2.

2 Conceptual framework

Concept of Fertilizer

Every living organism requires nutrients for their growth and other metabolic activities.

For their survival, they follow a mode of nutrition (Abbasi, Musa and Manzoor, 2015). We

humans and animals depend on plants for nutrients. Plants have an autotrophic mode of nutrition

where they prepare their own food and obtain their nutrients via photosynthesis (Hartmann,

Schmid, Wenzel and Hinsinger, 2024). The soil is not fertile enough to provide essential macro

and micronutrients to plants in sufficient quantity. Hence they need another source of nutrition.

Manures and fertilizers are the alternatives used in agriculture for this purpose (VDLUFA,

2012). Manures are the natural source of nutrients obtained from cow dung, leaves, human

excreta, and other wastes. Fertilizers are commercial products available in different forms like

solid, gas or liquid. Both manure and fertilizers contain salts and organic chemicals which

consist of essential plant nutrients such as nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus in known

concentrations (Lamma, 2021). They make soil fertile and provide nutrients to plants for better

growth and higher yield. Unlike manures, fertilizers are very expensive and are used in large

amounts in farming fields. As a part of crop production management, farmers largely depend on

fertilizer. But they should only be used when it’s necessary. Manure should not be replaced by

fertilizer as constant use of it may lead to infertility of soil and pollution. During over-irrigation,

fertilizers get washed along with excess water and are unavailable for absorption by plants which

cause water pollution. Also, replenishment of organic substances in the soil get affected and

microbes will be harmed due to clogging of fertilizers in the soil. Sometimes fertilizers cause

various plant diseases. Therefore, the amount and frequency of their use need to be checked and

controlled. It should always be optimum (Lamma, 2018).

 Due to these disadvantages, nowadays organic farming is much preferred over fertilizer.

Organic farming is a new method of farming where crops are grown with the help of natural

compost (Outhman and Lamma, 2020).

Concept of Fertilizer Application

The major function of soil is to provide enough food and ensure human health.

Increasingly, there is an awareness of the direct link between soils and human health in terms of

elements that enhance health such as N, P and zinc (Zn), and other elements such as cadmium

(Cd) and arsenic (As) that are harmful to human health (Brevik and Burgess, 2013).

Fertilizer is a substance added to soil to enhance health, improve plants’ growth and

yield. First used by ancient farmers, fertilizer technology developed significantly as the chemical

needs of growing plants were discovered. Modern synthetic fertilizers are composed mainly of

nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium compounds with secondary nutrients added. The use of

synthetic fertilizers has significantly improved the quality and quantity of the food available

today, although their long-term use is debated by environmentalists. Like all living organisms,

plants are made up of cells. Within these cells occur numerous metabolic chemical reactions that

are responsible for growth and reproduction. Since plants do not eat food like animals, they

depend on nutrients in the soil to provide the basic chemicals for these metabolic reactions. The

supply of these components in soil is limited, however, and as plants are harvested, it dwindles,

causing a reduction in the quality and yield of plants (Brevik and Burgess, 2013).

Longterm use of fertilizers in crop production, however, leads to SOM accumulation and

soil health improvement through addition of increasing amount of litter and root biomass to the

soil. It suggests that the application of N fertilizer can have complex interactive effects on C

transformations in the soil (Geiseller and Scow, 2014).

Modern approaches to fertilizer application and management

Modern approaches to fertilizer application and management aim to increase efficiency,

reduce waste, and improve crop yields while minimizing the environmental impact of fertilizer

use. These approaches include Precision Agriculture, CRF, Fertigation, and INM. Organic and

microbial fertilizers are cost-effective and environmentally friendly, while precision agriculture

focuses on crop management for small regions. CRFs release nutrients over time, reducing

application frequency and over-fertilization risk. Fertigation allows precise nutrient delivery

through irrigation systems. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) practices optimize fertilizer

and soil amendment use for sustainable, efficient crop production, balancing inputs, maintaining

soil fertility, maximizing yield, profitability, and pollution.

