Electric Field Concept ...

Revisited ​
• The charged sphere of a Van de Graaff generator exerts a force upon a
nearby balloon even when it is not in physical contact with the balloon. The
balloon is said to have experienced a field force. ​
• The charged sphere has created an electric field - an alteration of the
electrical properties of the surrounding space. ​
• Other charged objects, like the balloon, that enter that space feel the effects
of that space and interact differently because of the electrical field that has
been established.

Direction of the Electric Field Electric field is a vector

quantity … it has a direction. By definition, the direction of
the electric field at any given location is the direction that a
+ test charge would be pushed or pulled when placed at
that location. By logical extension, the electric field vector
is directed • towards negative source charges, and • away
from positive source charges.

A Gravitational Analogy The gravitational field near the Earth’s surface is directed downward. Objects
naturally move in the direction of the field. But work is required to move an object against the field.

Electric Potential Energy (Surrounding a + Source)

​
Electric Potential Energy (Surrounding a - Source)​
Electric Potential Energy ... Revisited ​
The movement of a charge (Q) within an
electric field is accompanied by a change in
potential energy (PE).

Factors Affecting Gravitational Potential Energy

The gravitational potential energy (PEgrav) depends upon
the mass (m) and the height (h) of the object.
• As the h is doubled, the PEgrav is doubled.
• As the m is doubled, the PEgrav is doubled.
• Gravitational potential energy is more than just a
location-dependent quantity. Mass also factors into the
equation.​

Gravitational Potential ​
The gravitational potential is defined as the potential energy per mass (Joule/kilogram). ​

​
Gravitational potential is a purely location-dependent quantity that rates a location in terms of the energy
stored in the gravitational field per kg of mass.​

Factors Affecting Electrical Potential Energy (PEelect) ​

Work is done to move a + test charge against an E field. The work done changes the PEelect and is equal
to the ∆PEelect. Moving twice the charge (2q) the same distance d would require twice the work and
change the PEelect by twice the amount. So like PEgrav, electric PE depends on two factors:
1. location
2. the amount of test charge at that location.
Electric Potential ​
The electric potential (V) describes the amount of energy (PE) stored in an
electric field at a location in a way that is independent of the amount of test
charge (q).​

Electric Potential in Circuits

• Battery-powered electric circuits have locations of high and low electric
potential.
• Outside the battery, a + test charge would move from the + terminal to the -
terminal (in the direction of the E field). This results in a loss of electric potential
energy.
• So the negative terminal is the low PE, low electric potential terminal.
• Inside the battery, work is done to move a + test charge from - to + terminal,
against the E field. This adds PE to the + test charge. So the + terminal is the
high PE, high electric potential terminal.

Electric Potential Difference

The work done (W) on the + test charge in moving it against the electric field
from location A to location B is equal to the gain in potential energy (PE) of the
charge.

This change in potential energy

corresponds to a change in the electric
potential. It could be said that there is an
electric potential difference (∆V) between
locations A and B given by the equations
…
Changes in Electric Potential in Circuits
• Movement of + charge through the battery is against the E field. Work is required, causing charge to gain
PE and V. The + terminal is the location of greatest potential.
• Movement of + charge in the wires results in a loss of PE and V. The - terminal is the location of lowest
potential in a circuit.
• Electric potential (V) is sometimes referred to as voltage since it is measured in the unit Volt.
• A 12-volt battery supplies 12 Joule of energy to every 1 Coulomb of charge that passes through it.
The Role of the Battery
The electrochemical cell or the battery (collection of cells) serves the function of …
• … supplying energy to the circuit,
• … to move the charge from the - to the + terminal,
• … so as to establish an electric potential difference across the two ends of the circuit.
Analogy:
• Water in the water slide of a water park flows in a circuit. That is, it flows around and
around in a continuous loop.
• The top of the slide is the high potential location. The bottom of the slide is the low potential location.
• A pump moves the charge from the bottom to the top of the slide.
Internal vs. External Circuit
Internal Circuit (battery, cell, charge pump, energy source) Energy is supplied to the charge to
move it from the - to the + terminal. Charge gains PE and electric potential in the internal
circuit.
(includes wires, bulbs, etc.) Energy is lost by the charge as it moves through the wires (a
little) and the circuit elements (mostly).

Electric Potential Diagrams

Electric potential diagrams depict the changes or differences in electric
potential for the various locations of an electric circuit. Demonstrate your
understanding by completing the following electric potential diagrams.

