cent to the team’s own living quarters. Whichever you choose, the
enclosure should be wind resistant, large enough to allow room for short
flights, and, of course, well stocked with nectar or other nourishment
sources for imagoes and food plants for growing caterpillars.

BUTTERFLY HOUSES AROUND THE WORLD

Though few and scattered, the world’s public butterfly houses attract
a great many intrigued visitors. The London Butterfly House in Syon
Park is a ten thousand-square-foot glass greenhouse containing hundreds
of native and exotic butterflies. Chinese painted quail, which are reluc¬
tant flyers, roam between the ponds and the waterfalls eating predatory
spiders and ants. The larvae of the South American Owl Butterfly,
tropical swallowtails, and Golden Birdwing feast on banana trees, citrus,
and Aristolochia vines. And a whole host of other fluttering rainbows
nectar on lantana, buddleia, hoya, African marigold, and a potion of
fruit, honey, and rum. The proprietor, Clive Farrell, has recently opened
butterfly houses in Edinburgh, Weymouth, and Stratford-on-Avon.
Also in England, Worldwide Butterflies runs a butterfly house in a
fifty-room mansion in Sherborne filled with tropical plants and exotic
butterflies. Proprietor Robert Goodden breeds and sells butterflies to
students, couples who want to release them at weddings, and producers
of television commercials and movies. The same group also operates the
Lullingstone Silk Farm which has been commissioned to produce silk for
royal garments.

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 BUTTERFLY GARDEN ACTIVITIES

A butterfly house, containing: nectar sources and larval food plants (potted or in soil), rearing
containers, and butterflies.

Tokyo’s Tama Zoological Park features a butterfly hot house where

the Japanese Blue Monarch, Small White Butterfly, and five swallowtail
species, among others, mature and reproduce before enthralled visitors.
At least 50 of Sri Lanka’s 242 butterfly species live in the Dehiwela
Zoological Gardens’ eighth-of-an-acre greenhouse. A $450,000 butterfly
house for 365 species is being constructed in Australia’s Melbourne Zoo.
And the U.S., too, may soon join the roster of countries with large
public butterfly houses. The National Zoo in Washington, D.C. plans
to develop a national butterfly center complete with both a butterfly
house and garden. The New York Zoological Society is considering a
similar facility.

85
 EIGHT

HOW TO REAR
BUTTERFLIES

ft
JL Vearing butterflies, an absorbing
activity for the butterfly gardener cum amateur entomologist, can increase
the abundance of butterflies in your garden and be a rewarding experience
in itself. Rearing stock can be obtained from the wild in any stage of
the life cycle or from biological supply houses.

OBTAINING EGGS

To obtain eggs in the wild, either gather them after a female has
laid them or search for them on the food plant favorite of a particular
species. Do not remove the eggs from the leaves on which they have
been laid. Rather, gather the stems or even the entire branch holding
the eggs and take them to your garden. Then place the stems in water
where they should remain fresh for a week or so until the eggs hatch;
the same stems will provide the first food plant for the newly hatched
caterpillars.
Eggs can also be obtained by capturing a female and keeping her in
a cage with potted or cut food plant until she lays her eggs. Since females
mate very shortly after emergence, the female you catch is likely to
already have mated and will then lay her fertile eggs within a few days.
Nectar blossoms or a paper towel saturated with sugar- or honey-water
should be provided for the ovipositing female.

86
 HOW TO REAR BUTTERFLIES

CATERPILLARS

Learn which food plants and caterpillars are indigenous to your

region. Holes in leaves often give away the presence of caterpillars.
Remember to look on the undersides of leaves, as this is where caterpillars
usually rest. Larvae, like eggs, will be far safer in your home than in the
wild, and rearing them may bolster an adult population of a particular
species in your neighborhood. This fact was rudely brought home to me
one day while I was vigorously collecting Gulf Fritillary larvae from a
passion flower vine. With my bag nearly full of late instar larvae—which
would pupate within a matter of days, but were still not as many as I
had hoped to collect—I returned to the site of an early instar caterpillar
I had earlier passed over. Suddenly there was a lightning-fast movement
toward the caterpillar, and then the tiny victim was simply gone. What¬
ever had grabbed it had been so fast that I only saw a blur—a harsh
reminder of caterpillar vulnerability.

PUPAE

Although butterflies’ well-camouflaged chrysalises are extremely hard

to find, the eagle-eyed observer will sometimes find them on the stems
of food plants, attached to walls, fences, logs, or trees, or under the
eaves of a house. The color of a species’ chrysalis may provide a clue to
the backgrounds against which it will pupate. Robert Wuttken, a Santa
Monica butterfly gardener, reports that the Anise Swallowtails which
feed on his fennel plants like to pupate on a nearby weather-beaten wood
fence, against which the brown chrysalises are almost indistinguishable.
When gathering either pupae, caterpillars, or eggs, take the op¬
portunity to learn the life-stage characteristics of various species. The
Mourning Cloak, Compton Tortoiseshell, Baltimore, and checkerspots
lay their eggs in clusters and, as larvae, feed communally. The Viceroy
and other admirals overwinter in hibemaculi constructed from food plant
leaves and silk. Because swallowtail larvae feed individually they may
appear quite suddenly on a food plant which you have repeatedly in¬
spected and even given up on.

87
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

COMMERCIAL SUPPLIERS

A number of suppliers sell eggs, larvae, and pupae to school groups,

scientists, photographers, collectors, and other individuals. Insect Lore
Products in California produces a “Butterfly Garden” rearing kit con¬
taining Painted Lady and Buckeye larvae that also comes in a classroom
version. Breeder of Lepidoptera John Staples, in Rochester, New York,
sells Eastern Black Swallowtail, Red Admiral, Orange Sulphur, and Com¬
mon Sulphur eggs by the dozen or the hundred; Spicebush Swallowtail
pupae individually or by the dozen; and several species of moth eggs and
pupae. Such purchased stock, if the species is also indigenous to your
region, should adapt well to your garden.

REARING CONTAINERS

Rearing containers vary from the simple jam jar with holes punched
in the top to customized kennel-sized cages. Many standard containers—
aquariums, cardboard boxes, jars—can be improvised for rearing cages,
or you can design and build your own. In any case, several criteria should
be met. A tight lid or fine netting will prevent wandering caterpillars
from escaping. The cage should be well ventilated to prevent disease-
causing mold and bacteria from growing. Direct sunlight may be too warm
for eggs, caterpillars, and pupae, but short spells of sunlight will help the
newly emerged butterflies to dry and pump up their wings. A rough surface
from which pupae can hang is also necessary. And make certain that
there is enough room for the young imagoes to spread their wings.
Clear plastic boxes about the size of a shoe box can be used to house
a few caterpillars. The Cabbage Butterfly and many other species can
pupate right on the smooth sides, but many species will need a rougher
surface. Line the bottom of the box with slightly damp paper toweling
which will create enough humidity to keep the caterpillars from drying
out and be easily removable for cleaning. Using a heated nail, punch
holes in each side of the box for ventilation, and cover them with fine
mesh. More ventilation will be created as you replace the old food plant
with new.
A large potted food plant or window box covered with netting
supported by a frame also works well as a rearing cage. Simply place a
branch in the pot, drape the netting over the branch, and fasten the

88
 HOW TO REAR BUTTERFLIES

netting securely to the sides of the pot with a rubber band or string. Wire
stretched over window boxes to form a dome and covered with netting
works just as well. Californian Tony Leigh’s self-made rearing cage consists
of two eight-inch cake tins and a twelve-inch-wide section of window
screening. After wrapping the screening into a cylinder and stapling it
securely, he places one cake tin underneath it and one on top—a setup
which makes his caterpillars both accessible and easy to see.
Cardboard boxes can be variously manipulated to create rearing
cages. In my apartment, I raise caterpillars in a small square cardboard

A rearing set-up, including cut food plant, a stick for pupating caterpillars, and protective
netting.

89
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

box containing two glass jars. The lid of one jar is pierced with holes
for food plant stems; the jar is filled with water to keep the food plant
fresh. The other contains a branch packed in dirt, which supports a net
covering and provides a pupating surface. The netting is secured around
the box with a rubber band. Tom Dimock goes one step further and cuts
away all but the margins of the sides and top of a cardboard box, leaving
a simple cardboard frame. He covers the openings with fine nylon mesh,
allowing him to see the active caterpillars from any perspective. On one
side of the box, he fashions a hinged doorway for removing frass and
replacing food plant.
Dimock also uses a larger cage (approximately two by two by four
feet) for rearing large broods. When I visited him, there were half a
dozen Red Admirals flying among the nettle plants inside. Large and
small cages can also be purchased from biological supply houses.

CATERPILLAR CARE

Though by nature hardy, independent creatures, caterpillars need

proper attention and care. A constant supply of fresh food plants—young
tender leaves for young caterpillars, a combination of young and mature
leaves for older larvae—will keep your brood from starving or pupating
prematurely because they run short of food. Hungry older caterpillars
may consume more than you expect, so a back-up food source may come
in handy. Avoid using plants from busy roadsides that may be contam¬
inated by car exhaust or ones that have been sprayed with insecticide
or herbicide. Let plants that need rinsing dry before feeding them to
caterpillars. One night, having gone out to a roadside patch of fennel
for my hungry charges, I was surprised to discover the familiar black and
white blotch of an early instar Anise Swallowtail caterpillar. Searching
the rest of the leaves, I found two more young larvae. The trio, which
I took home to raise with my other caterpillars, was a rewarding sidelight
to what had begun as a simple trip to the “grocery.”
Food plants should be replaced at least once a week, though some
will wilt within a day and others will last as long as two weeks. Packing
damp soil or sand around cut food plants will often keep them longer
than water. Extra food plants can be kept fresh in tightly closed plastic
bags in the refrigerator, or in jars of water, covered with plastic, and

90
 HOW TO REAR BUTTERFLIES

A joyful moment—releasing a newly-hatched Checkered White.

stored in the refrigerator. Cut food plants at an angle with a razor blade
or sharp scissors for maximum water absorption.
When changing the food plant, avoid handling the caterpillars ex¬
cessively. Children will particularly enjoy the cool varied texture of larval
skin and hair, but should be instructed to handle gently. Tiny caterpillars
can be moved by allowing them to crawl onto a small paint brush and
then off again onto the new food plant. When using cut food plants in
water, cover any open areas around stems into which caterpillars might
fall and drown.
Do not disturb a caterpillar that is beginning to molt, as it is attached
to the leaf with silk. The silk holds its old skin in place while it works
to get free from it. If moved, it may not escape from the old skin and
will die. Newly molted larvae are extremely fragile and should not be
handled or bumped.

91
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Also place some food plant flush with the bottom and sides of your
container, so that wanderers will find ample food. Caterpillars that are
ready to pupate are particularly prone to wandering and will need to be
watched, lest they escape. A Gulf Fritillary larva once found its way
three-quarters of the way up my wall where it was just about to spin its
silk pupating pad when I found it! A rough surface like a branch or a
piece of bark should be provided for pupating larvae.

CHRYSALIS CARE

Chrysalises are extremely fragile and should not be handled fre¬

quently or roughly. In areas of low humidity, pupae should be sprayed
weekly with a fine mist. Collected in the wild, they should be taken
with their stems or the strip of bark to which they are attached and kept
carefully in the same position in which they are hanging. If the pupa is
attached to an immovable surface like a fence or house, slice the silk
pad with a razor blade close to the point of attachment or slowly and
gently twist the pupa off the silk pad (taking care not to squeeze the
pupa out of shape). Then attach the pupa to a piece of cardboard or
bark, with a tiny drop of glue or, if there is a strand of silk protruding,
with a piece of tape. Swallowtails attach themselves with a silken girdle
as well as a silk pad. The girdle can be replaced with a loop of thread
and taped to a new surface, keeping the pupa at the same angle at which
you found it.
A butterfly rearer’s pupa-handling skills will sooner or later be put
to the test, as mine once were when my desire to photograph two Mon¬
arch pupae on the branch I had provided in my rearing cage forced me
to remove the net covering on which a third larva had unpredictably
pupated. As I lifted the netting to remove the chrysalis, it caught on
the branch, causing the chrysalis to fall. Fortunately, the unraveling silk
pad caught on a protrusion and broke the pupa’s fall. After cutting away
the excess silk, I attached the chrysalis to a piece of cardboard with tape
and laid the cardboard over a small box. Four days later, to my relief
and satisfaction, a healthy Monarch butterfly emerged into adulthood.
The box I transferred my Monarch to is called an emerging cage and is
often a convenient way to separate adults from caterpillars and to insure
that imagoes have enough room to spread their wings.

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 HOW TO REAR BUTTERFLIES

To coax a butterfly to sip from blossoms or sugar water, hold it firmly with forceps and gently
unwind its proboscis with a toothpick.

CARE OF CAPTIVE FEMALES

Females bred from eggs in your cage or captured in the wild to

produce eggs for rearing need fresh nectar blossoms or a solution of sugar-
or honey-water. Egg-laying females should be watched closely and re¬
leased when they have laid the number of eggs you desire. Cut blossoms
should be changed daily, as they produce a limited amount of nectar. A
sugar solution will become more concentrated as it evaporates, and there¬
fore, should be monitored to maintain a mixture dilute enough for the
butterflies’ sensitive proboscises.
A petri dish or plastic lid filled with paper toweling, cotton, or
unscented tissue paper saturated (but not too soggy) with solution is
particularly attractive to butterflies, because they can walk on the pad
as well as drink from it. Tom Dimock elevates the feeding dish on a
pedestal, which gives the dish greater sun exposure and simulates the
butterflies’ natural above-the-ground flight area. He also places moistened
tissue paper on top of the cage netting; butterflies cling to the underside
of the netting and sip from the sweet surface.
If a butterfly does not nectar on its own, its appetite may be stim¬
ulated by placing its tarsi on the solution-saturated padding. Jocelyn
Crane perks up butterflies that are undergoing post-capture shock with
a three-foot-long wand affixed with lantana blossoms. A bit of honey on
the blossom, slid under the butterfly’s proboscis, is like a piece of choc¬
olate cake offered to a small boy in the dumps, she comments. As a
last resort, hold the butterfly firmly with a forceps and carefully unroll

93
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

its proboscis with a toothpick. After a brief struggle, the butterfly will
usually begin to sip the close-at-hand nectar. A Gulf Fritillary with a
damaged wing, which spent six weeks crawling from its box, frequently
required assisted feedings when it was reluctant to feed itself from the
cut blossoms and sugar-water I provided.

REARING TIMETABLES

The metamorphosis of a butterfly is naturally regulated by and in¬

tertwined with the turning of the seasons. Consequently, the butterfly
rearer must be familiar with the overwintering habits of the species he
raises and the ways in which seasonal changes can be simulated to prompt
hibernation and emergence.
In mild climates, caterpillars often overwinter in a substrate of dead
leaves or other debris. The Baltimore and many skippers, for instance,
spend the cold months in tiny leaf shelters, but crumpled paper toweling
will suffice for a cage lining. In many cases these species require a freeze
to break diapause. A freeze can be simulated by placing the larvae in a
container in the refrigerator for about eight weeks. In cold climates,
caterpillars should not be left to overwinter in an outdoor cage, but
should be refrigerated until the air warms up. Never put caterpillars or
butterflies in any life stage into the freezer.
Butterflies that overwinter as chrysalises, such as swallowtails, should
not be allowed to hatch in winter unless you intend to nurture them
indoors with sweetened solution or potted nectar sources. Instead, store
the pupae in a cool spot, like the garage or potting shed. Spray them
regularly with a fine mist and, when the weather warms, open the door
so that the newly emerged butterflies can escape and find nectar sources.
The full-grown individuals of species that hibernate as adults can
be released even in winter, or may be allowed to hibernate in your attic
or garage. Of course, if you tend an indoor butterfly house, you can raise
brood after brood throughout the year.
In some cases, you may want to refrigerate pupae. Most of a brood
of swallowtails will emerge the first spring after hibernation; the re¬
mainder will rest silent and still until the next spring. Staggered emer¬
gence times reduce the possibility of total population destruction due to
drought or other natural disaster. But a simulated combination of day-

94
 HOW TO REAR BUTTERFLIES

length and winter (refrigeration) may fool the butterflies’ instinctive

timetable and prompt them to emerge sooner than they would naturally.
Tony Leigh placed a number of Indra Swallowtail pupae which did
not hatch with the rest of their brood, in the refrigerator for a month.
Ten days after removing them to a bed of damp paper toweling and
misting them twice a day, they began to hatch. Apparently his care
seemed to the butterflies to be a second cold winter, spring’s warmth,
and the soft spring rains.