1. Precision agriculture

Precision agriculture is a crop management approach that attempts to match the type and

quantity of inputs with the actual crop needs for small areas within a farm field (Siddesha et al.,

2020). It has the potential to revolutionize the way food is produced, making farming more

sustainable, efficient, and productive. This method uses satellite imagery, GPS, and sensors to

determine the nutrient needs of individual plants and applies fertilizer only where and when it is

needed. This reduces fertilizer waste and can increase crop yields. Precision agriculture is a

modern farming method that uses advanced technologies such as GPS, drones, and sensors to

collect data on soil, weather, and crop health, among other things. This data is then analyzed to

improve the efficiency and precision of farming operations, such as planting, fertilizing, and

harvesting, and to optimize crop yields. The goal of precision agriculture is to increase

agricultural productivity while reducing costs, conserving resources, and minimizing the impact

on the environment. Precision farming, particularly for small farmers in underdeveloped

nations, provides the possibility of significant yield growth with minimum external input

use (Hakkim, 2016).

Precision agriculture technologies include yield monitors, GPS-based mapping and field

analysis, remote sensing (such as using drones or satellites), variable rate technology for

applying seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides, and precision irrigation systems. There are two types

of GPS performance: single receiver mode, which collects timing information and converts it to

position; and differential mode (DGPS), which uses two receivers, one mounted in a stationary

position and the other on the machine/implement (Kumar et al., 2017). By using these tools,

farmers can make more informed decisions about their operations, such as determining the

optimal time to plant or harvest a crop, the amount of fertilizer and water to use, and where

to direct their resources for maximum efficiency and profitability. However, the adoption of

these technologies can be expensive and requires specialized training, so widespread adoption

may take some time.

2. Controlled-release fertilizers

Controlled-release fertilizers are specialized plant nutrients that are designed to release

their nutrients over a longer period of time, typically several months, compared to conventional

fertilizers that release their nutrients quickly. The controlled release of nutrients allows plants to

receive a steady supply of essential elements, reducing the frequency of application and

minimizing the risk of over-fertilization and its associated negative effects on the environment.

Controlled-release fertilizers come in a variety of forms, including granular, tablet, and coated-

fertilizer formulations. They can be made using different materials such as polymers, waxes, and

resins, which control the release rate of the fertilizer. The use of CRF as an environmentally

sustainable approach to boost crop yields by paving desired phase of plant growth via a direct or
indirect mechanism has been a game changer. The CRF mechanism not only reduces nutrient

dissipation owing to volatilization and leaching, but it also provides a precisely optimal nutrient

release design that is appropriate in the physiological and biochemical aspects of plant growth.

However, CRF is not widely used in commercial agriculture since it is expensive, has a

low efficiency in releasing nutrients, and its coatings are mostly made of petroleum-based

synthetic polymers (Vejan et al., 2021). The benefits of using controlled-release fertilizers

include improved plant health, increased efficiency and reduced waste, and reduced risk of

leaching and groundwater contamination. They are commonly used in commercial agriculture,

landscaping, and in greenhouse and indoor growing environments. It's important to follow the

manufacturer's instructions and guidelines when using controlled-release fertilizers, as improper

use can result in over-fertilization or under-fertilization, leading to reduced plant growth and

health. These fertilizers have a slow-release mechanism that allows plants to receive a steady

supply of nutrients over an extended period of time, reducing the need for frequent fertilizer

applications.

3. Fertigation

Fertigation is a procedure in which fertilizers are administered in conjunction with

irrigation water using a drip irrigation system in order to increase fertilizer use efficiency while

also enhancing crop production (Ranjan and Sow, 2021). This involves applying fertilizer

through an irrigation system, allowing for precise and efficient delivery of nutrients to the

plants. Fertigation refers to the process of applying fertilizers, including essential plant nutrients,

to crops through an irrigation system. This method of fertilization combines the delivery of

water and nutrients directly to the roots of plants, providing them with a more efficient and

controlled way to access the nutrients they need to grow. Rather, fertilizer should be
administered often and in small amounts in conjunction with irrigation to guarantee an

adequate supply of water and nutrients in the root zone (Biswas and Kumar, 2010).