The Tale of the Two Plates

• Consider two charged plates: Charge on the + plate is at high
potential (V). Charge on the - plate is at low potential (V).
• + charges will flow from the high V to the low V plate.
• Charge will continue flowing until the two plates reach the same
electric potential.
• Missing ingredient: a means of looping the charge back up to the top
plate to maintain the ∆V.
The Closed Circuit
• When the final connection is made of the last wire to the battery terminal,
the light bulb lights …
• … and when disconnected, the bulb is immediately unlit.
• This highlights the importance of a closed loop extending from the + to the -
terminal of the battery … with no breaks or interruptions.

A compass needle placed under a wire will deflect whenever the last connection
of a wire is made to the battery, indicating that charge is flowing through the wire
Closed circuit ⇒ lit bulb, deflected needle Open circuit ⇒ unlit bulb, needle
doesn’t deflect

Light Bulb Anatomy

• For a light bulb to light, charge must pass through the filament.
• If two wires are touched to the ribbed edge, charge will flow from one wire to the
other wire without passing through the filament.
• If one wire is touched to the ribbed side and the other to the base, the only way
charge can flow from one wire to the other is the path through the filament.
What is Current?
When the requirements for a circuit are met and charge is flowing in the wires, we say current is present.
Definition of Current: Rate at which charge flows past a
point on the circuit.Standard unit: ampere (shortened to
Amp; abbrev. as A) 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second 1 A =
1 C/s

Conventional Current Directions

• The carriers of charge within the wires of circuits are mobile electrons.
• In street lamps, fluorescent lamps, and semiconductors, the charge carriers can be
positive charges, negative charges, or both.
• So how can the direction of current be described? Definition of Conventional Current
Direction The direction of current in an electric circuit is in the direction that + charges
move. Inside the battery: from - to the + Outside the battery: from the + to -.

Current is Not Drift Speed

• Current is not speed. Current describes how many charges pass across the
line in a second. Speed describes how far they travel in a second.
• Charge carriers drift very, very slowly - maybe 1 meter/hour. Yet with so many
drifting, there can be a large current.
• Charges don’t have to travel a long distance in a second to have a large
current. There just has to be a lot of them crossing over the line.
The Turtle Race Analogy: Imagine a turtle race on an oval track. Turtles don’t
move fast. But a lot of them could cross the finish line in a second if they were
densely packed.

Why Does the Bulb Immediately Light?

When the circuit is closed, the following occurs:
• An electric potential difference (∆V) is established across the ends of the
circuit.
• An electric field signal reaches every electron.
• Electrons in every atom can begin marching.
• The light bulb lights.
The electron that causes the bulb to immediately light does NOT originate in
the battery; it originates in the filament. Charge carriers move slowly. But their
motion begins immediately. The immediate onset of motion leads to the
immediate lighting of the bulb.

Current is "Everywhere the Same" Charge carriers are like soldiers

marching along together, everywhere at the same rate. The marching
begins immediately when an electric potential across the two ends of the
circuit. Charge carriers …
• are not consumed,
• are not used up,
• do not disintegrate,
• are never destroyed,
• and do not take an exit-ramp.
• They enter the battery at the same rate they exit the battery
Putting Charges to Work
• Circuits are designed for a purpose: to power a device.
• Electrical energy is supplied to the circuit by the electrochemical cell (or the utility company) as it does
work upon the charge to move it from low V to high V.
• Electrical energy is removed from the circuit by the load.
o Light bulbs: transform electrical E to light E and thermal E
o Fans and motors: transform electrical E to mechanical E
o Toasters, heaters: transform electrical E to thermal E
o Speakers, doorbells: transform electrical E to sound E
What is Power?
Definition of Power: The rate at which work is done. For circuits, power refers to the rate at which work is
done by the energy source upon the charge OR. the rate at which energy is delivered to the load.

A 60-Watt light bulb is a

bulb that draws 60 J of electrical energy each second and converts it
to light and heat.
​
•hour (KWH) An electric utility company charges its customers for
the amount of kW•hr of electricity they used. What is a kW•hr?

