Types of OS

Evolution of OS:
• The evolution of operating systems went through seven major phases.

• Six of them significantly changed the ways in which users accessed computers
through the open shop, batch processing, multiprogramming, timesharing,
personal computing, and distributed systems.

• In the seventh phase the foundations of concurrent programming were

developed and demonstrated in model operating systems.
 Evolution of OS (contd..):
Major Technical Operating
Phases Innovations Systems
The idea of OS IBM 701 open shop
Open Shop Programmers write programs and (1954)
submit tape/cards to operator.
Operator feeds cards, collects output
from printer.

Tape batching, BKS system (1961)

Batch
First-in, first-out scheduling.
Processing
Processor multiplexing, Indivisible Atlas supervisor (1961),
Multi- operations, Demand paging, Exec II system (1966)
programming Input/output spooling, Priority
scheduling, Remote job entry
Evolution of OS (contd..):
Simultaneous user Multics file system
Timesharing interaction, (1965),
On-line file systems Unix (1974)
Hierarchical systems, RC 4000 system (1969),
Concurrent Extensible kernels, Parallel 13 Venus system (1972),
Programming programming concepts, 14 Boss 2 system
Secure parallel languages (1975).
Graphic user interfaces OS 6 (1972)
Personal
Pilot system (1980)
Computing
Remote servers WFS file server (1979)
Distributed Unix United RPC (1982)
Systems 24 Amoeba system
(1990)
Batch Systems
• Introduction of tape drives allow batching of jobs
• In this type of system, there is no direct interaction between user
and the computer.
• The user has to submit a job (written on cards or tape) to a computer
operator.
• Then computer operator places a batch of several jobs on an input
device.
• Jobs are batched together by type of languages and requirement.
Computer now has a resident monitor :
• initially control is in monitor.
• monitor reads job and transfer control.
• at end of job, control transfers back to monitor.
• The monitor is always in the main memory and
available for execution.

Even better: spooling systems.

• use interrupt driven I/O.
• use magnetic disk to cache input tape.
• Monitor now schedules jobs. . .
Advantages of Simple Batch Systems
• No interaction between user and computer.
• No mechanism to prioritize the processes.
Uniprogramming
• Processor must wait for I/O instruction to complete before preceding
Multiprogramming Batch Systems
• Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
• Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to
execute
• A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
• In this, the operating system picks up and begins to execute one of the jobs from
memory.
• Once this job needs an I/O operation operating system switches to another job
(CPU and OS always busy).
• Jobs in the memory are always less than the number of jobs on disk(Job Pool).
Multiprogramming
• Use memory to cache jobs from disk i.e., more than one job active
simultaneously.
Two stage scheduling:
• select jobs to load: job scheduling.
• select resident job to run: CPU scheduling.
• If several jobs are ready to run at the same time, then the system
chooses which one to run through the process of CPU Scheduling.
• In Non-multiprogrammed system, there are moments when CPU sits
idle and does not do any work.
• In Multiprogramming system, CPU will never be idle and keeps on
processing.
Advantages:
• Efficient memory utilization
• Throughput increases
• CPU is never idle, so performance increases.
Time Sharing Systems
• Time Sharing Systems are very similar to Multiprogramming batch systems.
• Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so frequently
that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing
• Time slice is defined by the OS, for sharing CPU time between processes.
• Examples: Multics, Unix, etc.,
• In Time sharing systems the prime focus is on minimizing the response time, while in
multiprogramming the prime focus is to maximize the CPU usage.
• Response time should be < 1 second
• Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
• If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
• If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
• Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Multiprocessor Systems
• Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
• A Multiprocessor system consists of several processors that share a common
physical memory.
• Multiprocessor system provides higher computing power and speed.
• In multiprocessor system all processors operate under single operating system.
Multiplicity of the processors and how they do act together are transparent to
the others.
Advantages of Multiprocessor Systems
• Enhanced performance
• Increased throughput - Execution of several tasks by different processors
concurrently, increases the system's throughput without speeding up the
execution of a single task.
• If possible, system divides task into many subtasks and then these subtasks
can be executed in parallel in different processors. Thereby speeding up the
execution of single tasks.
• Economy of scale
• Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a specific task.

