Campbell Biology
Tenth Edition
Chapter 27
Bacteria & Archaea
Lecture Presentations by
Kathleen Fitzpatrick and Nicole Tunbridge,
Simon Fraser University
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Prokaryotes: Idea of First Cells
• ~3.5 Ga proposed origin time-line on Earth
• Single-celled (sometimes live in colonies)
• Domains: bacteria & archaea
• Extremophiles: acidic, salty, cold, or hot environments
• Symbiosis: can colonize other organisms
• Microscopic: 0.5–5μm diameter (eukaryotes 10 –100μm)
• Morphology: spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli), and spiral
(spirochetes) cell shapes
• Most abundant organisms on Earth!
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Figure 24.6 The Most Common Shapes of
Prokaryotes
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Hypothesis About Early Earth
4 stages froming a “simple cell” on early Earth:
1. Abiotic (non-life) synthesis of small organic molecules
2. Macromolecule synthesis from those small molecules
3. Protocells (membrane-bound droplets) needed for
internal chemistry
4. Self-replication
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Hypothetical Early Earth Atmosphere:
Reducing environment Condensed H2O vapor Volcanoes/vent gases:
(Low O2) (oceans) N2, CO2, CH4, NH3, & H2
(1920’s) I. Oparin & J. B. S. Haldane hypothesize reducing
environment in early Earth atmosphere
(1953) Stanley Miller & Harold Urey abiotic synthesis of organic
molecules in reducing environment
Current evidence: early atmosphere was neither reducing or
oxidizing but neutral (still not understood)
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Hypothetical Protocells
Protocells: fluid-filled vesicles with a membrane*
❑ Lipids form vesicles & bilayers in H2O
❑ Montmorillonite (soft mineral clay) increases vesicle
formation rate
❑ Semi-permeable membrane to absorb and
metabolize molecules from environment
❑ Reproduction & metabolism must appear together
*Dr. Lee Cronin (naturalist) researches in this area
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Copyright
Figure 24.4 Features ©
of 2020, 2016,
Abiotically 2014 Pearson
Produced Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Vesicles
Self-Replicating RNA
• Ribozymes are RNA molecules that can catalyze
reactions; some are also self-replicating
• Presumed first genetic material was RNA not DNA
• (2013) scientists form vesicle with self-replicating RNA
• Double-stranded DNA - more stable and accurate genetic
replication than RNA
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Rebuttals to Abiogenesis
• JCVI-Syn3B: smallest genome that scientists can
synthesize contains 544,546 bp of DNA!
• The odds JCVI-Syn3B’s genome self-assembling is 1 in
10900,000 compare that to the number of atoms in the known
universe at 1084.
• https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/news/earths-early-
atmosphere-an-update/
• https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2021/03/scientists-
create-simple-synthetic-cell-grows-and-divides-normally
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Hypothesis of Fossils & Early Life
Cyanobacteria – photosynthetic bacteria
• 1.5 Ga proposed origin of photosynthesis
• “Transformed” early Earth atmosphere by releasing O2
Figure 24.5 Appearance in the Fossil Record of Early Prokaryote Groups
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Prokaryote: Cell-Surface
Prokaryote Cell Walls: Maintains cell shape and
protects from hypotonic solutions
• Peptidoglycan: modified network of sugars & polypeptides
a) Gram-positive: simpler cell walls with thick peptidoglycan
layer
b) Gram-negative: less peptidoglycan than gram-positive &
an outer membrane with lipopolysaccharides
– Antibiotics can target & damage peptidoglycan layer
– Outer membrane (gram-negative) increases antibiotic
resistance
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Prokaryote: Cell-Surface
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Prokaryote: Cell-Surface
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Bacteria: Gram-positive
Gram-positive bacteria include:
• Actinomycetes – many are soil decomposers
• Streptomyces – many are sources of antibiotics
• Bacillus anthracis – cause of anthrax
• Clostridium botulinum – cause of botulism
• Staphylococcus & Streptococcus – can be pathogenic
• Mycoplasmas – smallest known cells & only bacteria
without a cell wall
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Prokaryote Cell-Surface
• Capsules: sticky, protective outer layer that allows
bacteria to stick to each other & surfaces
• Endospores: dormant, survival state in some bacteria
cells caused by a lack of water or nutrients (can remain
viable for centuries)
• Fimbriae: hair-like structures used to attach to substrates