Batteries
are NOT Rechargeable
• Rechargeable batteries can be bought in stores,
used, placed in devices known as re-chargers,
and have their lifespan increased. What’s so bad
about that?
• If “rechargeable” means having the lost and
expended charge replenished/restored, then it’s a
real rip-off … at least to the Physics student trying
to learn Physics.
• Circuits don’t consume or destroy or diminish charge!
• If the amount of charge in a circuit is never changing, then why would one ever need to
replenish it
• If re-chargers don’t re-charge, let’s not call them re-chargers!

• The cell supplies the energy to pump the charge from low potential to high
potential. This motion is against the E field and requires work.
• The electrical energy of moving charge is transformed by the load (bulb, motor,
heater, etc.) into non-electrical forms. The charge leaves the load less energized
than it entered. It needs an energy boost.
• As reactants in the electrochemical cell become depleted, the cell no longer has
energy-producing ability
What is Resistance
• Because of collisions of mobile electrons with the atoms and ions of a wire, the path of
an electron is anything but straight; it is a zig-zag journey.
• Resistance is the general hindrance to the flow of charge through a wire or a device.
• The amount of wire resistance depends on the wire’s length, diameter, and the types
of atoms it’s composed of.
• While the electric potential difference encourages the flow of mobile charge carriers in a circuit, electrical
resistance discourages charge flow.
Energy and Potential Changes
• Charge gains energy as it passes through the cell. This increases its electric potential
or voltage.
VA >>>> VD
• Because of collisions of mobile charge carriers with atoms and ions of a wire, a very
small amount of energy and potential is lost in the wire.
VA > VB and VC > VD
• But most of the voltage drop occurs in the load (light bulb, heater, motor, etc.).
VB >>>> VC

Variables Affecting Resistance

Length: Resistance is directly proportional to the wire’s length. Longer wires offer a greater resistance to
charge flow.
Cross-Sectional Area: Resistance is inversely proportional to the wire’s cross-sectional area. Wider wires
offer less resistance to charge flow.
Different materials contribute differently to the wire’s resistance. Silver and copper are better conductors
and offer less resistance than nickel or iron.

The BIG Equation The most prevalent equation for electric circuits is …
∆V = I•R where ∆V = electric potential difference (Unit: volt, V) I = current (Unit: ampere, A) R = resistance
(Unit: ohm, Ω)
The Power Equations We now have three equations for
power. How and when does one use them?
Eq'n #1: P = I•∆V
Eq'n #2: P = I2•R
Eq'n #3: P = ∆V2 / R
These equations are often used in problems involving the computation of power (P) from known values of
electric potential difference (ΔV), current (I), and resistance (R). Known: ∆V, I ⇒ Use Equation 1 Known: I,
R ⇒ Use Equation 2 Known: ∆V, R ⇒ Use Equation 3

Review:

Equivalent Circuits
In Circuit A, there are two 4-Ω resistors and a current of 1.5 A. In B, there are three resistors and a current
of 1.0 A. As # of resistors ↑, the current ↓.
Equivalent Resistance
The equivalent resistance (Req) of a multiple-resistor circuit is the amount of
resistance a single resistor must have to match the effect of the collection of
resistors.
For series circuits: Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + …
Current in Series Circuits
Current in a series circuit is everywhere the same.
Ibattery = I1 = I2 = I3
Current can be calculated using
∆V = I•R: I = ∆Vbattery / Req

Electric Potential Diagrams

Electric potential diagrams are conceptual tools that represent the relative electric potential for various
locations on a circuit. If charge gains 24 V of potential in the battery, it will lose a total of 24 V as it passes
through the external circuit.

What is a Parallel Circuit?

For Parallel Circuits: As the number of resistors increases … … total
resistance decreases … current increases, and Removing a bulb
from its socket has no effect on the other bulbs.

Voltage Drops Across the Branches

• Charge traversing the loop of a parallel circuit will only pass through one branch
before returning to the battery.
• There is a voltage gain in the battery and a voltage drop in the branches. These must
be equal.
Equivalent Resistance
The equivalent resistance () of a multiple-resistor circuit is the amount of
resistance a single resistor must have to match the effect of the collection
of resistors. For parallel circuits, the equivalent resistance is calculated as

What is a Combination Circuit? A combination circuit includes devices that are connected by a combination
of series and parallel connections.

Equivalent Resistance
The collection of resistors act together to create an overall total resistance known as the equivalent
resistance (Req).
Req for a Combination Circuit
The equivalent resistance of a combination circuit can be determined by reducing groups of resistors to a
single resistance in a stepwise fashion, beginning with the branched resistors.