FROM REARING TO BREEDING

The leap from rearing caterpillars to mating adult butterflies is short

and exciting. A male and a female reared in suitable rearing cage con¬
ditions and left together will likely mate. With ample sunlight, nectar
sources, and food plant available, the female will lay her eggs right in
the cage.
Tom Dimock goes to elaborate means to make sure his Gulf Fritil-
laries mate. Observation and experimentation have taught Dimock that
sunlight, a light breeze, and temperatures between 75 and 80° Fahrenheit
are perfect conditions for butterfly mating. With this in mind, he takes
mating pairs in boxes to work with him. At lunchtime, he places the
boxes on the front seat of his car, opens the car windows, and waits for
the grand event. Particularly reluctant butterflies can be hand-paired, a
procedure described as follows in Robert Michael Pyle s Handbook: Flold-
ing each partner in one hand with tweezers, place their abdomens gently
together and stroke them back and forth softly. As the male s claspers
spread apart, insert the female’s rear with very little pressure.”
Captive breeding is the ideal environment for controlled, ongoing
experiments, and allows genetic characteristics to be studied over several
generations. Dimock once bred seven generations of Gulf Fritillaries by
mating light and dark colored descendents of a single female with others
of similar coloring. The last generations displayed two dissimilar phe¬
notypes—one with a nearly all black upperside, the other with a uniform
orange one—in striking contrast to the original female which had a
normal orange upperside with regular black markings.
Rearing and breeding also allows you the ultimate satisfaction of
watching your charges fly freely into the wild. Whether, like Arlene

95
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Hoffman, you release a brood of majestic Monarchs from a Manhattan

office complex or set a flock of fritillaries free above your blossoming
verbena, the sheer joy of it will bring home to you once again the pleasures
of butterfly gardening.

96
 NINE

CONSERVATION OF
BUTTERFLIES

jj^^obert Michael Pyle calls the de¬

cline of not only endangered species, but of local butterfly populations
in areas inhabited by man the “extinction of experience.” “Suppose a
creature dies out within your ‘radius of reach’—the area to which you
have easy access,” he explains. “In some respects, it might as well be
gone altogether, because you will not be able to see it as you could
before.” Such extinction of experience makes people more isolated from
and less caring of nature, says Pyle, but “the retention of wildlife in the
cities and suburbs goes a long way toward maintaining the essential bond
between people and nature that breeds a sense of stewardship and re¬
sponsibility for the land and its life far beyond city limits.”
Butterfly gardens, as we have seen, increase habitat availability for
butterflies and inspire the relationship between nature and man which
can only work for the benefit of both humans and butterflies. Still, the
pressures of habitat destruction, pollution, and, to a lesser degree, com¬
mercial harvesting, continue to threaten many butterfly populations.
“Once almost entirely neglected in favor of larger, furrier animals, but¬
terflies and other beneficial insects under threat have gained much at¬
tention lately,” comments Pyle. “This change of attitude is coming none
too quickly, and it is not at all certain that it has come in time. We are
beginning to realize that, without great care, we could lose much of the
world’s precious butterfly resource.”

97
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

CAUSES OF BUTTERFLY DECLINE

Natural disasters like drought, wildfire, prolonged hot or cold spells,

and flood, affecting either butterflies or their food plants, can wipe out
entire butterfly colonies. Collection and commercial distribution also
deplete butterfly populations, but except where a species is extremely
rare or local, experts agree that these activities have a minimal impact
on a prolific insect. In Taiwan, where millions of butterflies are collected
annually to supply the worldwide market for butterfly-adorned objects,
butterfly populations rebound. Frequently, commercial ventures contrib¬
ute to butterfly conservation. Project Papillon uses vacated tomato green¬
houses on the British Channel Island of Guernsey to raise butterflies for
export. In addition to selling butterflies and drawing tourists to the island,
the group is providing several thousand butterflies for reintroduction in
Hampstead Heath, where they have become scarce. In Papua New Guinea,
the rarest of the large and colorful birdwing butterflies are protected
insects; butterfly farmers rear the common species, returning as many to
the wild as they sell.
In the developing countries of the butterfly-rich tropics, the most
serious threat to butterfly populations is the destruction of their natural
forest habitats. The draining of wetlands, development of land for ur¬
banization, and conversion of open country to agricultural monocultures
can decimate species with narrow ranges, and kill entire colonies of wide-
ranging species. The unregulated use of herbicides on roadsides and other
areas further damages the habitat corridors traveled by wide-ranging spe¬
cies. Already urban expansion has led to the extinction of the San
Francisco Peninsula’s Xerces Blue, and habitat destruction is responsible
for the inclusion of ten other butterflies on the U.S. Endangered Species
List.

HABITAT PROTECTION

The protection and addition of habitat areas suitable for butterflies

is, therefore, the primary butterfly conservation approach. Your garden
can serve as a valuable habitat resource. Rearing and releasing butterflies
may also augment populations, as an egg nurtured in your home is more
likely to survive to adulthood than one in the wild. With few excep¬
tions—the Cabbage Butterfly and the Orange Sulphur among them—

98
 CONSERVATION OF BUTTERFLIES

The migratory Monarch spends the winter clinging to trees on the California coast and in Mexico.
Tragically, these sites are threatened by development and lumbering, respectively.

butterfly species do not adapt well to human environments. So your

efforts to nurse a natural island within the sea of urban expansion,
particularly on the behalf of any rare local species, can encourage their
ongoing prosperity.
Persuading local officials to cut roadsides in late summer rather than
spraying them in spring would also protect an important butterfly habitat.
Planted areas could be trimmed when the butterflies have completed
their life cycle, insuring also that abundant new growth will be available
for a later generation of caterpillars. Abandoned railway lines provide
ideal butterfly habitats. Abundant with wildflowers, they make excellent
nature trails for hikers and butterfly watchers as well as overflowing nectar
corridors for butterflies.

99
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Botanical gardens are another habitat that deserve protection in a

butterfly conservation program. According to Bernard Jackson, butter¬
flies in botanical gardens help maintain the area’s Lepidoptera gene pool,
pollinate vegetation so that seeds can be collected, enrich interpretive
programs, and attract photographers, naturalists, and tourists with a
flourish of color and movement.

GARDEN CLUBS

Garden club members are among the foremost butterfly conserva¬

tionists. According to Eve A. Hannahs, chairman of Butterfly Conser¬
vation and Preservation for the National Council of State Garden Clubs
(NCSGC) overseeing more than ten thousand member clubs, members
cultivate butterfly gardens in city parks and botanical gardens, on road¬
sides, school grounds, club properties, historical sites, hospital grounds,
and even at a state prison. The groups also conduct workshops and nature
walks about butterflies, display exhibits, and write articles about butter¬
flies for state and national publications. The Florida Federation of Garden
Clubs has begun a sponsorship program for threatened butterflies. Garden
club members sponsoring the endangered Schaus’ Swallowtail have planted
acres of torchwood, the butterfly’s food plants, and plan to introduce
the butterfly into this habitat.
In cooperation with the Federal Highway Administration and state
highway administrations, NCSGC has founded Operation Wildflower,
to promote the proliferation of wildflowers along federal highways. With
the garden clubs’ guidance and seed contributions, federal crews plant
and maintain roadside butterfly gardens. In addition to providing seasonal
color and insect preserves, the project enhances erosion control and
reduces landscaping and road maintenance costs.
Other groups also advocate wildflower propagation and, hence, the
conservation of butterflies. The New England Wild Flower Society and
the Soil Conservation Society of America each produce a list of regional
native plant and wildflower nurseries. Author of The Woman’s Day Book
of Wildflowers, Jean Hersey, reports that Texas highway crews delay mow¬
ing each year until the seeds of wildflowers have fallen. Miles of blue¬
bonnets, passion flower, gaillardia, red clover, and sunflower—valuable
butterfly nectar and food sources—line the state’s highways. In Georgia,
adds Hersey, the highway department removed a stand of birdfoot violet

100
 CONSERVATION OF BUTTERFLIES

before grading a slope, and replaced the flowers when the grading was
complete.

WILDLIFE GROUPS AND ENTOMOLOGICAL

SOCIETIES -

The Backyard Wildlife Program sponsored by the National Wildlife

Federation designates thousands of residential yards as miniature wildlife
refuges. The federation distributes a kit to teach residents how to create
such a refuge, including mention of butterfly requirements, and makes
available a list of other residents in each state who have joined the
program. The Massachusetts Audubon Society cultivates a butterfly gar¬
den at its Endicott Regional Center in Wenham. And the Palos Verdes
Peninsula Audubon Society conducts a local butterfly count as part of
the Xerces Society’s national Fourth of July Butterfly Count.
Local entomological societies, often operating out of natural history
museums, provide valuable information about butterflies and threatened
species. The Lorquin Entomological Society in Los Angeles, for instance,
recently reported that the southern Florida Atala butterfly, believed to
be extinct, can now be observed in several locations near Miami.
The Xerces Society is an international conservation organization
dedicated to the protection of rare and endangered butterflies and other
invertebrates and their habitats. Each year, the society coordinates a
tabulation of different species and the number of butterflies of each species
seen by groups across the country on or around the Fourth of July.
Compiled and compared from year to year, these data help identify
butterfly population trends and problem habitats. The society also pro¬
vides self-help sheets with instructions on creating, organizing, and man¬
aging community butterfly reserves, as well as other topics. Xerces works
closely with garden clubs to prepare and distribute regional butterfly
gardening information packets.

THE BUTTERFLY BLUES

In addition to the ten butterfly species that already occupy the U.S.
Endangered Species list, thiry-one other butterfly species have been pro¬
posed for protected status. This figure gives an indication of the prob¬
lems faced by uncommon butterfly species.

101
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

The El Segundo Blue, listed as an endangered species since 1976,

lives only in certain coastal locations in Southern California. Once
ranging over thirty-six square miles, the butterfly is now found only on
two different sites. On the smaller of these sites, several concerned
organizations have worked to remove an introduced ice plant that was
competing with the butterfly’s buckwheat food plant, and have arranged
for additional buckwheat to be planted. The El Segundo Blue population
on that site is now increasing. While the fate of the larger site remains
undecided, high level negotiations are underway to preserve at least its
central area.
When the Palos Verdes Blue was designated as an endangered species
in 1980, the few locoweed patches where it was known to feed were
given federal protection as critical habitats. But in 1983, a baseball
diamond was built on a section of the butterfly’s most populated habitat,
and the following spring two other locoweed patches were destroyed.
Although sightings were common in 1981, no more than half a dozen

The Atala butterfly, thought to be extinct, has made a comeback recently.

102
 CONSERVATION OF BUTTERFLIES

Wildflowers planted along roadsides support communities of butterflies.

Palos Verdes Blues were seen in 1983, and in 1984 and 1985, no sightings
whatsoever were made during its February and March flying season. If
the Palos Verdes Blue has become extinct, it would be the first time one
of the 286 species protected by the Endangered Species Act has become
extinct.
Efforts to preserve other species have been more auspicious. Con-
servationists and developers in Albany, New York have worked together
to prevent the destruction of the Kamer pine bush, habitat of the Kamer
Blue. As development reduced this sandy pine barrens to a fraction of
its former size, the Xerces Society and other groups moved to persuade
local and state authorities to establish a sixty-five hectare reserve for the
Kamer Blue and other rare species indigenous to the area. Subsequently
a study revealed the need for a larger reserve and as conservation efforts
increased, compromise flourished. Nearly a thousand acres of Kamer
pine bush now lie in protected public ownership. Conservation Officer
Don Rittner, who has followed the course of the debate, estimates that
100,000 Kamer Blues now survive on the Albany City Reserve.
A city ordinance in Pacific Grove, California, where thousands of
Monarchs winter annually, makes it “unlawful for any person to molest
or interfere with in any way the peaceful occupancy of the Monarch
Butterflies.” Nevertheless, development continues to impinge on the

103
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Monarch. The Xerces Society’s Monarch Project, promoting the alter¬

native income available from tourism on Monarch preserves, is taking
steps to halt development in Californian Monarch groves and restrict
lumbering in the butterfly’s Mexican overwintering sites.

WHY PROTECT BUTTERFLIES

Like the California condor, whooping crane, and grizzly bear, but¬
terflies deserve protection. Unlike the relatively few insect pests, but¬
terflies benefit agricultural and botanical efforts by pollinating flowers.
As prey for other insects, rodents, and birds, butterflies play an important
role in the foodchain. They also contribute to medical and biological
research on hereditary characteristics and provide scientists with oppor¬
tunities to study insect variation, fertility, population dynamics, and
evolution. Finally, as every butterfly gardener knows, they provide a
unique aesthetic resource. The extinction of the Xerces Blue represents
the loss of one tile in the mosaic of butterfly variety, but the remainder
of the unimaginably rich artwork need not become a shameful passage
in the pages of evolution.
In fact, because many butterflies inhabit such limited ranges, they
serve as sensitive ecological indicators, revealing the health or ills of the
habitats in which they live, and thus of their fellow inhabitants. Iron¬
ically, even as butterflies’ small colonies are difficult to protect, small,
dispersed colonies also make it likely that most butterflies will escape
total destruction. But the decline of butterfly numbers as a whole indi¬
cates the extent to which our environment has been robbed of its natural
features. And unless people are educated about butterflies’ needs and
dangers, the fate of the Xerces Blue awaits many more species. Butterfly
gardeners may have the satisfaction of playing a small role in preserving
our rich butterfly resource.

104
APPENDICES

105
 APPENDICES

FIFTY COMMON GARDEN also milkweed, butterfly bush, mallow,

buttonbush, red clover, vetch, mint, self-
BUTTERFLIES heal, privet, scabiosa, dogbane, sweet
pepperbush, winter cress, salt heli¬
The following list contains fifty common
otrope.
species of butterflies that you may be able ON WING: May-November, year-round in
to attract to your garden. While not all of
far South.
these occur regularly in towns and gardens,
BROODS: Two-four.
each should be compatible to butterfly gar¬ HIBERNATES AS: Adult or chrysalis.
den culture. Representatives have been se¬ HABITATS: Open areas, meadows, stream-
lected from each region of the country. The
sides.
ranges refer to distribution in the lower special FEATURES: Adults may be able to
forty-eight states. overwinter in North. Exhibits some em¬
igratory behavior. Butterfly often basks
BRUSH-FOOTED BUTTERFLIES on bare ground. Visits moist spots. Eggs
(Nymphalidae) laid singly. Caterpillar constructs nest of
American Painted Lady silk, leaves, and other plant material.
(Vanessa virginiensis) Large “eye spots” distinguish it from other
ladies.
RANGE: Entire U. S., but much scarcer in
the West than in the East. Buckeye
FOOD PLANT: Various species of everlasting, (Junonia coenia)
including pearly everlasting (Anaphalis
margaritacea), sweet everlasting (Gnu- RANGE: Southern U.S., spreading north¬
phalium obtusifolium), plantain-leaved ward in summer.
pussy toes (Antennaria plantaginifolia); FOOD PLANT: Various members of the snap¬
other members of the daisy family (Com- dragon family (Scrophulariaceae), in¬
positae), including burdock (Arctium), cluding snapdragon (Antirrhinum),
ironweed (Vemonia), wormwood (Ar¬ toadflax (Linaria), false foxglove (Au-
reolaria), monkey flower (Mimulus), fig-
temisia).
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Composites such as wort (Scrophularia); plantain (Plantago);
thistle, knapweed, common yarrow, verbena (Verbena); ruellia (Ruellia nodi'
goldenrod, aster, marigold, and zinnia; flora).