• Pili “sex pili”: longer structures used to pull prokaryotes
together during DNA transfer between cells
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Figure 24.8 Capsule
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Figure 24.9 Fimbriae
Motility
• Taxis: the ability to move toward or away from a stimulus
• Flagella: most common structures enabling movement in
prokaryotes
• Prokaryote flagella are:
a) Composed of 3 main parts (motor, hook, &
filament) and 42 proteins
b) Like archaea flagella with some different proteins
c) Different from eukaryote flagella in composition &
function
d) Possibly had exaptations to take on new functions
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Figure 24.10 A Prokaryotic Flagellum
Flagellum
Filament 20 nm
Hook
Cell wall Motor
Plasma Peptidoglycan
membrane Rod layer
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Internal Organization and DNA
• Prokaryotic genomes have less DNA than eukaryotes
• Nucleoid: a single circular chromosome of genetic
material not bound by a membrane
• Plasmids: small DNA rings in some bacteria
• Antibiotics can stop protein synthesis in bacteria
ribosomes but not in eukaryote ribosomes
• Some prokaryotes have specialized folds in the plasma
membrane for metabolic functions
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Figure 24.11 Specialized Membranes of
Prokaryotes
0.2 m 0.5 m
Respiratory
membrane Thylakoid
membrane
(a) Aerobic prokaryote (b) Photosynthetic prokaryote
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Figure 24.12 A Prokaryotic Chromosome
and Plasmids
Chromosome
Plasmids
1 m
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Nutritional & Metabolic Adaptations
4 modes of carbon & energy sources of an organism:
Table 24.1 Major Nutritional Modes
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Prokaryote Metabolism
• Prokaryotic metabolism vary concerning O2
a) Obligate aerobes: require O2 for cellular respiration
b) Obligate anaerobes: are poisoned by O2 and use
fermentation or anaerobic respiration with
substances other than O2
c) Facultative anaerobes: can use O2 and/or use
fermentation or anaerobic respiration
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Metabolic Cooperation
• Nitrogen (N) is required in amino acids & nucleic acids
and eukaryotes cannot use atmospheric nitrogen (N2)
• Nitrogen fixation: conversion of nitrogen (N2) to
ammonia (NH3) usable by prokaryotes & eukaryotes
• Anabaena (cyanobacteria) have photosynthetic cells
exchange products with nitrogen-fixing cells called
heterocysts (or heterocytes)
• Biofilm: a surface coating produced over a colony of
prokaryotes. Can cause problems for humans (i.e.
chronic infections, tooth decay, & device contamination)
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Figure 24.13 Metabolic Cooperation in a
Prokaryote
Heterocyst
Photosynthetic
cells
20 m
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Figure 24.14 Pseudomonas Aeruginosa
Forming a Biofilm (Colorized SEM)
5 m
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Reproduction: Prokaryotes
3 key features of prokaryote reproduction:
1. Small cell size
2. Binary fission: division of one cell into two
genetically identical cells
3. Short generation times
3 factors for prokaryote genetic diversity:
1. Rapid reproduction
2. Mutation – rare but can accumulate quickly
3. Genetic recombination
• Prokaryotes are not “primitive”, but thought to be highly
evolved due to rapid adaptation to new conditions
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Genetic Recombination
• Genetic recombination: combining DNA from 2x sources
• Horizontal gene transfer: movement of genes among
individuals from different species
• Transformation: a prokaryotes takes up foreign DNA from
the environment
• Transduction: movement of genes between prokaryotic
cells by phage viruses that infect bacteria
• Conjugation: genetic material is transferred directly
between prokaryotic cells
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Figure 24.17 Bacterial Conjugation
Pilus
1 m
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Genetic Recombination
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Conjugation and Plasmids
R Plasmids & Antibiotic Resistance:
• Antibiotic resistance genes often carried in R plasmids
• Antibiotics kill bacteria that do not have a specific R plasmid
• A fraction of resistance (R plasmid) bacteria increase in a
population exposed to antibiotics
• Antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria are more common
since the use of antibiotics
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Prokaryotes: Diversity of Lineages
• Prokaryotes have diverse structural and metabolic
adaptations and inhabit every known environment that
can support life!
