3.

1 - Quadratic Functions
Definitions
Polynomial function in one variable of degree n
A function with one variable raised to whole number powers (the largest
being n) and with real coefficients.
The standard form is f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + ... + a2x2 + a1x + a0, an≠0
Constant function
A polynomial function in one variable of degree 0.
Polynomial form: f(x)=a0
Standard form: f(x) = c
Linear function
A polynomial function in one variable of degree 1.
Polynomial form: f(x)= a1x + a0
Standard form: f(x) = ax + b
Quadratic function
A polynomial function in one variable of degree 2.
Polynomial form: f(x)= a2x2 + a1x + a0
Standard form 1: f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
Standard form 2: f(x) = a (x-h)2 + k
Cubic function
A polynomial function in one variable of degree 3.
Polynomial form: f(x)= a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0
Quartic function
A polynomial function in one variable of degree 4.
Polynomial form: f(x)= a4x4 + a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0
For powers higher than 4, they are usually just referred to by their
degree - example "A 5th degree polynomial"
Parabola
The graph of a quadratic function
Axis of symmetry (for a parabola)
The line of symmetry through the center of the parabola
Vertex
The intersection of the axis of symmetry and the parabola. It will be the
minimum point on the graph if a>0 and the maximum point on the graph
if a<0.

A new "standard form"

The old standard form for a parabola was written like any other polynomial,
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0.

We're going to complete the square and place it into a form where the
translations are easily interpreted. This time, instead of dividing through by a,
let's factor an a out of the x-terms instead.

f(x) = a [ x2 + (b/a) x + ? ] + c

Go ahead and take half of the x-coefficient and put it on the next line.

f(x) = a [ x + (b/2a) ]2 + ?

One thing to be careful of here. When you add the b2/(4a2), you are really
multiplying it by the a that you factored out, so it is really just a b2/(4a). This
time, instead of adding it to both sides of the equation, add it and subtract it on
the same side of the equation.

f(x) = a [ x2 + (b/a) x + b2/(4a2) ] + c - b2/(4a)

f(x) = a [ x + (b/2a) ]2 + (4ac - b2)/(4a)

With a couple of substitutions, this can be written in the new standard form.

f(x) = a ( x - h )2 + k

where h = -b/(2a) and k = (4ac - b2) / (4a)

Do not worry about what k is, but you might want to memorize the value for h.

The x-coordinate of the vertex is -b/(2a). The y-coordinate is what you get
when you plug -b/(2a) back into the original function for x.

There are three translations involved here.

 The y-coordinates have been multiplied by a. This is the same a that

was in the original problem. If a>0, then the parabola opens up and the
vertex is at the bottom. If a<0, then the parabola opens down and the
vertex is at the top.
 There has been a horizontal shift. Instead of the x-coordinate of the
vertex being at x=0, it is now at x=h, where h=-b/(2a). Since the axis of
symmetry passes through the vertex, that means that the axis of
symmetry is now x=-b/(2a).
  There has been a vertical shift. The y-coordinate of the vertex is now at
y=k. It is not worth your time to memorize the formula for the vertical
shift. It isn't that hard, it is -a times the discriminant of the quadratic, but
it is easier to find the x-coordinate, and plug that back into the equation
to find the y-coordinate.

Unless the coefficients are really nasty (ie, decimals), you may find it quicker
to complete the square to find the vertex than to let x=-b/(2a) and then find the
y-coordinate.

But do note that the vertex is now at (h,k) instead of (0,0).

Extrema - Maximum and Minimums

Absolute Minimum
If a>0, then the parabola will open up and the vertex will be the lowest
point on the graph. Since it is lower than all other points, not just those
around it, it is an absolute minimum instead of a relative minimum.
Since the coordinates of the vertex are (h,k), the "absolute minimum of
the function is k when x=h."
Absolute Maximum
If a<0, then the parabola will open down and the vertex will be the
highest point on the graph. Since it is higher than all other points, not
just those around it, it is an absolute maximum instead of a relative
maximum. Since the coordinates of the vertex are (h,k), the "absolute
maximum of the function is k when x=h."

Notice the proper format for answering a minimum or maximum question is to

give the minimum or maximum value (the y-coordinate) and where it occurs
(the x-coordinate).