107
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

NECTAR PREFERENCES: Composites such as FOOD PLANT: Various species of violet (Vi¬
aster, knapweed, gumweed, tickseed- ola).
sunflower, chicory, and coreopsis; also NECTAR PREFERENCES: Composites such as
plantain, wild buckwheat, peppermint, thistle, Joe-Pye-weed, ironweed, black-
dogbane, milkweed. eyed Susan, and purple coneflower; also
ON WING: March-October, year-round in cardinal flower, bergamot, red clover,
far South. vetch, milkweed, verbena, mountain
BROODS: Two-four. laurel, New Jersey tea.
HIBERNATES AS: Probably unable to hiber¬ ON WING: June-September.
nate in cold areas. BROODS: One.
HABITATS: Open areas, meadows, fields, HIBERNATES AS: Newly hatched caterpillar.
roadsides, shorelines. HABITATS: Open areas, woodlands, moist
SPECIAL FEATURES: Emigrates northward in meadows, roadsides.
spring, broadly in fall. Fond of basking SPECIAL FEATURES: The largest fritillary.
on bare ground and visiting mud pud¬ Especially fond of thistles. Floats with a
dles. Exhibits territorial behavior. Males slow, gradual flight when relaxed and
perch and patrol, searching for females. pauses to nectar at length, affording ex¬
Impermanent garden guests, except in cellent photographic opportunities.
the South.
Gulf Fritillary
Comma
(Agraulis mnillae)
(Polygonia comma)
RANGE: Southern U.S., visiting middle lat¬
RANGE: Entire U.S. from Great Plains east.
itudes in summer.
FOOD PLANT: Hops (Humulus), nettle (Ur-
FOOD PLANT: Various species of passion
tica), false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica),
flower (Passiflora).
wood nettle (Laportea canadensis), elm
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Lantana, composites
(Ulmus).
such as beggar-ticks and thistle; also pas¬
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Rotting fruit, sap,
sion flower, cordia.
flowers such as butterfly bush, ivy, Mi¬
ON WING: Early spring to winter, year-round
chaelmas daisy, hebe, showy stonecrop,
in far South.
dandelion.
BROODS: Multiple.
ON WING: Spring-fall.
HIBERNATES AS: Cannot overwinter where
BROODS: Two in North, three in South.
frost occurs.
HIBERNATES AS: Adult.
HABITATS: Open areas, fields, forest edges,
HABITATS: Open woodlands, streamsides,
pastures, canyons.
roadsides.
SPECIAL FEATURES: Emigrates north. Fast¬
SPECIAL FEATURES: Silvery “comma” mark
flying. Males patrol in search of females.
on underside of each hindwing. Butterfly
A very suitable butterfly for southern cit¬
also called the Hop Merchant, because
ies, easy to rear and habituate to gardens.
of its caterpillars’ fondness for hops. Cat¬
A longwing rather than a true fritillary,
erpillar constructs a shelter from a leaf
yet silver-spotted and spectacular.
of the food plant. Habits similar to Ques¬
tion Mark; both have early and late sea¬
Hackberry Butterfly
son forms.
(Asterocampa celtis)
Great Spangled Fritillary
(Speyeria cybele) RANGE: Most of U.S. east of the Dakotas,
and Arizona.
RANGE: Most of U.S., except extreme FOOD PLANT: Various species of hackberry
Southeast. (Celtis).

108
 APPENDICES

NECTAR PREFERENCES: Rotting fruit, sap, FOOD PLANT: Willow (Salix), elm (Ulmus),
dung, carrion, flowers such as milkweed. poplar, aspen, cottonwood (Populus),
ON WING: May-October, depending on k> birch (Betula), hackberry (Celtis).
cation. NECTAR PREFERENCES: Rotting fruit, sap,
BROODS: One or two in North, three in flowers such as butterfly bush, milkweed,
South. moss pink, New Jersey tea, rock cress,
HIBERNATES AS: Egg or caterpillar. dogbane, mountain andromeda, pussy
HABITATS: Woodlands, forest edges, wa¬ willows, composites such as Shasta daisy.
tercourses, roadsides, parks, cemeteries, ON WING: Year-round.
suburbs. BROODS: One-three.
SPECIAL FEATURES: Often perches on hack- HIBERNATES AS: Adult.
berry trees or other posts such as signs, HABITATS: Open woodlands, riversides,
headstones, or persons standing still. Can forest edges.
become extremely numerous. Easily lured SPECIAL FEATURES: Possibly the longest-lived
to overripe bananas, and reared from the North American butterfly, it may sur¬
attractive green caterpillars and chrysa¬ vive for more than ten months. Often
lises. Another hackberry feeder, the the first butterfly on wing in spring, as
Tawny Emperor (A. clyton), may be more it comes out of hibernation. Eggs laid in
common in your area. clusters. Caterpillars feed communally in
a silk web at first, singly during the last
Milbert’s Tortoiseshell two instars. Perches on branches, stumps,
(Aglais milberti) and other features (even an outstretched
hand) for pursuit of mate. A fine garden
RANGE: Northern U.S., occasionally in
butterfly that may surprise you by flying
South.
in February.
FOOD PLANT: Nettle (Urtica).
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Rotting fruit, sap, Painted Lady
composites such as thistle, sneezeweed, (Vanessa cardui)
Gloriosa daisy, Shasta daisy, Michael¬
RANGE: Entire U.S., but ephemeral.
mas daisy, ox-eye daisy, goldenrod, as¬
FOOD PLANT: Various members of the daisy
ter, marigold, and ageratum; also butterfly
family (Compositae), including thistle
bush, lilac, stonecrop, showy stonecrop,
(Cirsium), knapweed (Centaurea), bur¬
rock cress, Siberian wallflower.
dock (Arctium), groundsel (Senecio),
ON WING: March-November.
sunflower (Helianthus), pearly everlast¬
BROODS: Two-three.
ing (Anaphalis margaritacea), wormwood
HIBERNATES AS: Adult.
(Artemisia); members of the borage fam¬
HABITATS: Woodlands, forest edges, fields,
ily (Boraginaceae); members of the mal¬
meadows, riversides, roadsides.
low family (Malvaceae), including
SPECIAL FEATURES: Appears in early spring,
hollyhock (Althaea), common mallow
often pale and tattered after hibernating
(Malva neglecta).
in a hollow tree or outbuilding. May take
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Composites such as
wing on sunny days in midwinter. Fresh,
thistle, dandelion, Joe-Pye-weed, iron-
colorful new individuals come out in early
weed, gayfeather, rabbitbrush, aster, Mi¬
summer. One of the best all-round gar¬
chaelmas daisy, zinnia, cosmos, and
den butterflies.
dahlia; also butterfly bush, buttonbush,
bee balm, mint, sweet William, valer¬
Mourning Cloak
ian, red clover, showy stonecrop, privet,
(Nymphalis antiopa)
candytuft, milkweed, Siberian wall¬
RANGE: Entire U.S. flower, scabiosa, mallow.

109
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

ON WING: SpringTall in North, year-round dung, carrion, flowers such as aster,

in far South. milkweed, sweet pepperbush.
BROODS: One-four. ON WING: Spring to fall.
HIBERNATES AS: Unable to overwinter in BROODS: Two-five.
cold areas. HIBERNATES AS: Adult.
HABITATS: Open areas, meadows, moun¬ HABITATS: Open woodlands, streamsides,
tains, deserts. orchards, roadsides.
SPECIAL FEATURES: Mass emigrations re¬ SPECIAL FEATURES: Silvery “question mark”
populate North America from the South on underside of each hindwing, formed
each year. Number of emigrants fluc¬ by a swirl and nearby dot. Butterfly em¬
tuates from year to year, but occasionally igrates widely in the fall, and sometimes
reaches monumental proportions. Weak overwinters in large groups. May become
southward emigrations may occur in au¬ intoxicated by drinking the juices of fer¬
tumn. The “Cosmopolitan Butterfly” is mented fruit. Males often land on tree
a beloved garden visitor worldwide. trunks, visit mud, and exhibit territorial
behavior. Females usually oviposit on a
plant near the host, laying their eggs in
Pearly Crescentspot
columns, horizontal strings, or singly.
(Phyciodes tharos)
Red Admiral
RANGE: Entire U.S. except Pacific Coast.
(Vanessa atalanta)
FOOD PLANT: Various species of aster (As¬
ter). RANGE: Entire U.S. during summer and fall.
NECTAR preferences: Composites such as FOOD PLANT: Various members of the nettle
aster, thistle, showy daisy, black-eyed family (Urticaceae), including stinging
Susan, hawkweed, fleabane, beggar-ticks, nettle (Urtica dioica), tall wild nettle (U.
and tickseed-sunflower; also dogbane, gracilis), false nettle (Boehmeria cylin¬
white clover, sticky geranium, winter drica), wood nettle (Laportea canadensis),
cress, milkweed, peppermint. pellitory (Panetaria), hops (Humulus).
ON WING: April-November, year-round in NECTAR PREFERENCES: Rotting fruit, sap,
far South. composites such as Michaelmas daisy, as¬
BROODS: One-five, or more. ter, thistle, dandelion, gumweed, daisy,
HIBERNATES AS: Half-grown caterpillar. goldenrod, beggar-ticks, Gloriosa daisy,
HABITATS: Open areas, fields, moist mead¬ Shasta daisy, gayfeather, dahlia, and
ows, streamsides, roadsides. ageratum; also butterfly bush, milkweed,
SPECIAL FEATURES: Pugnacious or inquisi¬ candytuft, alfalfa, showy stonecrop, dog¬
tive butterfly, often darting after passing bane, Siberian wallflower, hebe, sweet
objects. Newly emerged males visit moist pepperbush, ivy, fireweed, red clover,
ground and streamsides and patrol their mallow, sea holly, mint, valerian.
territories in the garden. Eggs laid in ON WING: April-October, year-round in the
clusters, larvae feed communally. far South.
BROODS: One-three.
HIBERNATES AS: Rarely as an adult; gen¬
Question Mark
(Polygonia interrogationis) erally unable to overwinter in North.
HABITATS: Open woodlands, forest edges,
RANGE: Entire U.S. east of Rockies. meadows, streamsides, roadsides, yards,
FOOD PLANT: Nettle (Urtica), false nettle and parks.
(Boehmeria cylindrica), hops (Humulus), SPECIAL FEATURES: Emigrates north each
elm (Ulmus), hackberry (Celtis). spring. Some individuals may emigrate
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Rotting fruit, sap, south in autumn. Acts territorial, male

110
 APPENDICES

perches and darts out after females and SPECIAL FEATURES: Fond of dappled river-
other passing objects, often alights on banks. Camouflaged against tree bark,
people in gardens, and is generally well startles birds with bright upperside re¬
habituated to human environments. vealed in flight. Likes to bask in bright
Caterpillars make nettle-leaf shelters and sun with wings spread open.
help keep nettles in check. A favorite
of many gardeners. Viceroy
(Basilarchia archippus)
Red-spotted Purple
RANGE: Most of U.S. from Atlantic west
(Basilarchia astyanax)
through Great Basin.
RANGE: Entire U.S. east of Rockies; south¬ FOOD PLANT: Willow (Salix), aspen, poplar
ern Arizona. (Populus), apple (Malus), plum, cherry
FOOD PLANT: Willow (Salix), aspen, poplar (Prunus).
(Populus), cherry, plum (Prunus), oak NECTAR PREFERENCES: Rotting fruit, sap,
(Quercus), hawthorn (Crataegus), apple dung, carrion, aphid honeydew, com¬
(Malus), hornbeam (Carpmus), goose¬ posites such as thistle, aster, Joe-Pye-
berry (Ribes), deerberry (Vaccinium stam- weed, goldenrod, and beggar-ticks; also
ineum). milkweed.
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Rotting fruit, sap, ON WING: April-September, almost year-
dung, carrion, aphid honeydew, flowers round farther South.
such as cardinal flower, viburnum, spi¬ BROODS: One or two in North, three or
raea, privet, Hercules-club, sweet pep- more in South.
perbush. HIBERNATES AS: Young caterpillar.
ON WING: May-October, earlier in far South. HABITATS: Open areas, streamsides,
BROODS: Two-three. marshes, meadows, roadsides.
HIBERNATES AS: Young caterpillar. SPECIAL FEATURES: Palatable mimic of the
HABITATS: Open woodlands, forest edges, distasteful Monarch. In the southern part
streamsides, meadows. of range, mimics the darker Queen. Be¬
SPECIAL FEATURES: Mimics the Pipevine havior and biology similar to White Ad¬
Swallowtail. In the northern part of range, miral and Red-spotted Purple, since they
hybridizes with the White Admiral, and are all closely related admirals despite
many consider them to be the same spe¬ their different appearances.
cies. Often basks on roads and sidewalks,
displaying its brilliant metallic-blue wings. West Coast Lady
(Vanessa annabella)
Satyr Anglewing RANGE: Western U.S. from Great Plains
(Polygonia satyrus) to Pacific Coast.
RANGE: Western U.S. from eastern edge of FOOD PLANT: Various members of the mal¬

Rockies to the Pacific; occasionally in low family (Malvaceae), including

extreme north of eastern U.S. cheeseweed (Malvaparviflora), hollyhock
FOOD PLANT: Nettle (Urtica). (Althaea), globemallow (Sphaeralcea), si-
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Rotting fruit, sap, dalcea (Sidalcea); nettle (Urtica).
flowers such as blackberry, almond. NECTAR PREFERENCES: Butterfly bush,
ON WING: Early spring to late fall. cheeseweed, mallow, mint, statice,
BROODS: Two or more.
composites such as aster, thistle, mari¬
HIBERNATES AS: Adult. gold.
HABITATS: Open woodlands, streamsides, ON WING: Early spring to late fall, year-
roadsides, parks, and glades. round in far South.

Ill
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

BROODS: Multiple. (Ledum groenlandicum); in West, dodder

HIBERNATES AS: May not be able to resist (Cuscata), California lilac (Ceanothus),
frost in any stage. salal (Gaultheria), apple (Malus), mad-
HABITATS: Open areas, fields, mountains. rone (Arbutus).
SPECIAL FEATURES: Population fluctuates NECTAR PREFERENCES: Winter cress, blue¬
from year to year, but without the Painted berry, bitter cherry, wild buckwheat,
Lady’s mass movement. Some individ¬ footsteps of spring, willow, bearberry, wild
uals emigrate, for example, into the plum, bitterbrush.
Rockies from farther west. Butterfly fond ON WING: April-June.
of basking on bare ground and hilltops BROODS: One.
with other individuals. HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.
HABITATS: Forest edges, open woodlands,
White Admiral acid bogs, pine barrens.
(Basilarchia arthemis) SPECIAL FEATURES: Spring butterfly, in gen¬

RANGE: Northeastern U.S. from Minne¬ eral. Visits moist ground and stream-
sota to New England. sides. Males perch and dart out after
FOOD PLANT: Birch (Betula), aspen, poplar females and other passing objects. Sur¬
(Populus), willow (Salix), hawthorn vives in urban settings where hosts
(Crataegus), basswood (Tilia), American abound.
hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), shad-
bush (Amelanchier). Common Blue
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Rotting fruit, sap, (lcaricia icarioides)
dung, carrion, aphid honeydew, various RANGE: Most of western U.S.
flowers. FOOD PLANT: Various species of lupine (Lu-
ON WING: June-August.
pinus).
BROODS: One-two.
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Lupine, milkweed,
HIBERNATES AS: Young caterpillar.
various composites.
HABITATS: Open woodlands, forest edges,
ON WING: April-August, the lower the al¬
roadsides. titude and farther south, the earlier.
SPECIAL FEATURES: Often perches high above
BROODS: One.
ground, then darts out after passing ob¬
HIBERNATES AS: Half-grown caterpillar.
jects. Caterpillar overwinters in a hi-
HABITATS: Meadows, streamsides, moun¬
bemaculum constructed from a rolled- tains, roadsides.
up leaf. These may be found and brought
SPECIAL FEATURES: Always found near lu¬
into the garden for emergence in spring.
pines. Visits puddles and flowers. Larvae
are tended by ants. Best suited to a large
GOSSAMER WINGS
western garden little changed from na¬
(Lycaenidae)
tive grasslands.
Brown Elfin
(lncisalia augustmus) Eastern Pygmy Blue
(Brephidium isophthalma)
RANGE: Most of U.S.
FOOD PLANT: Various members of the heath RANGE: Eastern U.S. coast from South
family (Ericaceae) in East, including Carolina to Florida, Louisiana, and
blueberry (Vaccinium), azalea (Rhodo¬ sometimes Texas.
dendron), sugar huckleberry (Vaccinium FOOD PLANT: Glasswort (Salicomia), salt¬
vacillans), leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne), wort (Baris).
bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), NECTAR PREFERENCES: Saltwort, lippia,
huckleberry (Gaylussacia), Labrador tea palmetto.