With fertigation, the right amount of fertilizer can be precisely metered into the irrigation

system at the right time, reducing the potential for waste or over-application. This method of

fertilization is commonly used in large-scale agriculture, landscaping, and horticulture, and can

be especially useful in reducing labor costs, increasing crop yields, and improving plant

health. Fertigation is the process of applying fertilizer to plants through irrigation systems. It

involves mixing the required nutrients into the irrigation water and then distributing the nutrient-

rich water to the plants through the irrigation system.

4. Integrated nutrient management

The integrated nutrition management (INM) strategy is defined as a balanced blend of

organic, inorganic, and bioorganic microorganisms in various practices (Janssen, 1993). INM

serves as a source of energy, organic carbon, and accessible nitrogen for the growth of soil

microorganisms and the enhancement of soil physical qualities, and it also has a significant

residual influence on following crops. So, the key component of the INM goal is to achieve eco-

friendly practice by combining the harmonious properties of both sources to create a

combination that can be used for decreasing the massive use of chemical fertilizers and achieving

a balance between fertilizer inputs and crop nutrient requirements, maintaining soil fertility,

optimizing yield, maximizing profitability, and reducing environmental pollution (Selim, 2020).

This involves using a combination of different fertilizer application methods, as well as other

practices such as crop rotation and cover cropping, to optimize soil fertility and crop yields. The

main goal of INM is to balance the supply of essential plant nutrients from all sources - including

organic, inorganic, and biological - to improve soil fertility, crop yield, and quality
Crop Production

Crop production refers to the process of growing and cultivating crops, including

planning, planting, maintaining, and harvesting. It involves managing the entire production

process to ensure optimal yields, quality, and profitability. Crop production is one of the

fundamental branches of agriculture. Crop production is the basis for providing the livestock

industry with feed, and the population with food. Also, crop products are used in many industries

as raw materials of plant origin, such as food, textile, pharmaceutical, fuel and others,

(Chekmarev., Obushhenko., Trocz., and N.M. Trocz, 2018).

Crop production is a branch of agriculture, which includes the cultivation of crops in field

cultivation, vegetable growing, fruit growing, etc. This industry gives necessary food. Consumer

goods manufacturing and food industries gets raw materials. Livestock industry, in turn, uses by-

products such as straw, silage, and food industry waste,

Concepts in Crop Production:

1. Crop selection: Choosing the right crop for the climate, soil, and market demand. Choosing

the right crops is a fundamental decision for farmers and agricultural enthusiasts. The choice of

crops can significantly impact the success of farming operation, from yield and profitability to

sustainability and resilience. To make informed decisions, it is crucial to consider various critical

factors such as climate, soil, market demand, environmental and socioeconomic factors when

selecting crops, (Berry et al, 2019).

2. Soil preparation: Preparing the soil for planting, including tilling, fertilizing, and pest control.

The soil preparation is a plan according to which crops are grown on individual field or farm

during a given period of time with objectives of obtaining minimizes cost of preparation and

higher output or yield from each crop without imparting the soil fertility (Das et al, 2012).
3. Planting: Sowing seeds or transplanting seedlings at the right time and spacing. Planting is the

act of placing or burying seeds, bulbs, seedlings, or plants into the ground with the intention of

growing and cultivating them. It typically involves creating suitable conditions for the growth of

these plants, such as properly preparing the soil, providing adequate sunlight, water, and

nutrients, and ensuring proper spacing between plants. Planting is a fundamental activity in

agriculture, horticulture, and gardening, done for various purposes such as food production,

landscaping, beautification, reforestation, and environmental conservation. (Das etal, 2012).

4. Irrigation: Providing adequate water supply for crop growth. Irrigation is the practice of

applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns.

Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been developed by

many cultures around the world (Das et al, 2012).

5. Crop nutrition: Managing fertilizer application, soil pH, and nutrient levels.

6. Pest and disease management: Controlling weeds, pests, and diseases using integrated pest

management (IPM) techniques.