3.2 - Polynomial Functions of Higher

Degree
Graphs of Polynomials

Polynomials are continuous and smooth everywhere.

  A continuous function means that it can be drawn without picking up
your pencil. There are no jumps or holes in the graph of a polynomial
function.
 A smooth curve means that there are no sharp turns (like an absolute
value) in the graph of the function.
 The y-intercept of the polynomial is the constant term a0.

Leading Coefficient Test (right hand behavior)

 If the leading coefficient, an, of the polynomial is positive, then the right
hand side of the graph will rise towards + infinity.
 If the leading coefficient, an, of the polynomial is negative, then the right
hand side of the graph will fall towards - infinity.

Degree of the Polynomial (left hand behavior)

 If the degree, n, of the polynomial is even, the left hand side will do
the same as the right hand side.
 If the degree, n, of the polynomial is odd, the left hand side will do
the opposite of the right hand side.

Get used to this even-same, odd-changes notion. We will be seeing it a lot

("lot" is a mathematical term meaning you will be sick of it - but that it's
probably something that's really important.)

Zeros of a Polynomial Function

 An nth degree polynomial in one variable has at most n real zeros.

There are exactly n real or complex zeros (see the Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra in the next section).
 An nth degree polynomial in one variable has at most n-1 relative
extrema (relative maximums or relative minimums). Since a relative
extremum is a turn in the graph, you could also say there are at most n-
1 turns in the graph.

Real Zeros

If f is a polynomial function in one variable, then the following statements are

equivalent

 x=a is a zero or root of the function f.

 x=a is a solution of the equation f(x)=0.
  (x-a) is a factor of the function f.
 (a,0) is an x-intercept of the graph of f.

The claim is made that there are at most n real zeros. There is no claim made
that they are all unique (different). Some of the roots may be repeated. These
are called repeated roots. Repeated roots are tied to a concept called
multiplicity. The multiplicity of a root is the number of times a root is an
answer. The easiest way to determine the multiplicity of a root is to look at the
exponent on the corresponding factor.

Consider the following

f(x) = (x-3)^2 (x+5) (x+2)^4

The roots to the function will be x=3 with multiplicity 2, x=-5, and x=-2 with
multiplicity 4. It is assumed, and therefore unnecessary to write, a multiplicity
of 1.

And the beautiful thing is ...

The multiplicity of a root, and likewise the exponent on the factor, can be used
to determine the behavior of the graph at that zero.

 If the multiplicity is odd, the graph will cross the x-axis at that zero.
That is, it will change sides, or be on opposite sides of the x-axis.
 If the multiplicity is even, the graph will touch the x-axis at that zero.
That is, it will stay on the same side of the axis.

Wait - it seems I've mentioned that before. I feel like Tweety-Bird when I thot I
thaw a puddy tat. I did, I did. Odd changes, even stays the same. I call it
OCES. Get used to it - it will be a recurring theme.

Odd Changes, Even Same

Here are some places you will be using the concept of Odd Changes, Even
stays the Same

1. The left hand behavior of a polynomial function.

1. If the degree of the polynomial is Odd, the left hand Changes from
the right hand
2. If the degree of the polynomial is Even, the left hand does
the Same as the right hand
 2. The behavior of a polynomial function at the x-intercepts
1. If the multiplicity is Odd, the graph will Change sides and cross
the axis
2. If the multiplicity is Even, the graph will stay on the Same side and
just touch the axis
3. Determining the solution to inequalities (this is the key to finding
answers really quickly)
1. If the multiplicity is Odd, the sign will Change at the critical
number
2. If the multiplicity is Even, the sign will stay the Same at the critical
number
4. The behavior of a rational functions (later in the chapter) the x-intercepts
1. If the multiplicity is Odd, the graph will Change sides and cross
the axis
2. If the multiplicity is Even, the graph will stay on the Same side and
just touch the axis
5. Vertical asymptotes of rational functions (later in the chapter)
1. If the multiplicity is Odd, the graph will Change sides and one side
of the vertical asymptote will rise to positive infinity while the other
side falls to negative infinity.
2. If the multiplicity is Even, the graph will stay on the Same side,
and both sides of the vertical asymptote will rise to positive infinity
or both sides will fall to negative infinity.
6. Determining the sign of the cofactor of an element of a matrix (chapter
6)
1. If the sum of the row and column the element is in is Odd, the
cofactor will Change and be the opposite of the minor.
2. If the sum of the row and column the element is in is Even, the
cofactor will be the Same as the minor.