112
 APPENDICES

ON WING: February-September, year-round pha), beans (Phaseolus), sweet pea (Lath-

in far South. yrus odoratus), locoweed (Astragalus); also
BROODS: Multiple. leadwort (Plumbago), wisteria (Wisteria).
HIBERNATES AS: Perhaps unable to over¬ NECTAR PREFERENCES: Cape plumbago, wild
winter in the North. buckwheat, oleander, Mexican fire plant,
HABITATS: Saltwater areas, tidal flats. salt heliotrope, Haplopappus.
SPECIAL FEATURES: Smallest eastern but¬ ON WING: Year-round in South, emigrates
terfly. Coastal species. Males patrol near north in summer.
food plant, searching for females. BROODS: Multiple.
HIBERNATES AS: Overwinters in any stage
Gray Hairstreak in frost-free zones.
(Strymon melinus) HABITATS: Open areas, streamsides, plains,
foothills.
RANGE: Entire U.S.
SPECIAL FEATURES: Emigrates northward in
FOOD PLANT: Various plants in many fam¬
summer, dies off in the fall. Visits moist
ilies; favorites are members of the pea
spots and follows watercourses in its
(Leguminosae) and mallow (Malvaceae)
wanderings.
families, including clover (Trifolium),
mallow (Maim), vetch (Vicia), beans
(Phaseolus), tick-trefoil (Desmodium), Silvery Blue
bush clover (Lespedeza), cotton (Gos- (Glaucopsyche lygdamus)
sypium), hibiscus (Hibiscus); also com (Zea
RANGE: Most of U.S.
mays), mint (Lamiacea), oak (Quercus),
FOOD PLANT: Various members of the pea
strawberry (Fragaria), hawthorn (Cra¬
family (Leguminosae), including wild pea
taegus), and hops (Humulus).
(Lathyrus), vetch (Vicia), lupine (Lupi-
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Milkweed, white
nus), white sweet clover (Melilotus alba),
sweet clover, winter cress, cape plum¬
deer weed (Lotus scoparius), locoweed
bago, goldenrod, yellow bee plant, mint,
(Atragalus). .
dogbane, bitterbrush, Queen Anne’s lace,
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Coneflower and other
tick-trefoil, sweet pea.
composites, lomatium, bitter cherry, lu¬
ON WING: April-October, earlier in the far
pine.
South.
ON WING: March-July, depending on lati¬
BROODS: Two-four.
tude and altitude.
HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.
BROODS: One.
HABITATS: Open areas, fields, roadsides,
HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.
chaparral, open forests.
HABITATS: Open forests, fields, stream-
SPECIAL FEATURES: One of our most com¬
sides, prairies, mountain meadows, road¬
mon and omnivorous species. Emigrates
side seeps.
widely. Males exhibit territorial behav¬
SPECIAL FEATURES: Spring butterfly that can
ior, often perch on shrubs and small trees
be induced into the garden. Visits pud¬
and dart out after potential females and
dles and patrols near food plant. Larvae
interloping males.
are tended by ants, which provide pro¬
tection in return for honeydew.
Marine Blue
(Leptotes marina)
Spring Azure
RANGE: Most of western U.S. (Celastrina ladon)
FOOD PLANT: Various members of the pea
family (Leguminosae), including alfalfa RANGE: Entire U.S.
(Medicago sativa), false indigo (Amor- FOOD PLANT: Dogwood (Comus), ceano-

113
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

thus (Ceanothus), viburnum (Vi¬ MILKWEED BUTTERFLIES

burnum), cherry (Prunus), sumac (Rhus), (Damidae)
meadowsweet (Spiraea salicifolia), blue¬
berry (Vaccinium), black snakeroot Monarch
(Cimicifuga racemosa), wingstem (Acti- (Danaus plexippus)
nomeris altemifolia). RANGE: Entire U.S. except extreme North¬
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Holly, privet, cean-
west.
othus, ivy, rock cress, winter cress, es- FOOD PLANT: Various species of milkweed
callonia, blackberry, cotoneaster, (Asclepias); reported on dogbane (Apo-
milkweed, forget-me-not, dogbane, wil¬ cynum).
low, spicebush, coltsfoot, dandelion, vi¬ NECTAR PREFERENCES: Milkweed, butterfly
olet, cherry.
bush, composites such as goldenrod, beg¬
ON WING: January-October, depending on
gar-ticks, tickseed-sunflower, Joe-Pye-
latitude.
weed, thistle, ironweed, gayfeather,
BROODS: Usually one in North, two or three
Mexican sunflower, and cosmos; also
farther south.
dogbane, teasel, glossy abelia, lilac, but-
HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.
tonbush, lantana, mallow, various mints.
HABITATS: Open woodlands, fields, road¬
ON WING: Spring to fall over most of range,
sides, freshwater marshes, forest edges,
fall to spring in overwintering areas.
townscapes.
BROODS: Two-four in North, four-six or more
SPECIAL FEATURES: Spring butterfly, in gen¬
in South.
eral. Males visit damp spots and drop¬
HIBERNATES AS: None. Adult migrates to
pings, and patrol and sometimes perch
Mexico or California to overwinter in a
and dart out after females. A very good
few small sites.
garden habitue.
HABITATS: Open areas, meadows, fields,
roadsides, marshes.
Western Pygmy Blue SPECIAL FEATURES: Only butterfly to mi¬
(Brephidium exilis) grate north and south each year. Often
roosts in large groups during migration.
RANGE: Most of western U.S.
Overwinters in large congregations on
FOOD PLANT: Various members of the
trees. Distasteful to predators due to toxic
goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae), in¬
milkweed hosts; mimicked by the pal¬
cluding pigweed (Chenopodium), salt¬
atable Viceroy. Our best-known and most
bush (Atriplex), pickleweed (Salicomia
ambigua). beloved garden insect, virtually our na¬
tional butterfly.
nectar PREFERENCES: Mexican fire plant,
pigweed, salt heliotrope.
Queen
ON WING: Spring-fall, year-round in far
(Danaus gilippus)
South.
BROODS: Multiple. RANGE: Entire southern U.S.; occasionally
HIBERNATES AS: May emigrate into cold areas strays northward.
in spring. FOOD PLANT: Various species of milkweed
HABITATS: Disturbed areas, alkaline places, (Asclepias).
marshes. NECTAR PREFERENCES: Milkweed, fogfruit,
SPECIAL FEATURES: Smallest western but¬ (Lippia lanceolata), beggar-ticks, various
terfly. Emigrates widely, so unpredict¬ daisies.
able in gardens. Larvae are tended by ON WING: April-November, year-round in
ants. far South.

114
 APPENDICES

BROODS: Multiple. FOOD PLANT: Various members of the mal¬

HIBERNATES AS: None, cannot overwinter low family (Malvaceae), including mal¬
in the North. low (Malm), cheeseweed (Malva
HABITATS: Open areas, meadows, fields, parviflora), hollyhock (Althaea), hibiscus
roadsides, prairies, deserts, waterways. (Hibiscus), Sida, Sidalcea, velvet-leaf
SPECIAL FEATURES: Distasteful to predators. (Abutilon), globe mallow (Sphaeralcea),
Mimicked by the darker form of the poppy mallow (Callirhoe).
Viceroy. Some individuals emigrate NECTAR PREFERENCES: Composites such as
northward. Southern butterfly gardeners aster, knapweed, red clover, fleabane,
find this a very special resource. Males mistflower, and beggar-ticks; red clover.
visit madder vine. ON WING: March-October, year-round in
far South.
SATYRS OR BROWNS BROODS: Three or more.
(Satyridae) HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis or full-grown
caterpillar.
Large Wood Nymph HABITATS: Open woodlands, meadows,
(Cercyonis pegala) prairies, roadsides, riversides, vacant lots.
SPECIAL FEATURES: Emigrates widely, but
RANGE: Most of U.S., except southern
also forms small colonies readily. Scarcely
Florida, northern Maine, and northwest
a vacant lot in its range lacks a Check¬
coast.
ered Skipper patrolling back and forth.
FOOD PLANT: Various species of grasses (Po-
Its grayish colors and whirring flight make
aceae).
it appear bluish on the wing.
nectar PREFERENCES: Rotting fruit, sap,
flowers such as alfalfa, purple cone-
flower, mint, spiraea, sunflower, flea- Fiery Skipper
bane, penstemon, virgin’s-bower, (Hylephila phyleus)
ironweed. RANGE: Eastern and southwestern U.S.
ON WING: June-September.
FOOD PLANT: Various species of grasses (Po-
BROODS: One. aceae), including Bermuda grass (Qy-
HIBERNATES AS: Newly hatched caterpillar.
nodon dactylon), St. Augustine grass
HABITATS: Woodsides, meadows, grass¬
(Stenotaphrum secundatum), bent grass
lands, marshes, roadsides. (Agrostis), crabgrass (Digitaria), sugar cane
SPECIAL FEATURES: Often lands on tree (Saccharum officinarum).
trunks. Males patrol glades, searching for NECTAR PREFERENCES: Lantana, aster,
females. Like other satyrs, flight is not milkweed, thistle, glossy abelia, sweet
strong but expert as the butterfly flits pepperbush, statice, cape plumbago,
among grassblades. An unmowed grassy sneezeweed, beggar-ticks, Felicia daisy,
meadow is essential if you want wood ironweed, bristly ox tongue, knapweed.
nymphs around your garden. ON WING: Year-round in far South, shorter
period farther north.
SKIPPERS BROODS: Two-five.
(Hesperiidae) HIBERNATES AS: Unable to overwinter in
North.
Common Checkered Skipper HABITATS: Lawns, grasslands, fields, forest
(Pyrgus communis)
edges, roadsides.
RANGE: Entire U.S. except northern New SPECIAL FEATURES: Emigrates northward in

England and coastal Northwest. spring. Audible when fluttering wings.

115
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Males perch and dart out after females NECTAR PREFERENCES: Thistle, red clover,
and other passing objects. Caterpillars chicory, alfalfa, purple coneflower,
construct shelters at base of grass and Houstonia, dogbane.
thereby escape damage from lawn mow¬ ON WING: April-September, year-round in
ers. A delightful and bright city skipper Florida.
throughout its regular range. BROODS: One-two or more.
HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.
Silver-spotted Skipper HABITATS: Grasslands, open woodlands,
f Epargyreus clarus) moist meadows, fields, roadsides, lawns.
SPECIAL FEATURES: Prefers grasslands in East,
RANGE: Entire U.S., but sporadic.
open forest and boggy mountain lake-
FOOD PLANT: Various members of the pea
sides in West. In the Midwest, it is the
family (Leguminosae), including locust
most common skipper of lawns. Not a
(Robinia, Gleditsia), wisteria (Wisteria),
pest, its ability to colonize lawn grass
tick-trefoil (Desmodium), hog peanut
makes it an ideal garden butterfly.
(Amphicarpa bracteata), beans (Phaseo-
lus), kudzu (Peuraria thunbergii), acacia
SWALLOWTAILS
(Acacia), licorice (Glycyrrhiza).
(Papilionidae)
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Honeysuckle, this¬
tle, Joe-Pye-weed, gayfeather, zinnia,
Anise Swallowtail
milkweed, iris, buttonbush, dogbane, vi¬
(Papilio zelicaon)
per’s bugloss, everlasting pea, privet,
winter cress, red clover, purple vetch, RANGE: Most of western U.S.
selfheal. FOOD PLANT: Various members of the carrot
ON WING: May-September, year-round in family (Umbelliferae), including fennel
far South. (Foeniculum vulgare), carrots, parsley, cow
BROODS: One in far North, two-four in parsnip (Heracleum maximum), seaside
South. angelica (Angelica lucida); citrus trees.
HIBERNATES AS: Caterpillar, in leaf tent. NECTAR PREFERENCES: Lomatium, penste-
HABITATS: Open woodlands, hillsides, mon, mint, zinnia, lantana, butterfly
roadsides, suburbs. bush, coltsfoot.
SPECIAL FEATURES: Exhibits territorial and ON WING: Spring to fall, year-round in
seemingly pugnacious behavior, as males South.
perch and occasionally patrol, searching BROODS: One, two, or multiple broods.
for females. Audible when fluttering HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.
wings. Caterpillars construct shelters from HABITATS: Open areas, roadsides, moun¬
leaves of the food plant and overwinter tains, deserts, shorelines.
in them, then pupate in a loose cocoon SPECIAL FEATURES: Males congregate on
among debris on the ground. A big, flashy hilltops and at mud puddles. Males also
skipper as happy in gardens as in wild patrol, searching for females. Easy to rear.
habitats.
Eastern Black Swallowtail
Tawny-edged Skipper (Papilio polyxenes)
(Polites themistocles)
RANGE: Eastern U.S. to Rocky Mountains;
RANGE: Entire U.S., except most of North¬ Arizona, New Mexico.
west. FOOD PLANT: Various members of the carrot
FOOD PLANT: Various species of grasses (Po- family (Umbelliferae), including Queen
aceae), including panic grass (Panicum), Anne’s lace (Daucus carota), cultivated
and bluegrass (Poa). carrot, celery, parsley, parsnip, dill, car-

116
 APPENDICES

away; members of the citrus family (Ru- Pipevine Swallowtail

taceae), including rue (Ruta graveolens), (Battus philenor)
Texas turpentine broom (Thamnosma
RANGE: Most of U.S.
texana).
FOOD PLANT: Various species of pipevine,
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Milkweed, thistle,
including Dutchman’s pipe (Aristolochia
phlox, clover, alfalfa, Queen Anne’s lace,
durior),-Virginia snakeroot (A. serpen-
purple loosestrife.
tana), A. califomica and A. longiflora.
ON WING: February-November, depending
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Thistle, lilac, hon¬
on latitude.
eysuckle, milkweed, butterfly bush,
BROODS: Two in North, three in South.
azalea, orchid, phlox, clover, bergamot,
HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.
viper’s bugloss, dame’s rocket, teasel, pe¬
HABITATS: Open fields, meadows, road¬
tunia, fruit tree blossoms.
sides, streamsides.
ON WING: January-November, depending
SPECIAL FEATURES: Especially fond of veg¬
on latitude.
etable gardens. Female mimics Pipevine
BROODS: Two in North, three in South.
Swallowtail. Newly emerged males visit
HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.
damp areas. Males perch and patrol,
HABITATS: Open forests, fields, roadsides,
searching for females.
meadows.
SPECIAL FEATURES: Distasteful to birds.
Giant Swallowtail Mimicked by the palatable female East¬
(Heraclides cresphontes) ern Black Swallowtail, female Ozark
Swallowtail, dark female Tiger Swallow¬
RANGE: Most of U.S., except extreme
tail, Spicebush Swallowtail, Red-spotted
North.
Purple, and female Diana Fritillary. Males
FOOD PLANT: Various citrus trees (Ruta-
patrol areas, searching for females.
ceae), including orange trees, common
prickly-ash (Zanthoxylum americanum),
Spicebush Swallowtail
Hercules-club (Z. clava-herculis), com¬
(Pterourus troilus)
mon hoptree (Ptelea trifoliata), rue (Ruta
graveolens), sea amyris (Arrryhs elemi- RANGE: Most of U.S. east of Rockies.
fera). FOOD PLANT: Spicebush (Lindera benzoin),
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Lantana, Japanese sassafras (Sassafras albidum), tulip tree
honeysuckle, milkweed, lilac, golden- (Liriodendron tulipifera), sweet bay (Mag¬
rod, orange blossom, azalea, dame’s nolia virginiana), common prickly ash
rocket, bougainvillea, bouncing bet. (Zanthoxylum americanum), bay (Persea).
ON WING: May-September in North, year- NECTAR PREFERENCES: Honeysuckle, this¬
round in far South. tle, jewelweed, milkweed, clover, Joe-
BROODS: Two in North, three in South. Pye-weed, lantana, azalea, dogbane, sweet
HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis. pepperbush, mimosa.
HABITATS: Open woodlands, forest edges, ON WING: Mid-April to mid-October, de¬
roadsides, citrus groves, streamsides. pending on latitude.
SPECIAL FEATURES: This species is the larg¬ BROODS: Two in North, three in South.
est butterfly in North America. High flier, HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.
but often descends into gardens, espe¬ HABITATS: Woodlands, fields, meadows,

cially ovipositing females. Caterpillar is streamsides, pine barrens.

called the “Orange Dog,” and may be¬ SPECIAL FEATURES: Mimics the Pipevine

come plentiful in citrus groves. Males Swallowtail. Newly emerged males visit
often visit moist ground, and patrol areas, mud puddles and streamsides, patrol open
searching for females. areas.