• Molecular systematics led to the splitting of prokaryotes
into the separate domains of Bacteria & Archaea
• Estimated that a handful of soil could contain 10,000
prokaryotic species, of which only a small diversity has
been identified and described
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Figure 24.19 A Simplified Phylogeny of
Prokaryotes
Eukarya
Domain
Eukaryotes
Euryarchaeotes
Domain Archaea
Thaumarchaeotes
Aigarchaeotes
TACK
Crenarchaeotes
UNIVERSAL
ANCESTOR
Korarchaeotes
Proteobacteria
Chlamydias
Domain Bacteria
Spirochetes
Cyanobacteria
Gram-positive
bacteria
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Prokaryote Phylogeny
Eukarya
Archaea
Bacteria
Figure 24.20 Exploring Selected Major Groups of Bacteria
Alpha
Beta
Gamma Proteobacteria
Delta
Epsilon
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Prokaryotic Diversity
• Proteobacteria: a clade of 5 groups of gram-negative
bacteria with diverse metabolic and nutritional modes
1. Alpha proteobacteria
2. Beta proteobacteria
3. Gamma proteobacteria
4. Delta proteobacteria
5. Epsilon proteobacteria
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Bacteria: Alpha Proteobacteria
Alpha proteobacteria are often associated with eukaryotes
– Ex: Rhizobium forms root nodules in legumes and
fixes atmospheric N2
• Scientists use Agrobacterium to transfer foreign DNA into
crop plants
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Figure 24.20 Exploring Selected Major Groups of Bacteria
Bacteria: Beta Proteobacteria
• Members of the subgroup beta proteobacteria have
diverse nutritional modes
– Ex: Nitrosomonas participates in soil nitrification by
oxidizing ammonium (NH4+) and producing nitrite
(NO2-)
Figure 24.20 Exploring Selected Major Groups of Bacteria
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Bacteria: Gamma Proteobacteria
Gamma proteobacteria include autotrophs & heterotrophs
– Ex: Thiomargarita namibiensis is an autotroph that
obtains energy from H2S
– Ex: Salmonella causes food poisoning, and Vibrio
cholerae causes cholera
– Escherichia coli is common and normally non-
pathogenic
• https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=jlyy1gN2UNY
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Figure Education,
24.20 Exploring Inc.Major
Selected All Rights
Groups Reserved
of Bacteria
Bacteria: Delta Proteobacteria
• The subgroup delta proteobacteria includes the slime-
secreting myxobacteria and bdellovibrios, a bacteria that
attacks other bacteria
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bEWl8zTz--0
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-uZjo0ohjFw
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Figure 2014
24.20 Pearson Selected
Exploring Education,Major
Inc. All Rights of
Groups Reserved
Bacteria
Bacteria: Epsilon Proteobacteria
• Most species in the subgroup epsilon proteobacteria
are pathogenic
– For example, Helicobacter pylori causes stomach
ulcers
Figure 24.20 Exploring Selected Major Groups of Bacteria
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Bacteria: Chlamydias
• Chlamydias: disease-causing parasites only found within
animal host cells (Ex: Chlamydia trachomatis causes
blindness & nongonococcal urethritis)
Figure 24.20 Exploring Selected Major Groups of Bacteria
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Bacteria: Spirochetes
• Spirochetes: helical gram-negative heterotrophs
• Can be free-living or parasitic (Ex: Treponema pallidum
causes syphilis & Borrelia burgdorferi Lyme disease)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CiX-r_GXo1Q
Figure 24.20 Exploring Selected Major Groups of Bacteria
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Bacteria: Cyanobacteria
• Cyanobacteria: gram-negative photoautotrophs (conduct
photosynthesis) that generate O2 in marine & freshwater
• Chloroplasts may have evolved from cyanobacteria via
endosymbiosis
• https://www.youtube.com
/shorts/60oV005uLNQ
Figure 24.20 Exploring Selected Major Groups of Bacteria
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Archaea
• Archaea have many unique traits, but they also share
some traits in common with bacteria and others with
eukaryotes