Intermediate Value Theorem

Polynomials are continuous functions which mean that you can't pick up your
pencil while graphing them.

Question:

If at some point, you're below the x-axis, and at another point you're
above the x-axis, and you didn't pick up your pencil while moving from
one point to the other - what happened?
Answer:

You crossed the x-axis, had a zero or root of the function, found a
solution, etc.

Now, take that concept a little bit farther. Take any two y-values. If they're not
the same, then you had to hit every y-value between the two when moving
from one to the other. The Intermediate Value Theorem states that formally.

What it's primarily used for, however, is to find the zeros of a continuous
function.

3.3 - Real Zeros of Polynomial Functions

Long Division of Polynomials

You were taught long division of polynomials in Intermediate Algebra.

Basically, the procedure is carried out like long division of real numbers. The
procedure is explained in the textbook if you're not familiar with it.

One key point about division, and this works for real numbers as well as for
polynomial division, needs to be pointed out. When you divide the dividend by
the divisor, you get a quotient and a remainder. To check the problem, you
multiply the divisor by the quotient and add the remainder to get the dividend.
If the remainder is 0, then we say that the divisor divides evenly into the
dividend.

Dividend / Divisor = Quotient + Remainder / Divisor

Dividend = Divisor * Quotient + Remainder

Like I said, the same thing can be done with polynomial functions.

f(x) = d(x) * q(x) + r(x)

Where f(x) is the polynomial function being divided into (dividend), d(x) is the
polynomial function being divided by (divisor), q(x) is the polynomial function
that is the quotient, and r(x) is the polynomial remainder function and will have
degree less than the divisor.
If the remainder, r(x), is zero, then f(x) = d(x)*q(x). We have just factored the
function f(x) into two factors, d(x) and q(x).

Remainder Theorem

When a polynomial function f is divided by x-k, the remainder r is f(k).

Okay, now in English. If you divide a polynomial by a linear factor, x-k, the
remainder is the value you would get if you plugged x=k into the function and
evaluated.

Now, tie that into what we just said above. If the remainder is zero, then you
have successfully factored the polynomial. If the remainder when dividing by
(x-k) is zero, then the function evaluated at x=k is zero and you have found a
zero or root of the polynomial. Plus, you now have a factored polynomial (the
quotient) which is one less degree than the original polynomial. If the quotient
is down to a quadratic or linear factor, then you can solve and find the other
solutions.

Synthetic Division

To divide a polynomial synthetically by x-k, perform the following steps.

Setup

1. Write k down, leave some space after it.

2. On the same line, right the coefficients of the polynomial function. Make
sure you write the coefficients in order of decreasing power. Be sure to
put a zero down if a power is missing. Place holders are very important
3. For now, leave a blank line. Draw the left and bottom portions of a box.
The left portion goes between the k and the coefficients. The bottom
portion goes under the blank line you left.

Synthetic Division

Once you have things set up, you can actually start to perform the synthetic
division.

1. Bring the first coefficient down to the bottom row (below the line)
2. Multiply the number in the bottom row by the constant k, and write the
product in the next column of the second row (above the line).
3. Add the numbers in the next column and write the total below the line.
 4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until all the columns are filled.

Interpreting the Results

1. The very last value is the remainder. If the remainder is zero, you have
found a zero of the function.
2. The rest of the values are the coefficients of the quotient. Each term will
be raised to the one less power than the original dividend. (If it was a
fourth degree polynomial to start with, the quotient will be a third degree
polynomial).

Warnings

You can only use synthetic division as described above to divide by x-k. That
is, it must be a linear factor, and the leading coefficient must be a one.

There are similar ways to divide by a quadratic, cubic, etc, but for some
reason, they aren't taught anymore (no, they won't die with me, I'm sure
someone else knows them, too, but thanks for your concern).

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polynomial in one variable of degree n, n > 0, has at least one real or
complex zero.

Corollary to the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polynomial in one variable of degree n, n > 0, has exactly n real or

complex zeros.

Complex Roots

Complex solutions come in pairs. If (a+bi) is a solution, then its complex

conjugate (a-bi) is also a solution.