117
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Tiger Swallowtail Western Tiger Swallowtail

(Pterourus glaucus) (Pterourus rutulus)
RANGE: Entire U.S. east of Rockies. RANGE: Most of western U.S.
FOOD PLANT: Cherry (Prunus), ash (Frax- FOOD PLANT: Alder (AInus), aspen, poplar
inus), birch (Betula), aspen, cottonwood (Populus), willow (Salix), sycamore (Pla-
(Populus), tulip tree (Liriodendron tu- tanus).
lipifera), willow (Salix), sweet bay (Mag¬ NECTAR PREFERENCES: Butterfly bush, this¬
nolia virginiana), hop tree (Ptelea trifoliata), tle, milkweed, lilac, phlox, teasel, glossy
spicebush (Lindera benzoin), lilac (Syr- abelia, mint, blackberry, lilies, agapan-
inga vulgaris), American hornbeam (Car- thus (lily-of-the-Nile), hibiscus, lan-
pinus caroliniana). tana.
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Butterfly bush, this¬ ON WING: February-July, depending on lat¬
tle, milkweed, Japanese honeysuckle, itude.
phlox, Joe-Pye-weed, clover, lilac, abe- BROODS: One-three.
lia, buttonbush, bee balm, ironweed, HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.
sunflower, dandelion. HABITATS: Streamsides, roadsides, can¬
ON WING: February-November, depending yons, parks, townscapes.
on latitude. SPECIAL FEATURES: Possibly the most visi¬
BROODS: One-three. ble western butterfly. Males visit mud
HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis. puddles and streamsides, and establish
HABITATS: Woodlands, streamsides, road¬ territories. Caterpillar, with its big eye-
sides, orchards, savannahs, towns. spots, resembles a green snake.
SPECIAL FEATURES: Dark female form mim¬
ics Pipevine Swallowtail. High flier, but
WHITES AND SULPHURS
often descends into gardens, especially
(Pieridae)
ovipositing females. Adults sometimes
nectar in groups. Newly emerged males Cabbage White
visit mud puddles and streamsides, and (Artogeia rapae)
patrol, searching for females.
RANGE: Entire U.S.
FOOD PLANT: Various members of the mus¬
tard family (Cruciferae), including cab¬
Western Black Swallowtail
(Papilio bairdii) bage, collards, broccoli, nasturtium
(Tropaeolum), winter cress (Barbarea),
RANGE: Montana, western U.S. mustard (Brassica), peppergrass (Lepi-
FOOD PLANT: Dragon wormwood (Artemisia dium); members of the caper family
dracunculus). (Capparidaceae).
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Penstemon, mint, NECTAR PREFERENCES: Mustard, winter cress,
Senecio. arabis, aubrieta, dandelion, red clover,
ON WING: May-September. dogbane, aster, mint, selfheal, wild ber¬
BROODS: Two. gamot, hedge-nettle, milkweed, wild
HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis. oregano, cinquefoil, bristly ox tongue,
HABITATS: Mountains. lantana.
SPECIAL FEATURES: Good for gardeners at ON WING: Early spring to late fall in North,
higher elevations. The Northwest vari¬ year-round in far South.
ety (P.b. oregonius), often considered a BROODS: Three in North, seven or eight in
separate species, is the official Oregon South.
State Butterfly. HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.

118
 APPENDICES

HABITATS: Open woodlands, forest edges, HABITATS: Open areas, agricultural fields,
agricultural fields, plains, urban waste roadsides, sandy places.
places. SPECIAL FEATURES: Males patrol in search
SPECIAL FEATURES: Probably the most wide¬ of females. A good butterfly for altered
spread butterfly in North America. Es¬ landscapes and urban vacant lots; can be
pecially fond of vegetable gardens. Newly extremely abundant.
emerged males visit moist ground and
streamsides. Not a native; introduced to
Cloudless Giant Sulphur
Canada in the 19th Century. Sometimes
(Phoebis sennae)
pestiferous, but often valuable as the only
butterfly around. RANGE: Most of southern and eastern U. S.,
except extreme North.
California Dogface FOOD PLANT: Senna (Cassia), partridge pea
(Zerene eurydice) (Chamaecrista cinerea), clover (Trifo¬
lium).
RANGE: California, W. Arizona.
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Lantana, geranium,
FOOD PLANT: False indigo (Amerpha), clo¬
hibiscus, cardinal flower, bougainvillea,
ver (Trifolium), indigo bush (Dalea).
morning glory, daisy, cordia, thistle.
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Thistle, blue dicks,
ON WING: June-September, year-round in
and its own hostplants.
far South.
ON WING: Spring to fall.
BROODS: Two in North, three in South.
BROODS: Two.
HIBERNATES AS: Cannot overwinter in cold
HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.
climates.
HABITATS: Mountains, forest clearings,
HABITATS: Open areas, roadsides, fields,
foothills.
beaches, streamsides.
SPECIAL FEATURES: “Dog’s face” pattern
SPECIAL FEATURES: Large numbers emigrate
adorns upperside of each forewing. Des¬
outward from dense populations, espe¬
ignated as California’s official state in¬
cially in autumn. Sometimes individuals
sect. Males exhibit brilliant purplish
roost communally. It wanders widely,
sheen, lacking in the Dogface Butterfly.
leading this spectacular, clear yellow
species to be seen far out of its normal
Checkered White breeding range. Caterpillar constructs nest
(Pontia protodice) from silk and leaves of host plant, and
RANGE: Most of U.S., absent from North¬ hides in it during the day.
west.
FOOD PLANT: Various members of the mus¬ Common Sulphur
tard family (Cruciferae), including wild (Colias philodice)
peppergrass (Lepidium), shepherd’s purse
(Capsella bursa-pastoris), winter cress RANGE: Entire U.S., except most of Flo¬
(Barbarea vulgaris); bee plant (Cleome). rida.
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Hedge mustard, FOOD PLANT: Various members of the pea
winter cress, milkweed, aster, centaury, family (Leguminosae), including white
spreading dogbane, salt heliotrope. clover (Trifolium repens), other clovers
ON WING: March-November, depending on (Trifolium), trefoil (Lotus), vetch (Vi¬
latitude; year-round in some areas of ew), alfalfa (Medicago), white sweet clo¬
California. ver (Melilotus alba).
BROODS: Three in North, four in South. NECTAR PREFERENCES: Clover, goldenrod,

HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.

dandelion, aster, tickseed-sunflower,

119
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

knapweed, milkweed, phlox, dogbane, bursa-pastoris), cut-leaved toothwort

winter cress. (Centaria laciniata).
ON WING: March-December, according to nectar PREFERENCES: Cresses, pepper-
location. grass, mustard, wild strawberry, violet,
BROODS: Three-five, depending on lati¬ toothwort, chickweed, spring-beauty,
tude. wild plum.
HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis. ON WING: March-June.
HABITATS: Open areas, agricultural fields, BROODS: One in North, two in South.
roadsides, meadows. HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.
SPECIAL FEATURES: Known as the Mud Pud¬ HABITATS: Open woodlands, streamsides,
dle Butterfly, because large groups of males pine barrens, roadsides.
congregate at mud puddles. Especially SPECIAL FEATURES: Spring butterfly. Low-
fond of vegetable gardens and lawns. Very flying. Will fly on cloudy days. Males
easy to rear. patrol areas, searching for females, and
sometimes congregate on hilltops.
Dogface Butterfly
(Zerene cesonia) Orange Sulphur
(Colias eury theme)
RANGE: Most of southern U.S., Midwest;
occasionally Northeast. RANGE: Entire U.S.
FOOD PLANT: Various members of the pea FOOD PLANT: Various members of the pea
family (Leguminosae), including false family (Leguminosae), including alfalfa
indigo (Amphora), clover (Trifolium), (Medicago sativa), white clover (Tri/oi-
indigo bush (Dalea), prairie clover (Pen- ium repens), white sweet clover (Meli-
talostemon), soybean (Glycine). lotus alba), vetch (Vicia), crown vetch
nectar PREFERENCES: Alfalfa, coreopsis, (Coronilla), wild indigo (Baptisia).
Houstonia, verbena. nectar PREFERENCES: Alfalfa, clover, this¬
ON WING: Mid to late-summer in North, tle, aster, goldenrod, coreopsis, tick-
almost year-round in South. seed-sunflower, rabbitbrush, dandelion,
BROODS: Three. salt heliotrope, milkweed, winter cress,
HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis or adult. dogbane, osier dogwood.
HABITATS: Open woodlands, deserts, prai¬ ON WING: March-December, depending on
ries. latitude.
SPECIAL FEATURES: Note “dog’s face” on BROODS: Three-five.
upperside of each forewing. Butterfly HIBERNATES AS: Chrysalis.
emigrates northward. Newly emerged HABITATS: Open areas, alfalfa fields.
males visit puddles and patrol for fe¬ SPECIAL FEATURES: Also called the Alfalfa
males. Butterfly, because of its caterpillars’
fondness for alfalfa. Adults often roost
Falcate Orangetip in small groups. Newly emerged males
(Anthocharis midea) visit moist ground and streamsides. Can
RANGE: Eastern U.S. from Massachusetts be enormously abundant in alfalfa fields
and clover meadows.
to Wisconsin, south to Georgia, Loui¬
siana, and central Texas.
Sara Orangetip
FOOD PLANT: Various members of the mus¬
tard family (Cruciferae), including rock (Anthocharis sara)
cress (Arabis), bitter cress (Cardamine), RANGE: Much of U.S. from Rockies west.
winter cress (Barbarea), hedge mustard FOOD PLANT: Various members of the mus¬
(Sisymbrium), shepherd’s purse (Capsella tard family (Cruciferae), including rock

120
 APPENDICES

cress (Arabis), mustard (Brassica), winter abelia (Abelia) shrub; white, pink, pur¬
cress (Barbarea), hedge mustard (Sis¬ ple; summer-early fall
ymbrium officinale). ageratum (A geratum) annual; blue,
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Dandelion, straw¬ . white, pink; summer-fall
berry, bitter cherry, monkey flower, blue alder buckthorn (Rhumnus fran-
dicks. gula) „ shrub or small tree; white;
ON WING: February-July, according to al¬ spring-summer
titude and latitude. allium (Allium) bulb; pink, rose, vi¬
BROODS: One or two. olet, red, blue, yellow, white; late spring-
HABITATS: Woodlands, mountains, de¬ summer
serts, meadows, streamsides, fields. alyssum (Alyssum) perennial; yellow,
SPECIAL FEATURES: Most abundant in spring. white, pink; spring-fall
Low-flying and an avid nectarer, thus alyssum, sweet (L obularia mari-
highly observable. Brilliant on the wing. tima) annual; white, pink, violet;
Orange wingtips and green marbling on spring-summer, longer in warmer areas
underside are very striking. anemone (Anemone) perennial; blue,
red, white, pink, rose, purple; early
Sleepy Orange spring-fall
(Eurema nicippe) anthemis (Anthemis) perennial; yel¬
low; summer-fall
RANGE: Southern and southwestern U.S., arabis (Arabis) perennial; white, pink,
most of eastern U.S. except extreme
purple; spring
North. aralia (Aralia) shrub-tree; white; mid¬
FOOD PLANT: Various members of the pea
summer
family (Leguminosae), including senna aster (Aster) perennial; white, blue, red,
(Cassia), clover (Trifolium). purple; spring-fall
NECTAR PREFERENCES: Beggar-ticks, other
astilbe (Astilbe) perennial; white, pink,
composites. red; May-July
ON WING: March-November, depending on
aubrieta, common (A ubrieta del-
latitude; year-round in far South. toidea) perennial; red, purple; early
BROODS: Two-five.
spring
HIBERNATES AS: Cannot overwinter in cold
climates. barberry (Berberis) shrub; yellow, white;
HABITATS: Forest edges, fields, meadows,
spring
roadsides, streamsides. beauty bush (Kolkwitzia amabb
SPECIAL FEATURES: Emigrates northward,
lis) shrub; pink; May-June
filling in much of the country with sum¬ bellflower (Campanula) perennial, bien¬
mer generations that die off in autumn. nial, annual; blue, purple, lavender, vi¬
Males puddle and patrol. olet, white; spring-fall
blackberry; bramble (Rubus) shrub;
white, pink; summer-fall
blackthorn (Prumus spinosa) shrub;
white; spring
bleeding heart (Dicentra) perennial;
NECTAR SOURCES pink, rose, white, yellow; spring-fall
blueberry; huckleberry (Vaccinium)
Cultivated Flowers shrub; white, pink; spring
(Bloom period refers to an average latitude buckeye (Aesculus) tree or large shrub;
in a temperate zone.) creamy; spring

121
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

buddleia (Buddleia) shrub or small tree; daffodil (Narcissus) bulb; yellow and
white, pink, violet; midsummer-fall white, with variations of orange, red,
butterfly bush (Buddleia davidii) shrub pink; spring
or small tree; lilac with orange eye; mid¬ dahlia (Dahlia) perennial; many col¬
summer-fall ors; summer-fall
butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa) pe¬ daisy (Chrysanthemum) and other gen¬
rennial; orange; midsummer-early fall era (see below)
buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis) daisy, gloriosa (Rudbeckia hirta) biennial
shrub or small tree; white; summer or short-lived perennial, can be grown
as an annual; yellow, orange, russet;
calendula (Calendula officinalis) annu¬ summer-fall
al; orange, yellow; spring-midsummer; daisy, Michaelmas (Aster novi-bel-
late fall through spring in milder areas gii) perennial; white, pink, rose, red,
candytuft (Iberis) annual, perennial; blue, violet, purple; late summer
white, pink, rose, purple, lavender, red; daisy, Shasta (Chrysanthemum maxi-
early spring-summer mum) perennial; white, yellow;
caryopteris (Caryoptens) shrub; blue; summer-fall
late summer—fall daisy bush (Olearia haastii) shrub; white;
catmint (Nepeta mussinii) perennial; summer
blue; early summer daylily (Hemerocallis) perennial; or¬
catnip (Nepeta cataria) perennial; lav¬ ange, red, yellow, white; spring-fall
ender, white; early summer deutzia (Deutzia) shrub; white, pink;
ceanothus (Ceanothus) shrub, small May—June
tree, ground cover; white, blue, pink;
spring
echium (Echium) biennial or shrubby
cherry (Prunus) tree; white, pink;
perennial; blue, purple, rose, red; mid
spring-fall
to late spring
chestnut (Castanea) tree; white; sum¬
English laurel (Prunus laurocerasus)
mer
shrub or small tree; white; summer
chives (Allium schoenoprasum) pe¬
escallonia (Escallonia) shrub; red, white,
rennial; purple; spring
pink; summer-fall, nearly year-round in
cinquefoil (Potentilla) perennial, shrub;
mild climates
yellow, white, pink; spring-fall
clematis (Clematis) vine, perennial;
white, red, violet, pink, blue; spring- fleabane (Erigeron) perennial; white,
fall pink, lavender, violet; early summer—fall
coneflower, purple (Echinacea purpu¬ flowering tobacco (Nicotiana) pe¬
rea) perennial; purple; late summer rennial; white, red; summer
coreopsis (Coreopsis) annual, peren¬ forget-me-not (Myosotis) annual, bi¬
nial; yellow, orange, red; late spring-fall ennial, perennial; blue; early spring—fall
cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) an¬
nual; blue, pink, rose, red, white; sum¬ gaillardia (Gaillardia) perennial, an¬
mer nual; yellow, red, white, bronze; sum¬
cosmos (Cosmos) annual; white, pink, mer-fall
rose, purple, yellow, lavender; summer- gayfeather (Liatris) perennial; purple;
fall summer
cotoneaster (Cotoneaster) shrub; white, gazania (Gazania) perennial; yellow,
pink; spring orange, white, pink; late spring and early

122
 APPENDICES

summer, intermittently throughout the rennial; red, white; late spring-early

year in mild areas summer
geranium (Pelargonium) perennial;
white, pink, red, purple, rose, lavender, lantana (Lantana) shrub; yellow, or¬
violet, orange; summer, longer where ange, red, purple, white, pink, lavender;
protected year-rrQund in frost-free areas
globe thistle (Echinops exaltatus) pe- lavender (Lavandula) shrub; lavender,
rennial; blue; midsummer-late fall purple; almost year-round in mild areas
goldenrod (Solidago) perennial; yellow; lilac (Syringa) shrub; purple, white,
summer-fall pink, lavender; spring
gooseberry (Ribes) shrub; yellow, pink, lily (Lilium) bulb; many colors; gen¬
red, purple; spring erally late summer
lily-of-the-Nile perennial; blue, white,
purple; midsummer-early fall
hawkweed (Hieracium) biennial; yel¬
linanthus (Linanthus) annual; laven¬
low; midsummer
der, white, pink, yellow; spring
hawthorn (Crataegus) shrub or tree;
lippia (Phyla nodiflora) perennial; pur¬
white; spring
ple, rose; spring-fall
hazel (Corylus avellana) shrub; yellow;
lobelia (Lobelia) perennial, annual; red,
early spring
blue, pink, purple, violet, white; early
heath (Erica) shrub; white, red, pink,
summer-late fall; winter in mild areas
purple; year-round, depending on spe¬
lupine (Lupinus) annual, perennial,
cies.
shrub; yellow, blue, white, pink, purple,
heather (Calluna) shrub; pink, white,
red, orange; early spring-fall
purple, lavender; summer-fall
hebe (Hebe) shrub; white, blue, pur¬
marigold (Tagetes) annual; yellow, or¬
ple, red; late spring-fall
ange, maroon; early summer-late fall if
heliotrope (Heliotropium) perennial; vio¬
old flowers are picked off
let, white; spring-summer
marjoram (Origanum vulgare) peren¬
honesty (Lunaria annua) biennial; pur¬
nial; pink; midsummer
ple, pink, white; late spring-early sum¬
meadow saffron (Colchicum autum-
mer nale) com; pink, purple, white; late
honeysuckle (Lonicera) shrub or vine;
summer
orange, white, pink, red, purple, rose; Mexican orange (Choisyatemata) shrub;
early spring-fall white; early spring-summer
hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) perennial; mignonette (Reseda odorata) annual; green¬
blue, white, pink, purple; midsummer- ish-yellow; early spring-summer
late fall mint (Mentha) perennial; purple; sum¬
mer
impatiens (Impatiens) annual, peren¬ mock orange (Philadelphus) shrub; white;
nial; white, pink, rose, purple, red, or¬ late spring-early summer
ange, lavender; summer monkshood (Aconitum) perennial; blue,
ivy, English (Hedera helix) vine; green¬ purple; fall
ish; late fall-winter
nasturtium (Tropaeolum) perennial,
Jacob’s ladder (Polemonium caeruleum) generally grown as an annual; red, or¬
perennial; blue; spring-summer ange, yellow, white, bicolored; late sum¬
Jupiter’s beard (Centranthus ruber) pe¬ mer