• Archaea cell walls contain sugars and proteins, but lack
peptidoglycan
• New “supergroup” TACK is named by its groups
Thaumarchaeota, Aigarchaeota, Crenarchaeota, &
Korarchaeota
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Table 24.2 A Comparison of the Three
Domains of Life
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Archaea
• Extremophiles: archaea that live in extreme
environments
• Extreme halophiles either tolerate or require a highly
saline environment
– Ex: Halobacterium cannot survive below 9% salinity
• Extreme thermophiles thrive in very hot environments
– For example, members of the genus Sulfolobus live
in hot springs with temperatures up to 90°C
– Other species live near deep-sea hydrothermal vents
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Archaea
• Methanogens: archaea that are strict anaerobes that
produce methane in anoxic (without O2) environments,
including swamps, marshes, and the guts of cattle, and
near deep-sea hydrothermal vents
Figure 24.22 A Highly Thermophilic Methanogen
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Chemical Recycling
• Prokaryotes recycle chemical elements in living and
nonliving components
– Ex: Decomposers break down dead organic
materials and release mineral nutrients
– Ex: Cyanobacteria can produce sugars through
photosynthesis and rhizobium can fix atmospheric
nitrogen (N2) into forms available to plants
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Prokaryotes: Ecological Interactions
• Symbiosis: ecological relationship between a large host
& smaller symbiont
– Ex: eukaryotes near hydrothermal vents depend on
chemoautotrophic bacteria for energy
– Ex: Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron synthesizes
carbohydrates, vitamins, & nutrients inside the human
GI tract
• Commensalism: benefits symbiont without host harm
• Mutualism: both host & symbiont benefit
• Parasitism: parasite harms host but does not kill it
• Pathogens: parasites that cause disease
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Pathogenic Bacteria
• All pathogenic prokaryotes are BACTERIA, and
cause ~50% of all human diseases!
– Ex:1 million annual deaths from a lung disease
caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Ticks and fleas can transmit bacterial diseases
– Ex: Lyme disease, carried by Ixodes ticks, infects
300,000 people in the US yearly
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Figure 24.25 Lyme Disease
5 m
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Pathogenic Bacteria
• Disease in pathogenic bacteria is usually “poisoning” with:
– Exotoxins: secreted & cause disease in the presence
OR absence of the bacteria (residual)
– Endotoxins: released only when bacteria die & cell
walls break down
• Horizontal gene transfer of a toxic gene can make a
harmless E. coli bacteria pathogenic
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Prokaryotes: Research & Technology
• Experimental treatment of human cells with the
prokaryotic CRISPR-Cas9 system has shown promising
results for the treatment of HIV
(a) Control cells. The green color (b) Experimental cells treated with a CRISPR-
indicates infection by HIV. Cas9 system that targets HIV.
Figure 24.26 CRISPR: Opening New Avenues of Research on Treating HIV Infection
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Prokaryotes: Research & Technology
• Some bacteria can be used to make natural,
biodegradable plastics
• Others have been engineered to produce ethanol from
plant sources and agricultural and municipal wastes
Figure 24.27 Bacteria Synthesizing and Storing PHA, a Component
of Biodegradable Plastics
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Prokaryotes in Research & Technology
• Prokaryotes are also used in bioremediation, the use of
organisms to remove pollutants from the environment
Figure 24.28 Bioremediation of an Oil Spill
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Rebuttal to Abiogenesis: Dr. James
Tour
• Dr. James Tour Abiogenesis Complete Course List:
• https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLILWudw_84t
2THBvJZFyuLA0qvxwrIBDr
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