Square Roots

Solutions involving square roots also come in pairs. If a+sqrt(b) is a

solution, then its conjugate, a-sqrt(b) will also be a solution. The same is not
necessarily true of other roots.
Descartes' Rule of Signs

This is not in your text!

 The maximum number of positive real roots can be found by

counting the number of sign changes in f(x). The actual number of
positive real roots may be the maximum, or the maximum decreased by
a multiple of two.
 The maximum number of negative real roots can be found by
counting the number of sign changes in f(-x). The actual number of
negative real roots may be the maximum, or the maximum decreased
by a multiple of two.
 Complex roots always come in pairs. That's why the number of positive
or number of negative roots must decrease by two.

Consider: f(x) = 3x^6 + x^5 - x^4 + 3x^3 + 2x^2 - x + 1.

The signs in f(x) are + + - + + - +. There are 4 sign changes (+ to -) or (- to
+).

Now, f(-x) = 3x^6 - x^5 - x^4 - 3x^3 + 2x^2 + x + 1.

The signs in f(-x) are + - - - + + +. There are 2 sign changes (+ to -) or (- to
+).

Here are the Possible Combinations of Roots

To Posit Nega Com

tal ive tive plex

6 4 2 0

6 2 2 2

6 0 2 4

6 4 0 2

6 2 0 4

6 0 0 6
Notice that the positive and negative values can decrease by two
independently of each other.

Rational Root Test

If a polynomial function has integer coefficients, then every rational zero will
have the form p/q where p is a factor of the constant and q is a factor of the
leading coefficient.

 Make sure the polynomial has integer coefficients. Multiply to get rid of
fractions or decimals if need be (be sure to later divide).
 This only addresses the rational zeros. There may be real, but non-
rational roots. There may be complex roots involving i.
 This says that rational zeros will have this form. It does not say that
everything that has this form is a rational zero. What it does give you is
a list of possible rational zeros

Example: f(x) = 4x^5 - x^2 + 12

Possible rational zeros will be of the form (factor of 12) over (factor of 4). A
division table can help you find all these values

1 2 3 4 6 12

1 1 2 3 4 6 12

2 1/2 1 3/2 2 3 6

4 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 3/2 3

The division table helps identify the possible rational zeros. You should throw
out the duplicates, and list the others in order.

-12, -6, -4, -3, -2, -3 / 2, -1, -3 / 4, -1 / 2, -1 / 4, 1 / 4, 3 / 4, 1, 3 / 2, 2, 3, 4, 6,

12

Now, you perform synthetic division on possible rational zeros until you find
one.
Here's where Descartes' Rule of Signs comes in. In this particular problem,
there would be a maximum of 2 positive and 1 negative root. That means that
you may have 2 or 0 positive roots, but you will always have 1 negative. There
is no guarantee that negative is rational, though. Descartes only guaranteed
real roots. If there were no negatives, then you would know not to try any.

Upper and Lower Bounds

If you have a polynomial with real coefficients and a positive leading

coefficient, then ...

Upper Bound

If synthetic division is performed by dividing by x-k, where k>0, and all

the signs in the bottom row of the synthetic division are non-negative,
then x=k is an upper bound (nothing is larger) for the zeros of the
polynomial.

Lower Bound

If synthetic division is performed by dividing by x-k, where k<0, and the

signs in the bottom row of the synthetic division alternate (between non-
negative and non-positive), then x=k is a lower bound (nothing is
smaller) for the zeros of the polynomial.

The zero in the bottom row may be considered positive or negative as

needed.

Suggested Attack to Finding Zeros of a Polynomial

1. Identify the total number of real or complex zeros (corollary to

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra).
2. Identify the possible number of positive, negative, and complex zeros
(Descartes' Rule of Signs).
3. List the possible rational zeros (Rational Root Theorem)
4. Try possible rational zeros until you find one that works. After each
division by a positive value, check for possible upper bounds. After each
division by a negative value, check for possible lower bounds (Upper
and Lower Bound Theorems)
 5. After you find a possible rational root that actually works, take the
quotient and continue to try to factor it until it is down to a quadratic or
less. Once it is a quadratic or less, there are other ways to solve it.
6. Write the linear and or linear / irreducible quadratic factorization (next
section)

Really Important (and frustrating if you forget)!