123
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus) sea holly (Eryngium amethystinum) pe¬
shrub; white; spring-summer rennial; blue, purple; midsummer-fall
senecio (Senecio) perennial, shrub, vine;
passion flower (Passiflora) vine; white, yellow, red, white, pink, blue, purple;
purple, pink, blue; summer year-round in mild areas
pear (Pyrus communis) tree; white; early showy stonecrop (Sedum spectabile) pe¬
spring rennial; pink, rose, red; late summer-
petunia (Petunia) tender perennial fall
grown as an annual; pink, red, blue, pur- snapdragon (Antirrhinum) perennial,
pie, white; summer usually treated as an annual; many col¬
phlox (Phlox) annual, perennial; white, ors; spring-summer
purple, blue, pink, red, rose, lavender; sneezeweed, common (Helenium autum-
spring-summer nale) perennial; yellow, orange, red;
pink (Dianthus) perennial, biennial, summer—fall
annual; pink, rose, red, yellow, orange; spiraea (Spiraea) shrub; white, pink, red;
spring or summer, sometimes until frost spring-fall
plum (Prunus) tree; white, pink; early spurge (Euphorbia) shrub, perennial,
spring biennial, annual; yellow, orange, pink;
polyanthus (Primula polyantha) pe¬ late winter-spring
rennial; many colors; winter—spring St. Johnswort (Hypericum) shrub, pe¬
primrose (Primula) perennial; many rennial; yellow; summer
colors; early spring-summer, sometimes statice (Limonium) annual, perennial;
longer yellow, blue, purple, pink, white; spring-
privet (Ligustrum) shrub or small tree; summer
white; late spring-early summer stonecrop (Sedum) perennial; yellow,
purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) pe¬ white, pink, red; spring-fall
rennial; magenta, late summer sumac (Rhus) shrub or tree; white, pink,
pussy willow (Salix discolor) shrub or greenish; almost year-round in warm areas
small tree; pearl gray becoming yellow; sunflower (Helianthus) annual, peren¬
late winter or early spring nial; yellow, orange, red-brown; late
summer-fall
redbud (Cercis) shrub or tree; pink, sunrose (Helianthemum nummular-
white, red, rose, purple; early spring ium) shrub; red, orange, yellow, pink,
red-hot poker (Kniphofia uvaria) pe¬ rose, white; spring-summer
rennial; red, yellow, white; spring-sum¬ sweet rocket (Hesperis matronalis) pe¬
mer rennial; purple, white; spring—summer
rockrose (Cistus) shrub; pink, white, sweet William (Dianthus barbatus) bi¬
purple; late spring-summer ennial often grown as an annual; white,
rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) shrub; pink, rose, red, purple, bicolored; spring-
blue, purple; spring-fall summer
rose of Sharon (Hibiscus syriacus) shrub;
white, red, blue, pink, purple; summer thrift (Armeria) perennial; white, pink,
rose, red; early spring-late fall
sage (Salvia) annual, perennial, shrub; thyme (Thymus) perennial; pink, white,
blue, purple, red, white, rose, lavender; purple; June-September
late spring-late fall tidytips (Layia platyglossa) annual; yel¬
scabiosa (Scabiosa) annual, perennial; low; summer
purple, pink, blue, white, rose; June- toadflax (Linaria) annual, perennial;
late fall many colors, June—September

124
 APPENDICES

valerian (Valeriana officinalis) peren¬ bindweed, field (Convolvulus arvensis)

nial; white, pink, blue; mid-late summer white, pink; April-October; widespread
verbena (Verbena) perennial, some across U.S.
grown as annuals; white, pink, red, pur¬ blackberry; bramble (Rubus) white;
ple, blue; summer May-July; widespread across U.S.
viburnum (Viburnum) shrubs, rarely blackberry-lily (Belamcanda chinensis)
small trees; white, pink; early spring- orange; June-July; eastern U.S.
summer black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia hirta) yel¬
violet (Viola) perennial, some treated low; June-October; eastern U.S. and
as annuals; white, blue, purple; spring- Rockies
summer blazing-star (Liatris) purple; July to frost;
viper's bugloss (Echium vulgare) an¬ eastern U.S. and Rockies
nual; blue, purple, rose, white lavender; bluebell (Campanulaceae) blue; May-
late summer August; widespread across U.S.
vitex (Vitex) shrub or tree; blue, white, boneset (Eupaumum perfoliatum)
pink; summer-fall white, purple; July-October; eastern U.S.
bouncing bet (S aponaria officinalis)
wallflower (Cheiranthus cheiri) peren¬ pink, white; July-September; eastern U.S.
nial, biennial; yellow, orange, brown, bugle (Ajuga reptans) blue; May-July;
red, pink, burgundy; spring-early sum¬ eastern U.S.
mer buttercup (Ranunculus) yellow; Feb-
weigela (Weigela) shrub; red, white, ruary-September; widespread across U.S.
pink, yellow; spring-fall butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa) or¬
yarrow (Achillea) perennial; white, ange, red; June-September; eastern U.S.
yellow, red; summer-early fall

zinnia (Zinnia) annual; many colors; campion (Silene) white, pink; April-
summer-early fall October; widespread across U.S.
campion, red (Lychnis dioica) red; June-
September; northern part of eastern U.S.
Wildflowers cat’s-ear (Hypochoeris radicata) yellow;
(Close relatives of these examples may oc¬ March-August; northern part of eastern
cur in regions other than those noted.) U.S., West
cinquefoil (Potentilla) yellow, purple,
alfalfa (Medicago sativa) blue, purple; white, red; March-October; widespread
May—October, year-round in some areas; across U.S.
widespread across U.S. clover, red (Trifolium pratense) red;
alpine sunflower (Hymenoxys grandi' April-October; widespread across U.S.
flr/ra) yellow; July-October; western clover, white (Trifolium repens) white;
May-October, year-round in some areas;
U.S.
aster (Aster) pink, purple, blue, white; widespread across U.S.
June-November; widespread across U.S. coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara) yellow;
aster, New England (Aster rujvae-anghae) March-June; eastern U.S.
purple, rose; August—October; eastern comfrey (Symphytum officinale) white,
pink, purple, blue, yellow; June-Sep-
U.S.
tember; eastern U.S.
beggar-ticks; bur-marigold (Bidens) yel¬ coneflower (Echinacea, Rudbeckia) yel¬
low; July-November; widespread across low; July-October; widespread across U.S.
cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) blue,
U.S.

125
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

pink, white, purple; May-October; East, hawkweed (Hieracium) yellow, or¬

West ange, white; May-October; widespread
cuckoo-flower (Cardamine praten- across U.S.
sis) white, hawthorn (Crataegus) white, pink, red;
pink; April—June; eastern U.S. May-June; widespread across U.S.
heather (Calluna vulgaris) pink; July-
daisy, ox-eye (Chrysanthemum leucanthe- November; eastern U.S.
mum) white; May-October; East, honeysuckle (Lonicera) yellow, white,
West orange; April-September; eastern U.S.,
dame’s rocket (Hesperis matronalis) Rockies, Northwest
pink, purple, white; May-July; eastern hound’s-tongue (Cynoglossum officinale)
U.S. purple; May-August; widespread across
dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) yel¬ U.S.
low; early spring-late fall, year-round in
some areas; widespread across U.S. Indian hemp (A pocynum cannabinum)
daylily (Hemerocallis fulva) orange; white, pink; June-September; East, West
June-August; eastern U.S. ironweed (Vemonia) purple; July-
October; eastern U.S.
field scabious (Knautia arvensis) lav¬
ender; June-August; eastern U.S.
Joe-Pye-weed (Eupatorium) purple; July-
field sow-thistle (Sonchus arvensis) yel¬
September; eastern U.S.
low; July-October; eastern U.S. and
Rockies
knapweed (Centaurea) pink, purple,
figwort (Scrophularia lanceolata) green
white, rose; May-October; widespread
and brown; May-July; eastern U.S.
across U.S.
fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium)
pink, purple; June-September; wide¬
spread across U.S. lessercelandine (Ranunculus ficaria) yel¬
flame azalea (Rhododendron calendula- low; April-June; eastern U.S.
ceum) orange; May-June; eastern lupine (Lupinus) blue, purple, pink,
U.S. white, yellow; December-October;
fleabane, common (Erigeron philadelphi- widespread across U.S.
cus) pink, purple, white; March-July;
East, West mallow (Malva) pink, white, lavender;
April-October, year-round in some areas;
goatsbeard (Tragopogon pratensis) yel¬ East, West
low; June-October; widespread across meadowsweet (Spiraea latifolia) pink,
U.S. white; June-September; eastern U.S.
golden Alexanders (Zizia aurea) yel¬ milkweed (A sclepias) many colors;
low; April-June; eastern U.S. April—August, March—December in some
goldenrod (Solidago) yellow; May-No- areas; widespread across U.S.
vember; widespread across U.S. mustard (Brassica) yellow, white; Jan-
groundsel, common (Senecio vul¬ uary—October; East, West
garis) yellow; May-October, year-
round in some areas; widespread across phlox (Phlox) many colors; April-
U.S. October; widespread across U.S.
primrose (Primula) pink, white, red,
harebell (Campanula rotundifolia) blue; purple, blue; March—August; widespread
June-September; widespread across U.S. across U.S.

126
 APPENDICES

purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) wild lilac (Ceanothus sanguineus) blue;

purple; June-September; East, West June-July; western U.S.
wild parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) yellow;
Queen Anne’s lace (Daucus carota) May-October; eastern U.S.
white; May—October, year-round in some woundwort (Stachys palustris) magen¬
areas; East, West ta; July-September; eastern U.S.

ragged-robin (Lychnis flos-cuculi) pink, yarrow (Achillea millefolium) white, pink;

white; June-July; eastern U.S. March—November; widespread across
ragwort (Senecio) yellow; April-Au¬ U.S.
gust; widespread across U.S. yellow bedstraw (Galium verum) yellow;
June-August; northern part of eastern
sage (Salvia) blue, white, yellow, pur¬ U.S.
ple; March-July; East, West yellow vetchling (Lathyrus pratensis)
selfheal (Prunella vulgaris) purple, blue; yellow; June-August; eastern U.S.
May-September; East, West
spearmint {Mentha spicata) purple, pink;
June—October; widespread across U.S.
sunflower (Helianthus) yellow; June-
WHERE TO GET PLANTS
October, February-November in some
Nursery Sources: Native Plants and Wild
areas; widespread across U.S.
Flowers. Compiled by and available from
sweet-William catchfly (Silene ar-
the New England Wild Flower Society,
meria) pink; June-October; eastern
Garden in the Woods, Hemenway Road,
U.S.
Framingham, MA 01701. Contains the
names and addresses of 193 native plant
thistle (Cirsium) purple, white, yel¬
nurseries in every state except Alaska
low, rose, red; April-October; wide¬
and Hawaii. $2.50 each ($3.50 includ¬
spread across U.S.
ing postage and handling).
toadflax (Linaria vulgaris) yellow; June-
October; eastern U.S.
Sources of Native Seeds and Plants. Com¬
piled by and available from the Soil Con¬
valerian (Valeriana officinalis) pink;
servation Society of America, 7515 N.E.
June-July; eastern U.S.
Ankeny Road, Ankeny, IA 50021. Con¬
verbena, vervain (Verbena) blue, pur¬
tains the names and addresses of 272
ple, pink, white; June-September; East,
growers and suppliers of native vegeta¬
West tion in forty states and Canada. $3.00
violet (Viola) violet, white, blue, yel¬
for single copies, postpaid ($2.50 each
low; December-August; widespread across
for ten or more copies, postpaid).
U.S.
Perennials and Wildflowers by Mail
water mint (Mentha aquatica) lav¬
ender; August-October; eastern U.S. Listed below are the members of the
wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa) pur¬ Mailorder Association of Nurserymen who
ple; July-August; eastern U.S. catalog wildflowers and perennials. Cata¬
wild cherry (Prunus) white; April-May; logs may be ordered from any of these firms
widespread across U.S. by writing to them directly at the addresses
wild gooseberry (Ribes) yellow, white, listed. Unless otherwise indicated, catalogs
pink; late April-early June; widespread are free of charge; where there is a charge,
across U.S. it is usually deductible from the first order.

127
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Vernon Bames & Son Fleming’s Flower Fields

P.O. Box 250 LMN Dept. MAN, P.O. Box 4607
McMinnville, TN 37110 Lincoln, NE 68504

Beersheba Wildflower Garden Gurney Seed & Nursery Corp.

P.O. Box 551 110 Capitol Street
Stone Door, MN Yankton, SD 57078
Beersheba Springs, TN 37305
H.G. Hastings Co.
CATALOG PRICE: $1.00 Refundable
P.O. Box 4274M
Bluestone Perennials Atlanta, GA 30302
Dept. 47
Holbrook Farm and Nursery
7211 Middle Ridge Road
Route 2, Box 223B MN
Madison, OH 44057
Fletcher, NC 28732
Burgess Plant &. Seed Co. CATALOG PRICE: $2.00
905 Four Seasons Road
House of Wesley
Bloomington, IL 61701
2200M E. Oakland Avenue
W. Atlee Burpee Seed Co. Bloomington, IL 61701
Dept. MN, Burpee Building No. 12
Houston Daylily Gardens, Inc.
Warminster, PA 18974
P.O. Box 7008, Dept. MN
Clifford’s Perennial & Vine The Woodlands, TX 77380
Rt. 2, Box 320 MN CATALOG PRICE: $2.00
East Troy, WI 53120
Jackson & Perkins
CATALOG PRICE: $1.00 (Deductible)
Dept. MAN, P.O. Box 1028
Daystar Medford, OR 97501
RFD No. 2, Box 250 MN
J.W. Jung Seed Company
Litchfield, ME 04350
Dept. MN, Box 385
CATALOG PRICE: $1.00
Randolph, WI 53956
Dutch Gardens, Inc. Kelly Brothers Nurseries, Inc.
Dept. MN, P.O. Box 168 Dept. MN
Montvale, NJ 07645
Maple Street
Dutch Mountain Nursery Dansville, NY 11437
7984 N. 48th Street, Dept M Krider Nurseries, Inc.
Augusta, MI 49012 Dept. MAN, P.O. Box 29
CATALOG PRICE: 500 Middlebury, IN 46540
Emlong Nurseries Lakeland Nurseries Sales
2671M West Marquette Woods Road Dept. MN, Unique Merchandise Mart
Stevensville, MI 49127 Building NR 4
Farmer Seed & Nursery Co. Hanover, PA 17333
Dept. M Lilypons Water Gardens
Faribault, MN 55021 6865M Lilypons Road
Lilypons, MD 21717
Henry Field Seed &. Nursery Co.
CATALOG PRICE: $3.50
Dept MN
407 Sycamore Street Earl May Seed &. Nursery Co.
Shenandoah, IA 51602 Dept. MN

128
 APPENDICES

208 North Elm Street Chester, NY 10918

Shenandoah, IA 51603 CATALOG PRICE: $1.00

Michigan Bulb Company The Wayside Gardens Co.