Voltage Drops (∆V)​

• For the branched resistors (R1 and R2), the voltage drop is the same. So
∆V1 = ∆V2.
• For all resistors, the voltage drop can be calculated using ∆V = I•R. So …
∆V1= I1•R1 ∆V2= I2•R2 ∆V3= I3•R3 etc.
• Counting the branches as a single drop, the sum of all voltage drops
equals the battery voltage.
• For the given circuit: ∆Vbattery = ∆Vbranches + ∆V3 + ∆V4

For combination circuits:

• The current in the battery is the same as the current in every resistor
located outside the branches. For the given circuit: Ibattery = I3 = I4
• The current outside the branches is equal to the sum of the branch
currents. For the given circuit: Ibattery = I1 + I2
• For any resistor, the current can be calculated using ∆V = I•R. So …I1=
∆V1/R1 I2= ∆V2/R2 I3= ∆V3/R3 etc.
• Branches having equal resistance will have equal current values.
​

Voltage, Electric Energy, and Capacitors

Defibrillators and Capacitors
●​ Defibrillators function as large capacitors that store electric charge and discharge it to restore
normal heart rhythm by stopping irregular contractions of cardiac muscle s.
●​ The electric potential energy stored in a capacitor is crucial for its operation in medical emergencies,
allowing it to deliver a controlled jolt of electricity to the patient s.
Understanding Capacitors
●​ A capacitor consists of two parallel conductor plates of opposite charge, creating an electric field
that allows it to store energy as electric potential energy s.
●​ The potential energy in a capacitor can be calculated by considering the work done on a test charge
moving between the plates, which is influenced by the electric field and the distance between the
plates s.
Electric Potential and Voltage
●​ Electric potential is defined as the potential energy per unit charge, measured in volts, and is
determined by the electric field and the position of the charge s.
●​ Voltage can be mathematically expressed as the negative product of the electric field and the
distance between capacitor plates s.
Capacitance and Energy Storage
●​ Capacitance is a measure of how much charge a capacitor can store, calculated by dividing the
charge on each plate by the voltage across the plates, with units in farads s.
 ●​ The capacitance of a capacitor is influenced by its physical characteristics, such as the area of the
plates and the distance between them, as well as the presence of a dielectric material s.
Dielectrics and Their Role
●​ Dielectrics, which are insulating materials, increase a capacitor's capacitance by preventing charge
from jumping between plates while allowing for a stronger electric field s.
●​ The presence of a dielectric material allows capacitors to hold more charge and energy for the same
voltage, enhancing their effectiveness in applications like defibrillators s.
Energy Density in Electric Fields
●​ The energy density of an electric field, which indicates how much energy is stored per unit volume,
can be calculated using the formula that incorporates the electric field strength s.
●​ Understanding energy density is important for determining how much energy is available in specific
locations within an electric field, such as between capacitor plates s.
●​

Electric Current
Flow of Electric Current
●​ The movement of water in a river is analogous to the flow of electricity through a wire, specifically
the movement of electrons. Electric current is defined as the total charge passing through a wire
over time, driven by a difference in electric potential or voltages.
●​ Electrons flow from a high voltage point to a lower voltage point, similar to how water flows
downhills.
Generation of Electric Current
●​ Before the invention of batteries, scientists could only create static charge by rubbing materials,
resulting in minimal sparkss.
●​ Alessandro Volta invented the first voltaic cell, which utilizes chemical reactions to create a constant
electric potential difference between two different metals (electrodes), allowing continuous current
flows.
●​ Multiple voltaic cells can be connected to form a battery, following the same principle as Volta's
original designs.
Measuring Electric Current
●​ The strength of electric current is measured in amperes, representing the amount of charge (in
Coulombs) passing through a wire cross-section over times.
●​ Benjamin Franklin incorrectly defined the positive direction of current, a convention that persists
despite electrons flowing in the opposite directions.
Resistance and Ohm's Law
●​ Resistance impacts the flow of current, analogous to obstacles in a river, and is expressed in
Ohmss.
●​ Ohm's Law states that voltage is directly proportional to current when resistance is constant,
allowing us to predict circuit behavior: Voltage = Current × Resistances.
Power in Electrical Devices
●​ Power describes the amount of energy transformed by a device over time and can be calculated
using the equation: Power = Current × Voltages.
●​ All electrical devices can be modeled as resistors, consuming power due to their inherent
resistances.
●​ Variations of Ohm’s Law can be applied to calculate power based on different known values in a
circuits.
DC Resistors & Batteries
introduction to Circuits
●​ The episode discusses building basic circuits using resistors and batteries to understand their
behavior and configuration effects s.
●​ It introduces direct current (DC) circuits, where current flows constantly in one direction, powered by
batteries s.
Anatomy of a Battery
●​ An ideal battery provides a constant voltage by converting stored chemical energy to electrical
energy, referred to as electromotive force (emf) s.
●​ Real batteries have internal resistance, causing the terminal voltage to be less than the ideal emf
due to energy loss as heat ss.
●​ The terminal voltage can be calculated by subtracting the internal voltage drop (current times
internal resistance) from the emf s.
Series and Parallel Connections
●​ In series connections, the same current flows through all resistors, but the voltage drop varies
according to each resistor's resistance ss.
●​ The total voltage supplied equals the sum of all voltage drops across resistors in series, and the
equivalent resistance is the sum of individual resistances s.
●​ In parallel connections, the voltage remains the same across all branches, while the current varies
depending on each branch's resistance ss.
Effects of Series and Parallel Configurations
●​ Adding identical light bulbs in series results in decreased brightness due to increased total
resistance and reduced current ss.
●​ In a parallel connection, each bulb maintains the same brightness as a single bulb because the
overall resistance is halved, allowing for increased current ss
●​