Once you have found a zero using synthetic division, use the quotient as a
new polynomial for all further divisions. The quotient will be one less degree
than the original dividend. Each time you find a root, the quotient becomes
one less in degree. Eventually, it will become a quadratic, and then you can
factor, extract roots, complete the square, or use the quadratic equation to
find the remaining roots.

If you continue to use the original function, you will become very frustrated
and waste a lot of time.

3.4 - Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Each branch of mathematics has its own fundamental theorem(s). If you
check out fundamental in the dictionary, you will see that it relates to the
foundation or the base or is elementary. Fundamental theorems are important
foundations for the rest of the material to follow.

Here are some of the fundamental theorems or principles that occur in your
text.

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (pg 9)

Every integer greater than one is either prime or can be expressed as

an unique product of prime numbers.

Fundamental Theorem of Linear Programming (pg 440)

If there is a solution to a linear programming problem, then it will occur

at a corner point, or on a line segment between two corner points.

Fundamental Counting Principle (pg 574)

 If there are m ways to do one thing, and n ways to do another, then
there are m*n ways of doing both.

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polynomial in one variable of degree n>0 has at least one real or
complex zero.

Now, your textbook says at least on zero in the complex number system. That
is correct. However, most students forget that reals are also complex
numbers, so I will try to spell out real or complex to make things simpler for
you.

Corollary to the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polynomial in one variable of degree n>0 has exactly n, not necessarily
distinct, real or complex zeros.

Linear Factorization Theorem

A polynomial in one variable of degree n>0 can be factored as

f(x)=an (x-c1) (x-c2) (x-c3) ... (x-cn)

Where an is the leading coefficient and each c1 ... cn is a real or complex root
of the function.

Notice that each factor is a linear factor (all x's are raised to the first power),
but that there may be complex roots involved.

Linear and Irreducible Quadratic Factorization

The preferred way of writing a polynomial is to use the linear and irreducible
quadratic factorization. In this factorization, all radicals are eliminated. This
includes complex numbers involvingi (remember, i is the sqrt(-1)).

There are two types of irreducible quadratic factors. The book will be talking
about irreducible over the reals. I prefer irreducible over the rationals (if the
function has integer coefficients).

Irreducible over the Reals

 When the quadratic factors have no real roots, only complex roots
involving i, it is said to be irreducible over the reals. This may involve
square roots, but not the square roots of negative numbers.

Irreducible over the Rationals

When the quadratic factors have no rational roots, only irrational roots
involving radicals or complex numbers, then it is said to be irreducible
over the rationals. This is the preferred form when the coefficients of the
polynomial are rational, or even better, integers.

Complex Roots

Complex roots come in pairs. This is why the maximum number of positive or
negative real roots (Descartes' Rule of Signs) must decrease by two. It can't
decrease by one because the only place for the roots to go is into the complex
field, and they have to come in pairs. The other complex number which works
is the complex conjugate.

Square Roots

Square roots come in pairs. This is not necessarily true of other roots. The
other square root which works is the conjugate of the first.

3.5 - Rational Functions and Asymptotes

A rational function is a function that can be written as the ratio of two
polynomials where the denominator isn't zero.

f(x) = p(x) / q(x)

Domain

The domain of a rational function is all real values except where the
denominator, q(x) = 0.

Roots

The roots, zeros, solutions, x-intercepts (whatever you want to call them) of
the rational function will be the places where p(x) = 0. That is, completely
ignore the denominator. Whatever makes the numerator zero will be the roots
of the rational function, just like they were the roots of the polynomial function
earlier.

If you can write it in factored form, then you can tell whether it will cross or
touch the x-axis at each x-intercept by whether the multiplicity on the factor is
odd or even.

Vertical Asymptotes

An asymptote is a line that the curve approaches but does not cross. The
equations of the vertical asymptotes can be found by finding the roots of q(x).
Completely ignore the numerator when looking for vertical asymptotes, only
the denominator matters.

If you can write it in factored form, then you can tell whether the graph will be
asymptotic in the same direction or in different directions by whether the
multiplicity is even or odd.

Asymptotic in the same direction means that the curve will go up or down on
both the left and right sides of the vertical asymptote. Asymptotic in different
directions means that the one side of the curve will go down and the other
side of the curve will go up at the vertical asymptote.