7. Pruning: Shaping plants to optimize growth, yield, and quality.

8. Harvesting: Gathering crops at the right time to ensure optimal quality and yield.

9. Post-harvest management: Handling, storing, and processing crops after harvesting.

Factors Affecting Crop Production:

1. Climate: Weather conditions, temperature, and precipitation.

2. Soil: Type, fertility, and moisture levels.

3. Water availability: Access to irrigation water.

4. Pests and diseases: Presence and severity of pests and diseases.

5. Farm management: Farmer's skills, knowledge, and resources.

Types of Crop Production:

1. Subsistence farming: Growing crops for personal consumption. Subsistence farming relates to

agricultural activity to produce food which is predominantly consumed by the farming

household. The food produced is the main or a significant source of food for the farming

household and little or none of the production is surplus and available for sale or trade

(Wikipedia).

2. Commercial farming: Growing crops for sale and profit. Commercial farming, also known as

agribusiness, is a farming method that involves growing crops, raising livestock, selling produce

on the market, and making money. Commercial agriculture mainly produces high-demand crops

(Wikipedia).

3. Organic farming: Growing crops without synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Organic farming

is a production management system excluding of all synthetic off-farm inputs but rely upon on-

farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods like crop rotations, crop residues, animal

manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient

mobilization and plant protection, etc which promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological

cycles and agro-ecosystem health (Meena et al, 2015).

4. Precision agriculture: Using technology to optimize crop production and reduce waste.

Precision agriculture is the science of improving crop yields and assisting management decisions

using high technology sensor and analysis tools. PA is a new concept adopted throughout the

world to increase production, reduce labor time, and ensure the effective management of

fertilizers and irrigation processes (www.sciencedirect.com).

Empirical studies

Inorganic Fertilizers

Inorganic fertilizers are chemical fertilizers that contain nutrient elements for the growth

of crops made by chemical means. The inorganic fertilizers are of the following types:

Nitrogen Fertilizers

Nitrogen fertilizers contain nitrogen necessary for the development of crops. Nitrogen is

the main constituent of chlorophyll that maintains a balance in the process of photosynthesis. It is

also a part of amino acids in plants and constitutes protein. Nitrogen fertilizers improve the

production and quality of agricultural products (Osama, 2020).

Nitrogen is an important component of many essential structural, genetic and metabolic

compounds in plant cells. It is also an elementary constituent of numerous important organic

compounds including amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, enzymes, and the chlorophyll

molecule of all the essential nutrients, nitrogen is the one that is most often limiting for crop

growth. Nitrogen is the nutrient which normally produces the greatest yield response in crop

plants, promoting rapid vegetative growth and giving the plant a healthy green color (10.2).

Roots take up nitrogen in its inorganic forms, nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) ions. Once

inside the plant, NO3 is reduced to the NH2 form and is assimilated to form the organic

compounds. Adding nitrogen is not recommended for legume crops such as soybean, since they

manufacture their own nitrogen supply. Nitrogen-fixing soil organisms (rhizobium) associated

with the roots of legumes capture atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to the plant.

Plants lacking nitrogen have very slow growth and look weak and stunted. Older leaves

have a light green or yellow color. As nitrogen is mobile in the plant and moves to where it is
needed, these older and lower leaves are always first to show symptoms of deficiency (Borris,

2015).

Phosphorus Fertilizer The main nutrient in a phosphorus fertilizer is phosphorus. The

efficiency of fertilizer depends upon effective phosphorus content, methods of fertilizing,

properties of soil and crop strains. Phosphorus found in the protoplasm of the cell plays an

important role in cell growth and proliferation. The phosphorus fertilizer is beneficial for the

growth of roots of the plants (Chekanaia, Chikowoa, Vanlauwe, 2018 and Osama 2020).

Phosphorus (P) is an essential nutrient, both as a component of several key plant

structural compounds, and as a catalyst in numerous key biochemical reactions in plants.

Phosphorus is noted especially for its role in capturing and converting the sun's energy into

useful plant compounds. Phosphorus is essential for the general health and vigor of all plants.

Some specific growth factors that have been associated with adding phosphorus to the crop are:

stimulated root development, increased stalk and stem strength, improved flower formation and

seed production, more uniform and earlier crop maturity, increased nitrogenfixing capacity of

legumes, improvements in crop quality, and increased resistance to plant diseases (Ahmed and

Hasnain, 2018).

A crop deficient in phosphorus will show slow growth, appear stunted and be weak.