Dept MN Dept. WG
1950 Waldorf NW Hodges, SC 29695
Grand Rapids, MI 49550 CATALOG PRICE: $1.00 (Deductible)

McConnell Nurseries, Inc. White Flower Farm

Dept. MAN Dept. MN
Port Burwell, Ontario, Canada NOJ ITO Litchfield, CT 06759
CATALOG PRICE: $5.00
George W. Park Seed Co.
Dept. MN, P.O. Box 32
Greenwood, SC 29640
WHERE TO GET
Spring Hill Nurseries
Dept. MN BUTTERFLIES
6523 North Galena Road
Peoria, IL 61601
Carolina Biological Supply Company, Bur¬
Stark Bro’s Nurseries
lington, NC 27215; or Powell Labora¬
Box B2968A
tories Division, Gladstone, OR 97027.
Louisiana, MO 63353
Furnishes rearing kits with Painted Lady
Stem’s Nurseries, Inc. larvae for individuals and classes. Also
Dept. M offers moth rearing kits, and eggs, larvae,
607 West Washington Street and cocoons of various moths.
Geneva, NY 14456
Connecticut Valley Biological Supply
Sunnybrook Farms Nursery Company, 82 Valley Road, P.O. Box
P.O. Box 6 MN 326, Southampton, MA 01073. Offers
9448 Mayfield Road rearing kits with Painted Lady larvae for
Chesterland, OH 44026 individuals and classes. Also offers moth
catalog PRICE: $1.00 (Deductible) rearing kits, and larvae and cocoons of
various moths.
Swan Island Dahlias
P.O. Box 800 MN Insect Lore Products, P.O. Box 1535,
Canby, OR 97013 Shafter, CA 93263. Offers “Butterfly
CATALOG PRICE: $2.00 (Deductible) Garden” rearing kits (including a class¬
room version) with larvae of the Painted
Van Bourgondien Bros.
Lady, Buckeye, or both. Also furnishes
Dept. MN
moth rearing kits.
245 Route 109
P.O. Box A John Staples, Breeder of Lepidoptera, 389
Babylon, NY 11702 Rock Beach Road, Rochester, NY 14617.
Offers eggs of the Eastern Black Swal¬
Van Ness Water Gardens
lowtail, Red Admiral, Orange Sulphur,
2460M N. Euclid Avenue and Common Sulphur; pupae of the
Upland, CA 91786 Spicebush Swallowtail; and the eggs and
CATALOG PRICE: $2.00
pupae of various moths. Also offers a
Vandenberg’s Moth Rearing Kit and a Special School
One Black Meadow Road Cocoon Collection.

129
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Nasco, 901 Janesville Avenue, Fort At¬ Fisher Scientific Company

kinson, WI 53538; or Nasco West, 1524 Educational Materials Division
Princeton Avenue, Modesto, CA 95352. 4901 West LeMoyne Street
Offers rearing kits with Painted Lady lar¬ Chicago, IL 60651
vae for individuals and classes. Also fur¬
Frey Scientific Company
nishes moth rearing kits and moth larvae.
905 Hickory Lane
“The Market Place” column in the News Mansfield, OH 44905
of the Lepidopterists’ Society contains list¬
Nasco
ings of butterfly eggs and pupae as well
901 Janesville Avenue
as moth eggs and cocoons available from
Fort Atkinson, WI 53538; or
individuals and companies. “Buy-Sell-
Nasco West
Exchange-Wants” categories included.
1524 Princeton Avenue
(See address under “Butterfly Organi¬
Modesto, CA 95352
zations.”)
Ward’s Natural Science Establishment
“Trading Post” column in Young Entomol¬
5100 West Henrietta Road
ogists’ Society Quarterly includes live¬
P.O. Box 92912
stock offered for sale and exchange. (See
Rochester, NY 14692; or
address under “Butterfly Organiza¬
11850 East Florence Avenue
tions.”)
Santa Fe Springs, CA 90670
Ward’s Natural Science Establishment, 5100
West Henrietta Road, P.O. Box 92912,
Rochester, NY 14692; or 11850 East
Florence Avenue, Santa Fe Springs, CA BUTTERFLY
90670. Offers rearing kits with Painted
Lady larvae for individuals and classes.
ORGANIZATIONS
Entomological Society of America
4603 Calvert Road
WHERE TO GET College Park, MD 20740
ENTOMOLOGICAL Publishes The Bulletin of the Entomological
Society of America, Annals, Journal of
EQUIPMENT Economic Entomology, and Environmental
Entomology.
American Biological Supply Company
1330 Dillon Heights Avenue The Lepidoptera Research Foundation
Baltimore, MD 21228 c/o Santa Barbara Museum of Natural
History
BioQuip Products
2559 Puesta Del Sol Road
P.O. Box 61
Santa Barbara, CA 93105
Santa Monica, CA 90406
Publishes The Journal of Research on the
Carolina Biological Supply Company Lepidoptera.
Burlington, NC 27215, or
The Lepidopterists’ Society
Powell Laboratories Division
SECRETARY, Julian P. Donahue
Gladstone, OR 97027
Natural History Museum of Los Angeles
Connecticut Valley Biological Supply County
Company 900 Exposition Boulevard
82 Valley Road, P.O. Box 326 Los Angeles, CA 90007
Southampton, MA 01073 Publishes the News of the Lepidopterists’

130
 APPENDICES

Society and the Journal of the Lepidopter- National Wildflower Research Center
ists’ Society. 2600 FM 973 North
Austin, TX 78725
The Xerces Society
The International Organization for In¬ ■The Garden Club of America
vertebrate Habitat Conservation 598 Madison Avenue
10 Southwest Ash St. New York, NY 10022
Portland, OR 97204
“Botanical Clubs and Native Plant Soci¬
Publishes the newsletter Wings and the
eties—United States.”
journal Atala.
A list available for $1.00 from the New
Young Entomologists’ Society England Wild Flower Society, Garden
c/o Department of Entomology in the Woods, Hemenway Road, Fra¬
Michigan State University mingham, MA 01701. Contains listings
East Lansing, MI 48824 for most states.
Publishes Y.E.S. Quarterly.

The Butterfly Club of America

736 Main Avenue FURTHER READING
Suite 200, Box 2257
Durango, CO 81302 The following list will give readers many
Plans to publish the newsletter Chrysalis. sources of additional information on the
subjects treated in the text.
In addition, there are several regional, state,
and local organizations. Inquire at your
Butterflies
local university or museum.
Allen, James. “How to Photograph But¬
terflies.” Terra 23/5 (1985):25-30.
Arnett, Dr. Ross H. Jr., and Jacques, Dr.
WILDFLOWER, NATIVE Richard L., Jr. Simon and Schuster’s Guide
PLANT, AND GARDENING to Insects. New York: Simon and Schus¬
ORGANIZATIONS ter, 1981.
Bernard, Gary D. “Red-absorbing Visual
American Association of Botanical Gar¬ Pigment of Butterflies.” Science 203
dens and Arboreta (1979): 1125-27.
P.O. Box 206 Borror, Donald J., and White, Richard E.
Swarthmore, PA 19081 A Field Guide to the Insects of America
North of Mexico. Boston: Houghton Mif¬
American Association of Nurserymen
flin, 1970.
1250 I Street, N.W., Suite 500
Brewer, Jo. Wings in the Meadow. New York:
Washington, D.C. 20005
Houghton Mifflin, 1967.
American Horticultural Society Brower, Lincoln P. “Ecological Chemis¬
P.O. Box 0105 try.” Scientific American 220/2 (1969):22-
Mount Vernon, VA 22121 29.
Brower, Lincoln P. “Monarch Migration.”
Mailorder Association of Nurserymen
Natural History, June/July, 1977.
210 Cartwright Boulevard Brown, F. Martin. Colorado Butterflies. Den¬
Massapequa Park, NY 11762 ver: Denver Museum of Natural History,
National Council of State Garden Clubs 1957.
4401 Magnolia Avenue Christensen, James R. A Field Guide to the
St. Louis, MO 63110 Butterflies of the Pacific Northwest. Mos-

131
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

cow, Idaho: The University Press of Ferris, Clifford D., and Brown, Martin F.,
Idaho, 1981. eds. Butterflies of the Rocky Mountain States.
Comstock, John Adams. Butterflies of Cali- Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,
fomia. Los Angeles: published by the au¬ 1981.
thor, 1927. Field, William D. A Manual of the Butterflies
Comstock, John Henry, and Comstock, and Skippers of Kansas. Bulletin of the
Anna Botsford. How to Know the But¬ University of Kansas 39/10 (1938):3—328.
terflies. New York: D. Appleton and Com¬ Ford, E.B. Butterflies. Revised edition. Glas¬
pany, 1904. gow: Collins, 1975.
Dethier, V.G., and MacArthur, Robert H. Free, J.B.; Gennard, Dorothy; Stevenson,
“A Field’s Capacity to Support a But¬ J.H.; and Williams, Ingrid H. “Benefi¬
terfly Population.” Nature 201 cial Insects Present on a Motorway
(1964): 728-29. Verge.” Biological Conservation 8
Donahue, Julian P. “Strategies For Sur¬ (1975):61—72.
vival: the Cause of a Caterpillar.” Terra Garth, John S., andTilden, J.W. “Yosem-
17/4 (1979):3—9. ite Butterflies: An Ecological Survey of
Domfeld, Ernst J. The Butterflies of Oregon. the Butterflies of the Yosemite Sector of
Beaverton, Oregon: Timber Press, 1980. the Sierra Nevada, California.” The
Dronamraju, K.R. “Selective Visits of But¬ Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 2/1
terflies to Flowers: A Possible Factor in (1963): 1-96.
Sympatric Speciation.” Nature 186 Gilbert, Lawrence E. “Ecological Conse¬
(1960): 178. quences of a Coevolved Mutualism Be¬
Ebner, James A. The Butterflies of Wisconsin. tween Butterflies and Plants.” In
Milwaukee Public Museum: Popular Sci¬ Coevolution of Animals and Plants. Aus¬
ence Handbook, 1970. tin: University of Texas Press, 1975.
Ehrlich, Paul R., and Ehrlich, Anne H. Gilbert, Lawrence E., and Singer, Michael
How to Know the Butterflies. Dubuque, IA: C. “Butterfly Ecology.” Annual Review
Wm. C. Brown, 1961. of Ecology and Systematics 6 (1975):365—
Ehrlich, Paul R., and Raven, Peter H. 97.
“Butterflies and Plants.” Scientific Amer¬ Hamm, A.H. “Butterflies at Oxford.” The
ican 216/6 (1967): 104-13. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, De¬
Eisner, T.; Silberglied, R. E.; Aneshansley, cember, 1943: 279.
D.; Carrel, J.E.; and Howland, H.C. Hamm, A.H. “Butterflies and Silver-YMoth
“Ultraviolet Video-Viewing: the Tele¬ (Plusia gamma L.) at Oxford.” The En¬
vision Camera as an Insect Eye.” Science tomologist’s Monthly Magazine, March,
166 (1969): 1172-74. 1945: 58.
Emmel, Thomas C. Butterflies: Their World, Hamm, A.H. “Butterfly and Other Visitors
Their Life Cycle, Their Behavior. New York: to Michaelmas Daisies.” The Entomolo¬
Alfred A. Knopf, 1975. gist’s Monthly Magazine, April, 1948: 91-
Emmel, Thomas C., and Emmel, John F. 93.
The Butterflies of Southern California. Los Hanson, F.E. “Comparative Studies on In¬
Angeles: Natural History Museum of Los duction of Food Choice Preferences in
Angeles County, 1973. Lepidopterous Larvae.” In The Host-Plant
Ferguson, D.C. Host Records for Lepidoptera in Relation to Insect Behavior and Repro¬
Reared in Eastern North America. Wash¬ duction. New York: Plenum Press, 1976.
ington, D.C.: Agricultural Research Harris, Lucien, Jr. Butterflies of Georgia.
Service, United States Department of Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,
Agriculture, Technical Bulletin No. 1521 1972.
(1975). Headstrom, Richard. Adventures with In-

132
 APPENDICES

sects. New York: Dover Publications, With Heliotrope.” Journal of the Lepi-
1982. dopterists’ Society 22 (1968):108—10.
Hogue, Charles L. “Butterfly Wings: Liv¬ Miller, Lee D., and Brown, F. Martin. A
ing Pointillism.” Los Angeles County Catalogue/Checklist of the Butterflies of
Museum of Natural History Quarterly, 6/ America North of Mexico. The Lepidop-
4. (1968):4—11. terists’ Society, Memoir No. 2, 1981.
Holland, W.J. The Butterfly Book. Garden Milne, Louis, and Margery. The Audubon
City, NY: Doubleday, Doran & Com¬ Society Field Guide to North American In¬
pany, 1931. sects and Spiders. New York: Alfred A.
Howe, Robert W. “Wings Over the Prai¬ Knopf, 1980.
rie.” Iowa Conservationist, September, Mitchell, Robert T., and Zim, Herbert S.
1984. Butterflies and Moths. New York: Golden
Howe, William H. Our Butterflies and Moths. Press, 1964.
North Kansas City, MO: True Color Nabokov, Vladimir. “Butterflies.” In Speak,
Publishing Company, 1963. Memory: An Autobiography Revisited. New
Howe, William H., ed. The Butterflies of York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1966.
North America. New York: Doubleday Si- Opler, Paul A. “Management of Prairie
Company, 1975. Habitats For Insect Conservation. ” Jour¬
Ilse, Dora. “New Observations on Re¬ nal of the Natural Areas Association 1/4
sponses to Colours in Egg-laying Butter¬ (1981 ):3—6.
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Ilse, Dora, and Vaidya, Vidyadhar G. Butterflies East of the Great Plains. Balti¬
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the Indian Academy of Sciences 43 Ordish, George. The Year of the Butterfly.
(1956):23—31. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1975.
Kennedy, J.S. “Mechanisms of Host Plant Orsak, Larry J. The Butterflies of Orange
Selection.” In Readings in Entomology. County, California. Irvine, CA: Univer¬
Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, sity of California, Irvine, Press, 1977.
1972. Orsak, Larry J. “Buckwheat and the Bright
Klots, Alexander B. A Field Guide to the Blue Copper.” Garden, January/Febru¬
Butterflies of North America, East of the ary, 1980.
Great Plains. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Owen, Denis F. “Lessons From a Cater¬
1951. pillar Plague in London’s Berkeley
Klots, Alexander B. “Flight of the Butter¬ Square.” Environmental Conservation,
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Klots, Alexander B., and Klots, Elsie B. Parenti, Umberto. The World of Butterflies
1001 Answers to Questions About Insects. and Moths. New York: G. P. Putnam’s
New York: Grosset &. Dunlap, 1961. Sons, 1978
Langer, H., and Struwe, G. “Spectral Ab¬ Peterson, Roger Tory; Pyle, Robert Mi¬
sorption by Screening Pigment Granules chael; and Hughes, Sarah Anne. A Field
in the Compound Eye of Butterflies Guide to Butterflies Coloring Book. Boston:
(Heliconius).” Journal of Comparative Houghton Mifflin, 1983.
Physiology 79 (1972):203-12. Pyle, Robert Michael. Watching Washing¬
Lovell, John H. “Butterfly-Flowers.” In The ton Butterflies. Seattle: Seattle Audubon
Flower and the Bee: Plant Life and Polli¬ Society, 1974.
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133
 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

Pyle, Robert Michael. “How to Conserve conius)." Journal of Comparative Physiol¬

Insects for Fun and Necessity.” Terra ogy 79 (1972): 191—96.
17/4 (1979): 18—22. Swihart, C.A., and Swihart, S.L. “Colour
Pyle, Robert Michael. “Butterflies: Now Selection and Learned Feeding Prefer¬
You See Them ..." International Wild¬ ences in the Butterfly, Heliconius chari-
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Pyle, Robert Michael. The Audubon Society (1970):60-64.
Field Guide to North American Butterflies. Swihart, Christine A. “Color Discrimi¬
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Scudder, Samuel Hubbard. Frail Children Book of Insects. New York: Dodd, Mead
of the Air: Excursions Into the World of & Company, 1937.
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Shaw, John. “Splendor in the Grass: Tips 1954.
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graph Insects.” Blair & Ketchum’s Coun¬ Where to Go Find Them.” Los Angeles
try foumal, June, 1984. Times You magazine, September 27, 1977.
Shepardson, Lucia. The Butterfly Trees. San Tietz, Harrison M. The Lepidoptera of Penn¬
Francisco: The James H. Barry Com¬ sylvania: A Manual. State College, PA:
pany, 1914. The Pennsylvania State College School
Shields, Oakley. “Flower Visitation Rec¬ of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment
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Shields, Oakley; Emmel, John F.; and Life Histories, Early Stages and Hosts of
Breedlove, Dennis E. “Butterfly Larval the Macrolepidoptera of the Continental
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Reporting Foodplants.” The Journal of Sarasota, Florida: Allyn Museum of En¬
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Singer, Michael C., and Gilbert, Lawrence Bay Region. Berkeley: University of Cal¬
E. “Ecology of Butterflies in the Urbs ifornia Press, 1965.
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Smart, Paul. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Urguhart, F. A. The Monarch Butterfly. To¬
the Butterfly World. New York: Chartwell ronto: University of Toronto Press, 1960.
Books, 1984. Vane-Wright, Richard I, and Ackery,
Sonntag, Linda. Butterflies. New York: G.P. Phillip R., eds. The Biology of Butterflies.
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 APPENDICES