Horizontal Asymptotes

A horizontal line is an asymptote only to the far left and the far right of the
graph. "Far" left or "far" right is defined as anything past the vertical
asymptotes or x-intercepts. Horizontal asymptotes are not asymptotic in the
middle. It is okay to cross a horizontal asymptote in the middle.

The location of the horizontal asymptote is determined by looking at the

degrees of the numerator (n) and denominator (m).

 If n<m, the x-axis, y=0 is the horizontal asymptote.

 If n=m, then y=an / bm is the horizontal asymptote. That is, the ratio of
the leading coefficients.
 If n>m, there is no horizontal asymptote. However, if n=m+1, there is an
oblique or slant asymptote.
Holes

Sometimes, a factor will appear in the numerator and in the denominator. Let's
assume the factor (x-k) is in the numerator and denominator. Because the
factor is in the denominator, x=k will not be in the domain of the function. This
means that one of two things can happen. There will either be a vertical
asymptote at x=k, or there will be a hole at x=k.

Let's look at what will happen in each of these cases.

 There are more (x-k) factors in the denominator. After dividing out all
duplicate factors, the (x-k) is still in the denominator. Factors in the
denominator result in vertical asymptotes. Therefore, there will be a
vertical asymptote at x=k.
 There are more (x-k) factors in the numerator. After dividing out all the
duplicate factors, the (x-k) is still in the numerator. Factors in the
numerator result in x-intercepts. But, because you can't use x=k, there
will be a hole in the graph on the x-axis.
 There are equal numbers of (x-k) factors in the numerator and
denominator. After dividing out all the factors (because there are equal
amounts), there is no (x-k) left at all. Because there is no (x-k) in the
denominator, there is no vertical asymptote at x=k. Because there is no
(x-k) in the numerator, there is no x-intercept at x=k. There is just a hole
in the graph, someplace other than on the x-axis. To find the exact
location, plug in x=k into the reduced function (you can't plug it into the
original, it's undefined, there), and see what y-value you get.

Oblique Asymptotes

When the degree of the numerator is exactly one more than the degree of the
denominator, the graph of the rational function will have an oblique asymptote.
Another name for an oblique asymptote is a slant asymptote.

To find the equation of the oblique asymptote, perform long division (synthetic
if it will work) by dividing the denominator into the numerator. As x gets very
large (this is the far left or far right that I was talking about), the remainder
portion becomes very small, almost zero. So, to find the equation of the
oblique asymptote, perform the long division and discard the remainder.

3.6 - Graphs of Rational Functions

Let f(x) = p(x) / q(x) where p(x) and q(x) have no common factors.

If p(x) and q(x) have a common factor, then divide out the extra factors so that
it is only left in the numerator, or denominator, or not at all. Then look at the
section on holes in the lecture notes for section 3.5.

1. The y-intercept is the value of f(0). That is, substitute 0 in for x in both
the numerator and denominator.
2. The x-intercepts are the zeros of p(x).
3. The vertical asymptotes are the zeros of q(x).
4. The horizontal asymptote is that value that f(x) approaches as x
increases or decreases without bound. Look at the previous section for
specifics.
5. Determine the behavior between each vertical asymptote or x-intercept
based on the Odd Changes, Even stays the Same principle.

When graphing a rational function, do the following (in pretty much this order)

1. Simplify the function by dividing out any common factors. Be sure that if
something is no longer in the implied domain, that you state the
restriction.
2. Identify and graph the x-intercepts. Make a note (possibly mental) of
whether the graph crosses (odd exponent) or touches (even exponent)
at each intercept.
3. Identify and draw the vertical asymptotes. Make a note (possibly
mental) of whether the graph is asymptotic in the same direction (even
exponent) or different directions (odd exponent).
4. Identify and draw the horizontal or oblique asymptote(s).
5. Start on the far right of the graph close to the horizontal asymptote.
6. Move from right to left.
1. At each x-intercept encountered, touch or cross as noted in step
2.
2. At each vertical asymptote, you must either go up or go down.
The direction you go is determined by which side of the x-axis
your on when you get to the vertical asymptote. When picking
back up on the left side of the vertical asymptote, use the same or
different side of the x-axis based on your observations in step 3.
3. Watch out for holes.