Older leaves will have a dark green color and purple pigmentation. Since phosphorus is mobile

in the plant, the bottom leaves are always affected first and show the earliest signs of deficiency

(Borris, 2015).

Potassium Fertilizer

Potassium (K), along with nitrogen and phosphorus, is one of the three essential plant

macronutrients, and is taken up by crops from soils in relatively large amounts. Potassium
increases yields and improves the quality of agricultural produce. Potassium also enhances the

ability of plants to resist diseases, insect attacks, cold and drought stresses and other adverse

conditions. It helps in the development of a strong and healthy root system and increases the

efficiency of the uptake and use of nitrogen and other nutrients. In addition, potassium has an

important role in livestocknutrition (Biofector final report, 2017).

The importance of potassium stems from its multiple roles in the plant: it is involved in

the activation of more than sixty enzymatic systems in the plant cell, and in the synthesis of

proteins, vitamins, starch and cellulose which ensure normal plant metabolism, plant growth and

formation of strong tissues. Potassium helps photosynthesis, the process through which the

sugars and energy that the plant needs for its development are formed and converted. Potassium

also controls the opening and closing of the leaf stomata, which regulate the water status in the

plant. It plays an essential part in the formation of starch and in the production and translocation

of sugars. Potassium is, therefore, of special value to carbohydrate-rich crops such as sugarcane,

potato and sugar beet. The production of starch and sugar in legumes boosted by potassium

benefits the symbiotic bacteria living on the roots and thus improves the fixation of nitrogen

(Gómez-Muñoz, Jensen, De Neergaard, Richardson and Magid, 2018).Potassium not only

increases yields but also enhances crop quality. It improves the nutritive value of grains, tubers

and fruits by increasing the contents of protein and oil in seeds, of starch in tubers and seeds, and

of vitamin C and sugar in fruits. With an adequate supply of potassium, cereals produce plump

grains and strong stalks. Potassium also improves the flavor and color of fruits and increases the

size of tubers and fruits. In addition, it increases the resistance to various injuries during storage

and transportation, thus extending shelf life.

Plants deficient in potassium 'lodge' or bend over at ground level making them difficult to

harvest. Potassium deficiency makes a plant susceptible to disease. The edges of older leaves

appear to have burned edges (scorching) and, since potassium is mobile in the plant, the bottom

and older leaves show deficiency symptoms first.

Sulphur Fertilizer

Sulphur (S) is an essential element in forming proteins, enzymes, vitamins, and

chlorophyll in plants. It is crucial in nodule development and efficient nitrogen fixation in

legumes.

Protein synthesis requires large amounts of sulphur, especially in the formation of oils

within the seed, and sulphur is a constituent of several amino acids and vitamins found in both

plants and animals. Thus, sulphur is an important factor in determining the nutritional quality of

foods. Sulphur is also important in photosynthesis and contributes to crop winter hardiness. An

adequate supply of sulphur is very important, not only for crops with high sulfur requirements -

such as legumes (alfalfa, clover, soybean etc.) and Cruciferae (canola, rapeseed) - but also for

crops with high nitrogen requirement (corn, cotton), which without sulphur cannot optimize their

utilization of nitrogen (VDLUFA, 2012).

Plants deficient in sulphur have leaves that are pale green color, beginning first on

younger leaves. Eventually, the whole plant can have a light yellow-green appearance.

Magnesium Fertilizer

Magnesium (Mg) is needed by all crops to help capture the sun's energy for growth and

production through photosynthesis. Photosynthesis takes place in chlorophyll, the green pigment

in plants, and magnesium is the central atom of the chlorophyll molecule, with each molecule

containing 6.7% magnesium (Chekanaia et al, 2018).

 Magnesium plays an important role in activating enzymes involved in respiration,

photosynthesis and nucleic acid synthesis. It aids in phosphate metabolism, serving as a carrier of

phosphate compounds through the plant. Magnesium facilitates translocation of carbohydrates

(sugars and starches) and enhances the production of oils and fats.

In plants suffering magnesium deficiency older leaves show interveinal chlorosis (dark

green veins with yellow areas between them). These yellowed or chlorotic leaves develop

spotted areas of dead tissue and the leaf edges curl. Since magnesium is mobile in the plant, the

lower or older leaves are always affected first.