Circuit Analysis
Introduction to Circuit Analysis
●​ Circuit analysis helps understand how electricity works in systems, such as holiday lights, by
breaking down circuits into key componentss.
●​ Key components of electrical circuits include voltage, resistance, and current, which are interrelated
through Ohm's Laws.
Basic Circuit Configurations
●​ The focus is on DC circuits with resistors in series and parallel formationss.
●​ Resistors in series share the same current, while resistors in parallel have the same voltage drop
across thems.
Calculating Equivalent Resistance
●​ To find equivalent resistance in series, simply add the resistances togethers.
●​ For resistors in parallel, a different method is used, resulting in an equivalent resistance smaller
than any individual resistors.
Example Circuit Analysis
●​ An example circuit includes a 20V battery and various resistors, with the goal of simplifying to one
equivalent resistors.
●​ The process involves collapsing series resistors into a single equivalent and then simplifying parallel
resistorsss.
Voltage and Current Calculations
●​ After determining equivalent resistance, Ohm's Law can be applied to find current and voltage
across each resistorss.
 ●​ The voltage drop across resistors in series varies, while resistors in parallel maintain the same
voltage drops.
Measuring Voltage and Current
●​ Voltage is measured using a voltmeter connected in parallel, ensuring minimal impact on the
circuitss.
●​ Current is measured with an ammeter connected in series, which has near-zero resistance to avoid
affecting the circuits.

Capacitors and Kirchhoff

Circuit Analysis and Kirchhoff's Laws
●​ The episode builds on previous lessons about basic DC circuits, focusing on more complex
configurations involving multiple batteries and capacitorss.
●​ Kirchhoff's laws, developed by Gustav Kirchhoff in the mid-19th century, enhance the calculation of
current and voltage in complex circuitss.
●​ Kirchhoff's Junction Rule states that the sum of all currents entering a junction equals the sum of all
currents leaving its.
●​ Kirchhoff's Loop Rule asserts that the sum of all changes in potential around a loop equals zero,
reflecting the conservation of energys.
Applying Kirchhoff's Rules
●​ To analyze a circuit with two batteries and four resistors, one must label all junctions and currentss.
●​ The Junction Rule can be expressed mathematically, indicating that current entering a junction must
equal the current leaving its.
●​ The Loop Rule can be applied to any loop in the circuit, allowing for the calculation of unknown
currents and voltage dropss.
●​ By substituting Ohm's law into the equations derived from the Loop Rule, one can solve for
unknown values in the circuitss.
Capacitors in DC Circuits
●​ Capacitors temporarily store charge and release it later, differing from circuits that maintain a
constant flow of charges.
●​ The charge stored in a capacitor is given by the equation ( Q = C \cdot V ), where ( Q ) is charge, (
C ) is capacitance, and ( V ) is voltages.
●​ In parallel configurations, the overall capacitance increases, as the total charge is the sum of the
charges held by each capacitors.
●​ For capacitors in series, the equivalent capacitance is less than the smallest individual capacitor, as
the charge remains constant across each capacitorss.