Watson, Allan, and Whalley, Paul E.S. Cribb, Peter. “How to Encourage Butter¬
The Dictionary of Butterflies and Moths in flies to Live in Your Garden.” Insect
Color. New York: Simon and Schuster, Conservation News (Amateur Entomol¬
1983. ogists’ Society, U.K.) 6 (1982):4^10.
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Wigglesworth, V.B. The Life of Insects. New Damrosch, Barbara. “A Butterfly Garden.”
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 THE BUTTERFLY GARDEN

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Smithsonian, May, 1979. Crockett, James Underwood. Perennials.
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Flowers and Gardening Kevan, Peter G. “Pollination and Envi¬
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“Intrafloral Ecology.” Annual Review of Kruckeberg, Arthur R. Gardening with Na¬
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138
 APPENDICES

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File. Spellenberg, Richard. The Audubon Society
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Niehaus, Theodore F. A Field Guide to Pa- Knopf, 1979.
cificStates Wildflowers. Boston: Houghton Spencer, Edwin Rollin. All About Weeds.
Mifflin, 1976. New York: Dover Publications, 1974.
Niering, William A. and Olmstead, Sperka, Marie. Growing Wildflowers: A Gar¬
Nancy C. The Audubon Society Field Guide dener’s Guide. New York: Charles Scrib¬
to North American Wildflowers: Eastern Re¬ ner’s Sons, 1984.
gion. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979. Steffek, Edwin F. The New Wild Flowers
Peterson, Roger Tory and McKenny, Mar¬ and How to Grow Them. Beaverton, OR:
garet. A Field Guide to Wildflowers of Timber Press, 1983.
Northeastern and North-central North Sunset Books. Color in Your Garden. Menlo
America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Park, CA: Lane Publishing Co., 1975.
1968. Sunset Books. Sunset New Western Garden
Proctor, Michael and Yeo, Peter. The Pol¬ Book. Menlo Park, CA: Lane Publishing
lination of Flowers. London: Collins, 1973. Co., 1984.
Ray, Mary Helen and Nicholls, Robert P., Taylor, Kathryn S. and Hamblin, Stephen
eds. A Guide to Significant & Flistoric F. Handbook of Wild Flower Cultivation.
Gardens of America. Athens, GA: Agee New York: The Macmillan Company,
Publishers, 1983. 1963.
Richards, A.J., ed. The Pollination of Flow¬ Tenenbaum, Frances. Gardening with Wild
ers by Insects. London and Orlando, FL: Flowers. New York: Charles Scribner’s
Academic Press, Linnean Society Sym¬ Sons, 1973.
posium Series No. 6, 1978. United States Department of Agriculture.
Ruggiero, Michael A. Spotter’s Guide to Wild Common Weeds of the United States. New
Flowers of North America. New York: York: Dover Publications, 1971.
Mayflower Books, 1979. Zim, Herbert S. and Martin, Alexander C.
Sinnes, A. Cort. All About Annuals. San Flowers. New York: Golden Press, 1950.
Francisco: Ortho Books, 1981.

139
 INDEX
Acmon Blue, 33 Checkerspot, 9, 12, 87
Activities in butterfly gardens, 75-85. See also Children and butterflies, 80
Experiments. Chrysalis, 13, 19, 24-25, 87, 94
Adult butterfly, 19, 22, 25-26. See also Life care of, 92
cycle. Churchill, Winston, 14
Alfalfa butterfly. See Orange Sulphur. Classification of butterflies, 8-10
American Copper, 69 Climate. See Regions, Seasonal factors.
American Painted Lady, 35, 37, 69, 70, 107 Clodius Parnassian, 33
Anglewings, 9, 35, 36 Cloudless Giant Sulphur, 37, 53, 119
Anise Swallowtails, 11, 13, 18, 22, 29, 66, Cloudless Sulphur, 68
87, 116. See also Swallowtails. Collections, 80
Arctic Skipper, 33. See also Skippers. Color sensitivity, 52-56
Aristotle, 14 Comma, 9, 13, 17, 29, 30, 32, 33, 35, 36,
Associations. See Societies. 60, 66, 108
Atala, 102 Commercial suppliers. See Suppliers, commer¬
cial.
Baltimore, 32, 37, 66, 87, 94 Common Blue, 20, 55, 69, 112
Benefits from butterflies, 104 Common butterflies, list of, 107-121
Black Swallowtail, 11, 20, 68. See also Common Checkered Skipper, 115. See also
Swallowtails. Skippers.
Blues, 36 Common Sulphurs, 29, 119-120
Bog Coppers, 70 Compton Tortoiseshell, 83, 87
Breeding, 84, 95-96. See also Courtship, Eggs, Conservation of butterflies, 97-104
Hatching, Mating. Contributions of butterflies, 104
Bright Blue Copper, 66 Courtship, 29-31. See also Breeding, Mating.
Brown Elfin, 8, 112 Crescentspots, 9
Browns. See Satyrs.
Brush-footed butterflies, 8, 107-112 Dakota Skipper, 71. See also Skippers.
Buckeye, 26, 28, 30, 35, 37, 51, 53, 66, 69, Decline, causes of, 98
88, 107-108 Dehiwela Zoological Garden, 85
Buddleia, ii Diana, 44
Butterfly bush. See Buddleia. Diversion, 28-29
Diversity, 17-19
Cabbage butterfly, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20-21, 24, Documentation, 78-79
26, 33, 49, 51, 67, 88, 98. See also Cab¬ Dogface butterfly, 20, 35, 120
bage White butterfly. Drum Manor Butterfly Garden, 41
Cabbage White butterfly, ii, 9, 29, 118-119. Dwarf Yellow, 37
See also Cabbage butterfly.
California Dogface, 33, 119
Eastern Black Swallowtail, 17, 66, 88, 116.
California Sisters, 48
See also Swallowtails.
Camouflage, 28-29, 30
Eastern Blue, 69
Capturing butterflies, 75-77
Eastern Pygmy Blue, 112-113
Caterpillars, 10-13, 19-24, 22, 36, 50-51,
Eastern Tailed Blue, 10, 53
73-74, 78, 87, 94. See also Life cycle,
Eggs, 10, 19, 22, 50-51
care of, 90-92
laying of, 31-32
food plants, 65-74
obtaining, 86
Characteristics, 8-10
El Segundo Blue, 102
Checkered White, 91, 119
Emigration, 37-39
Checkered Wing, 35

141
 INDEX

Enclosures, 82-83. See also Hibernation boxes, non-nectar nutrient sources, 60-62
Houses. pathways, 47-48
Endangered species, 101-104 perennials, 58
Endangered Species List, U.S., 101-103 pests, discouraging, 50
Entomological equipment. See Equipment, en¬ planters, 49
tomological. production management, 8
Entomological societies, 101, 130-131 puddles, 46-47
Equipment, entomological, 130. See also Ac¬ shelter, 45-46
tivities, Suppliers, Commercial. soils, 49
Experiments, 79-80. See also Activities. special touches, 51
European Skipper, 71. See also Skippers. starting, 41-51
Eyed Brown, 20 successive generations of butterflies, 17-18
sun, 44—45
Falcate Orangetip, 24, 35, 69, 120 terraces, 47—48
Farms, butterfly, 14 vegetables, 68
Females, care of captive, 93-94 wildflowers, 56-57
Field guides, 77-78 window boxes, 49
Field marks system, 78 Gatekeeper Skipper, 47. See also Skippers.
Fiery Skipper, 13, 14, 20, 26, 115-116. See Giant Swallowtail, 20, 30, 35, 117. See also
also Skippers. Swallowtails.
Fighting, 27 Golden Birdwing, 84
Five-spotted Sphinx Moth, 11 Gossamer Wings, 8, 112-114
Flight, 26 Gray Comma, 83
Florida Atala, 101 Gray Hairstreak, 13-14, 26, 66, 68, 70, 113.
Flowers, cultivated, 121-125. See also Food See also Hairstreaks.
plants, Gardens, Nectar sources, Wild- Great Spangled Fritillary, 32, 35, 108. See abo
flowers. Fritillaries.
Food plants. See also Gardens, Nectar sources, Green Comma, 70
Wildflowers. Gulf Fritillary, 13, 18, 19, 24, 26, 37, 44, 49,
care of, 72-74 50, 68, 69, 95, 108. See also Fritillaries.
cultivated, 67-68
larval, 65-74 Habitat
lawns, 70-72 preferences, 35
planting of, 67, 72-74 protection, 98-100
weeds, 70-72 Hackberry butterfly, 53, 79-80, 108-109
wildflowers, 68-70 Hairstreaks, 9, 28, 36
Fritillaries, 35, 66, 68, 70 Hatching, 25. See also Breeding, Eggs.
Hibernation, 36, 94—95
Garden clubs, 100. See also Societies. boxes, 82, 83. See also Enclosures, Houses.
Gardens Houses, 84—85, 85. See also Enclosures, Hiber¬
annuals, 58 nation boxes.
beds, 47-48
birds, discouraging, 50 Imago. See Adult butterfly.
borders, 47-48
butterfly, 10-16 Jutta Arctic, 33
city, 13-14
color schemes, 58-60 Kamer Blue, 15, 103
definition of, 7-16
exotic butterflies, 51 Large Wood Nymph, 35, 115
extending, 74 Larvae, 10-13, 70. See also Caterpillars, Food
livestocking, 50-51 plants.
management of, 8 Lawns, 70-72
meadows, 47 Leonardus Skipper, 35. See also Skippers.
nectar sources, 13-14 Life cycle, 10-13, 17-32

142
 INDEX

London Butterfly House, 84 Perennials by mail, 127-129

Long-tailed Skipper, 37. See also Skippers. Peterson, Roger Tory, 78
Longwings, 9 Pheromones, 25-26, 30
Lullingstone Silk Farm, 84 Photography, 81
Pine White, 35
Males Pink-edged Sulphur, 33. See also Sulphurs.
sex scales on wings, 25-26 Pipevine Swallowtail, 17. See also Swallow¬
Marine Blue, 26, 113 tails.
Mating, 29—31, 95—96. See also Breeding. Plants, host, 10-11. See also Food plants,
Meadow Brown Skipper, 47. See also Skippers. Nectar sources,
Meadows, 71-72 where to get, 127-129
Migration, 10, 37-39 Population, threats to, 98
Milbert’s Tortoiseshell, 13, 20, 109 Powesheik Skipper, 71. See also Skippers.
Milkweed butterflies, 9, 114-115 Prairie Ringlet, 33
Monarch, 7, 9, 10, 13, 18, 21, 24, 25, 29, Predators, 28-29
33, 35, 37-39, 50, 66, 72, 99, 103-104, Proboscis, 18, 54, 93-94
114 Protected status, 101-102
Moths, 18, 88 Protection of, 104. See also Endangered spe¬
Mourning Cloak, 8, 14, 15, 24, 27, 29, 32, cies.
35, 36, 38, 51, 53, 60, 66, 68, 70, 74, 87, Puddles, 46-47
109 Puddling, 27
Pupa. See Chrysalis.
Nabokov, Vladimir, 14-16 Purchasing butterflies, 129-130
Nectar sources, 10, 13, 52-64, 121-127. See Purplish Copper, 69
also Food plants, Wildflowers.
color sensitivity, 52-56 Queen, 18, 20, 33 , 66, 72, 114-115
preferences of butterflies, 60 Question Mark, 9, 17, 32, 53, 60, 66, 68,
recommended, 56 110
Nets, 75-77
Notebook, field, 78-79 Rainfall, 35. See also Seasonal factors.
Northern Blue, 33 Rearing, 86-96
Nurseries, 127 captive females, care of, 93-94
Nymphalids. See Brush-footed butterflies. containers, 88-90
timetables, 94—95
Observation of butterflies, 32 Recordkeeping, 78-79
recording of, 78-79 Red Admiral, ii, 13, 37, 48, 60, 88, 110-111
Ocher Ringlet, 33 Red-spotted Purple, 36, 51, 60, 66, 68, 111
Olympia Marblewing, 44 Regal Fritillary, 71. See also Fritillaries.
Optics, 77 Regions, 33-39
Orange-bordered Blue, 15 Regulation of population, 12-13
Orange Sulphurs, 29, 33, 68, 88, 98, 120. See Roosting, 27-28
also Sulphurs. Rough-edged butterflies, 28-29
Ordering butterflies, 129-130
Organizations, 130-131 Sara Orangetip, 33, 35, 69, 120-121
Ovum. See Eggs. Satyr Anglewing, 13, 29, 35, 66, 111
Satyrs, 9, 51, 68, 115
Painted Lady, 13, 26, 33, 66, 67, 68, 88, Scent hormones, 25-26
Schaus’ Swallowtail, 100. See also Swallow¬
109-110
Palos Verdes Blue, 102-103 tails.
Parasitoids, 28-29 Scudder, Samuel Hubbard, 11

Patrolling, 27 Seasons, 33-39, 94—95

Sex differences, 17
Peacocks, 69
Pearly Crescentspot, 27, 32, 110 Short-tailed Swallowtail, 33. See also Swallow¬
tails.
Perching, 27

143
 INDEX

Silver-spotted Skipper, 116. See also Skippers. Veined White, 33

Silvery Blue, 8, 20, 35, 69, 113 Viceroy, 8, 18, 29, 36, 60, 66, 67, 87, 111
Skippers, 9, 18, 26, 68, 94, 115-116
Sleepy Orange, 14, 53, 68, 121 Wall Skipper, 47. See also Skippers.
Sleeving, 73-74 Weather. See Seasons.
Small Skipper, 47. See also Skippers. Weeds, 70-72
Small Tortoiseshells, 69 control of, 13
Smell, sense of, 31 West Coast Lady, 26-27, 33, 36, 44, 54, 68,
Smoky Eyed Brown, 71 111-112
Societies, 100-101 Western Black Swallowtail, 118. See also
South American Owl butterfly, 84 Swallowtails.
Spicebush Swallowtail, 12, 68, 88, 117. See Western Pygmy Blue, 37, 114
also Swallowtails. Western Tailed Blue, 69
Spring Azure, 35, 66, 113-114 Western Tiger Swallowtail, 14, 68, 118. See
Sugaring, 60-62 also Swallowtails.
Sulphurs, 66, 70, 118-121. See also Whites. White Admiral, 35, 36, 36, 60, 66, 68, 112
Suppliers, commercial, 88 Whites, 9, 36, 66, 118-121. See also Sul¬
Swallowtails, 9, 21, 26, 28, 36, 87, 94, 116— phurs.
118 Wildflowers, 68-70, 125-127. See also Food
tropical, 84 plants, Nectar sources,
by mail, 127-129
Wildlife groups, 101
Tailed Blues, 70
Window boxes, 49
Tama Zoological Park, 85
Wings
Taste, sense of, 31
patterns on,
Tawny-edged Skipper, 9, 70, 116. See also
scales on, 25-26
Skippers.
Woodland Skipper, 33, 35. See also Skippers.
Temperature, 35-36. See also Seasons.
Worldwide Butterflies, 84
Territoriality, 26-27
Tiger Swallowtails, 9, 17, 19, 118. See also
Xerces Blue, 98
Swallowtails.
Xerces Society, 101, 103-104
Tortoiseshells, 36
Traps, 82-83. See also Nets.
Zebra Butterfly. See Zebra Longwing.
Zebra Longwing, 28, 36
Variegated Fritillary, 24. See also Fritillaries. Zebra Swallowtail, 17, 37. See also Swallow¬
Variety, 17-19 tails.

144
FIELD NOTES
 V
$9.95

“A comprehensive book such as this on

butterfly gardening is overdue.”
Roger Tory Peterson

But-ter-fly garden-ing (but'er-fh' gard'n-mg)

(noun) 1. the practice of attracting butterflies to your garden
by the growing of common plants and flowers which they use
for food and nectar 2. an easy activity that will add color,
light, and beauty to your garden and home 3. a rewarding
outdoor hobby that is sweeping the country.

Mathew Tekulsky’s The Butterfly Garden is a complete, step-

by-step guide to gardening for butterflies. You’ll learn about:

• The butterfly life cycle, habitats, and behavior

• Choosing and obtaining food and nectar sources
• Designing your garden
• Options for country, suburban, and city gardens
• 50 common garden butterflies and the plants they like
• Butterfly observation and conservation

Step inside . . . The Butterfly Garden

Mathew Tekulsky is a free-lance writer living in Los Angeles who

has had a life-long interest in butterflies.
Robert Michael Pyle is founder of the Xerces Society and author of
ySusanah Brown

The Audubon Society Handbook for Butterfly Watchers.

llllllllllllllllllllllllilllll 9 0 0 00

The Harvard Common Press 978 0 9167826 9 6

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