Calcium Fertilizer

Calcium (Ca) plays an extremely important role in producing plant tissues and it enables

plants to grow better. Calcium is responsible for holding together the cell walls of plants. It is

also crucial in activating certain enzymes and to send signals that coordinate certain cellular

activities.It is calcium that is key to normal root system development. Calcium also increases

resistance to outside attack and increases the feed value of forage crops to livestock.

Calcium deficiency results in poor root growth and the root tips die. Shortage of calcium

makes the crop vulnerable to diseases. These diseases can include blossom end rot in tomatoes,

tip burn in cabbage and black heart in celery. As calcium is immobile within the plant, as supply

of calcium ceases deficiency symptoms appear on younger leaves. New leaves are distorted, with

curled edges and the growing tip may die (Gharib, Moussa and Massoud, 2008).

Iron Fertilizer

Yellowing of grass (Iron Chlorosis) is often due to iron deficiency. Iron is required for

the formation of chlorophyll in the plant cell (causes turf to maintain a healthy green color). It

serves as a catalyst for biological processes such as respiration, symbiotic fixation of nitrogen
and photosynthesis. Applications of iron can correct iron deficiency, but it may be temporary in

high pH soils, due to tie up with calcium. This may require acidification of the soil with

elemental sulfur or the use of ammonium forms of nitrogen or some other acidification agents.

As ammonium converts to nitrate in the soil, it has an acidifying effect. This acidifying effect

makes iron and many other elements more available in high pH soils.

Zinc Fertilizer

Zinc is an essential component of several plant enzymes. It is a part of auxins and

controls the synthesis of indoleacetic acid which regulates growth compounds. Zinc also affects

the intake and efficient use of water by plants.

Organic Fertilizers

Organic fertilizers are natural fertilizers obtained from plants and animals. It enriches the

soil with carbonic compounds essential for plant growth. Organic fertilizers increase the organic

matter content of the soil, promotes the reproduction of microorganisms, and changes the

physical and chemical properties of the soil. It is considered to be one of the main nutrients for

green food (Lamma et al, 2016).Organic fertilizers can be obtained from the following products:

Agricultural Waste, Livestock Manure, Industrial Waste, and Municipal Sludge.

Summary of review of related literature

The review of related literature has afforded the researcher a better understanding of the

research problem which is the nutrient need of Telfairia occidentalis in the area. The importance

of fertilizer to plant such as Telfairia occidentalis cannot be over emphasized, as it is to plant just

as food is to man. It has also given the researcher a theoretical and empirical framework which

has served as a spring board for study. It has also provided an opportunity of knowing the

methodology adopted in related studies, thereby giving them a sense of direction. The literature
review has also provided useful materials for the development of the measurement instrument.

Moreover, the review has revealed the strengths and weakness of some studies on the right

application and appropriate management strategies that should be adopted in the cultivation of

Telfairia occidentalis.
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Take this to chapter two and insert it before theoretical framework

Biology of Telfairia occidentalis

The genus Telfairia Hooker belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae and contains two (2)

species in Africa namely; Telfairia occidentalis Hooker and T. pedata (Sm.ex Sims.) Hooker
from West Africa and East Africa respectively (Okoli, 2013). Although T. occidentalis is an

herbaceous perennial plant, it is grown as an annual crop due to its importance in parts of West

Africa. In Nigeria, Telfairia occidentalis is extensively cultivated in the southern part by the

Igbos where it is fast becoming an important vegetable crop (Okoli, 2013) and has become a

major component of their diets and can be found in every home. In trado-medicine, it is used as

blood booster, improve immune system, aid digestion and convulsion (Kayode et al., 2010).

The antioxidant property of T. occidentalis has been widely reported by several authors

(Eseyin et al., 2014; Eseyin et al., 2018). Nutritionally, this leafy vegetable is rich in minerals

such as iron, potassium, sodium, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium and some essential amino

acids. Major Phytochemicals present include; tannins, saponins, flavanoids and phenolics

(Ekpenyong et al., 2012). Some taxonomic lines of evidence have been explored in the study of

T. occidentalis such as morphology, phytochemistry and cytology (Adeniyi et al., 2012).