2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks

Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
Non-Uniform Memory Access System
A Dual-Core Design
• A recent trend in CPU design is to include multiple
computing cores on a single chip.
• Multi-chip and multicore
• Systems containing all chips
• Chassis containing multiple separate systems
Advantages:
• on-chip communication is faster
than between-chip communication.
• One chip with multiple cores uses
significantly less power than
multiple single-core chips.
Blade servers
• These are a relatively recent development in which multiple
processor boards, I/O boards, and networking boards are placed in
the same chassis.
• The difference between these and traditional multiprocessor systems
is that each blade-processor board boots independently and runs its
own operating system.
• These servers consist of multiple independent multiprocessor
systems.
Desktop Systems
• PC operating systems were neither multiuser nor multitasking.
• However, the goals of these operating systems have changed with time; instead
of maximizing CPU and peripheral utilization, the systems opt for maximizing user
convenience and responsiveness. These systems are called Desktop Systems and
include PCs running Microsoft Windows and the Apple Macintosh.
• Operating systems for these computers have benefited in several
ways from the development of operating systems for mainframes.
• Microcomputers were immediately able to adopt some of the
technology developed for larger operating systems.
• On the other hand, the hardware costs for microcomputers are
sufficiently low that individuals have sole use of the computer, and
CPU utilization is no longer a prime concern. Thus, some of the design
decisions made in operating systems for mainframes may not be
appropriate for smaller systems.
Distributed Operating System
• The motivation behind developing distributed operating systems is the availability
of powerful and inexpensive microprocessors and advances in communication
technology.
• These advancements in technology have made it possible to design and develop
distributed systems comprising of many computers that are inter connected by
communication networks. The main benefit of distributed systems is its low
price/performance ratio.

• Advantages Distributed Operating System

• As there are multiple systems involved, user at one site can utilize the resources
of systems at other sites for resource-intensive tasks.
• Fast processing.
• Less load on the Host Machine.
Types of Distributed Operating Systems
• Following are the two types of distributed operating systems used:
• Client-Server Systems
• Peer-to-Peer Systems
Client-Server Systems
• Centralized systems today act as server systems to satisfy requests generated
by client systems.
• Server Systems can be broadly categorized as: Compute Servers and File Servers.
• Compute Server systems, provide an interface to which clients can send requests
to perform an action, in response to which they execute the action and send back
results to the client.
• File Server systems, provide a file-system interface where clients can create,
update, read, and delete files.
Peer-to-Peer Systems
• The growth of computer networks - especially the Internet and World
Wide Web (WWW) – has had a profound influence on the recent
development of operating systems.
• When PCs were introduced in the 1970s, they were designed
for personal use and were generally considered standalone
computers.
• With the beginning of widespread public use of the Internet in the
1990s for electronic mail and FTP, many PCs became connected to
computer networks.
• In contrast to the Tightly Coupled systems, the computer networks
used in these applications consist of a collection of processors that do
not share memory or a clock. Instead, each processor has its own
local memory.
• The processors communicate with one another through various
communication lines, such as high-speed buses or telephone lines.
These systems are usually referred to as loosely coupled systems ( or
distributed systems).
Clustered Systems
• Like parallel systems, clustered systems gather together multiple CPUs
to accomplish computational work.
• Clustered systems differ from parallel systems, however, in that they
are composed of two or more individual systems coupled together.
• The definition of the term clustered is not concrete; the general
accepted definition is that clustered computers share storage and are
closely linked via LAN networking.
• Clustering is usually performed to provide high availability.
• A layer of cluster software runs on the cluster nodes. Each node can
monitor one or more of the others.
• If the monitored machine fails, the monitoring machine can take
ownership of its storage, and restart the application(s) that were
running on the failed machine.
• The failed machine can remain down, but the users and clients of the
application would only see a brief interruption of service.
• Asymmetric Clustering - In this, one machine is in hot standby mode while
the other is running the applications. The hot standby host (machine) does
nothing but monitor the active server. If that server fails, the hot standby
host becomes the active server.
• Symmetric Clustering - In this, two or more hosts are running applications,
and they are monitoring each other. This mode is obviously more efficient,
as it uses all of the available hardware.
• Parallel Clustering - Parallel clusters allow multiple hosts to access the
same data on the shared storage. Because most operating systems lack
support for this simultaneous data access by multiple hosts, parallel
clusters are usually accomplished by special versions of software and
special releases of applications.
• Clustered technology is rapidly changing. Clustered system's usage
and it's features should expand greatly as Storage Area
Networks(SANs). SANs allow easy attachment of multiple hosts to
multiple storage units.
• Current clusters are usually limited to two or four hosts due to the
complexity of connecting the hosts to shared storage.
Real Time Operating System
• It is defined as an operating system known to give maximum time for
each of the critical operations that it performs, like OS calls and
interrupt handling.
• The Real-Time Operating system which guarantees the maximum
time for critical operations and complete them on time are referred
to as Hard Real-Time Operating Systems.
• While the real-time operating systems that can only guarantee a
maximum of the time, i.e. the critical task will get priority over other
tasks, but not assured of completing it in a defined time. These
systems are referred to as Soft Real-Time Operating Systems.
Handheld Systems
• Handheld systems include Personal Digital Assistants(PDAs), such
as Palm-Pilots or Cellular Telephones with connectivity to a network
such as the Internet.
• They are usually of limited size due to which most handheld devices
have a small amount of memory, include slow processors, and feature
small display screens.
• Processors for most handheld devices often run at a fraction of the
speed of a processor in a PC. Faster processors require more power.
To include a faster processor in a handheld device would require
a larger battery that would have to be replaced more frequently.
• The last issue confronting program designers for handheld devices is
the small display screens typically available. One approach for
displaying the content in web pages is web clipping, where only a
small subset of a web page is delivered and displayed on the
handheld device.