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GPS for Land Surveyors
Second Edition
GPS for Land Surveyors
Second Edition
CRC PR E SS
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
Published in 2001 by Published in Great Britain by
Taylor & Francis Group Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 2 Park Square
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 Milton Park, Abingdon
Oxon 0X14 4RN
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with
permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials
or for the consequences of their use.
No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or
other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
iii
About the Author
Jan Van Sickle, P.L.S. has 35 years experience as a land surveyor. He was privi
leged to supervise surveys with the first commercially available Global Position
ing System receivers in the early 1980s and has worked with GPS ever since. He is
the author of GPS for Land Surveyors and 1001 Solved Surveying Fundamentals
Problems. The latter is quoted in the feature Surveying Solutions each month in
POB magazine. He has taught the Advanced Surveying Program at the Denver
Institute of Technology and GPS seminars throughout the United States, and is a
licensed surveyor in California, Colorado, and Oregon. He is currently the GIS
Department Manager at Qwest Communications.
Preface
Five years ago, when this hook was first published, I was not prepared for the
wonderful response. When I was asked to teach Global Positioning System (GPS)
seminars based on the book around the country and meet some of the surveyors
who use it, I knew I would learn a lot. I certainly did, and this revision is built on
what I learned from them and from the many phone calls, letters, and E-mails I
have received asking questions and making suggestions. It’s been great, and more
than I could have hoped for. I want to thank everyone who has contributed to this
new, improved version.
This hook is intended to be useful to surveyors who have ventured into GPS
surveying. I hope it is also helpful to engineers and others for whom GPS may not
be a primary tool, but who find themselves in need of some additional under
standing of the technology.
The breadth of knowledge required for modern surveying is increasing all the
time and that is especially true in GPS. But surveyors have been there from the
very beginning of the Global Positioning System, and that is now more than 20
years ago. The system developed by the Department of Defense w ith military
applications in mind is attracting users from every imaginable discipline, but it is
still surveyors out there pushing its limits.
Like most computerized equipment, the prices of GPS receivers are going down,
just as their capabilities improve. With the full constellation of satellites in place,
the convenience of using GPS has never been better. It has truly become a 24-hour
worldwide system now. And it can be applied to a wide range of real-life everyday
fieldwork with good results. The potential of GPS has always been great, but po
tential is now reality.
Still, getting full advantage from GPS takes some doing. For example, it isn’t
hard to operate a GPS receiver—matter of fact, most of them are so user-friendly
you don’t need to know the first thing about GPS to make them work; that is,
until they don’t. Getting coordinates from a GPS receiver is usually a matter of
pushing a few buttons, but knowing what those coordinates are, and more impor
tantly, what they aren’t, is more difficult.
Many surveyors feel ill prepared for the use of GPS in their everyday work; the
subject seems too complex, the time to digest it too long, and the books and semi
nars on the subject are either too complicated or oversimplified.
This book has been w ritten to find a middle ground. It is an introduction to the
concepts needed to understand and use GPS, not a presentation of the latest re
search in the area. An effort has been made to explain the progression of the ideas
at the foundation of GPS, and get into some of the particulars too.
Finally, this is a practical book, a guide to some of the techniques used in the
performance of a GPS survey. From its design through observation, processing,
and RTK (real-time kinematic), some of the aspects of a GPS survey are familiar
to surveyors, some are not. This book is about making them all familiar.
Contents
3. T he F ra m e w o rk .................................................................................................61
Technological Forerunners................................................................................. 61
Terrestrial Radio Positioning.........................................................................61
Optical Systems............................................................................................... 63
ix
Extraterrestrial Radio Positioning................................................................ 64
TR A N SIT.............................................................................................................65
NAVSTAR G PS....................................................................................................68
GPS in Civilian Surveying..............................................................................70
GPS Segment Organization................................................................................72
The Space Segment......................................................................................... 72
The Control Segment.......................................................................................... 81
The User Segment........................................................................................... 83
Exercises...............................................................................................................84
Answers and Explanations.................................................................................86
4. R eceivers an d M e th o d s ................................................................................... 91
Common Features of GPS Receivers................................................................. 91
The A n tenna................................................................................................... 92
The Preamplifier............................................................................................. 94
The RF Section............................................................................................... 94
The M icroprocessor...................................................................................... 102
The C D U ........................................................................................................103
The Storage....................................................................................................103
The P ow er......................................................................................................104
Choosing a GPS Receiver.................................................................................. 104
Trends in Receiver Developm ent............................................................... 105
Some GPS Surveying M ethods.........................................................................108
S tatic............................................................................................................... 108
Differential GPS, D G P S ............................................................................... 112
K inem atic....................................................................................................... 113
Pseudokinematic............................................................................................117
Rapid-Static.................................................................................................... 118
On-the-Fly...................................................................................................... 119
Real-Time Kinematic, R T K .......................................................................... 119
Exercises............................................................................................................. 120
Answers and Explanations............................................................................... 122
5. C o o rd in a te s.......................................................................................................125
A Few Pertinent Ideas about Geodetic Datums for G PS.............................. 125
Plane Surveying............................................................................................ 125
Some Geodetic Coordinate Systems............................................................ 126
Elements of a Geodetic D a tu m ....................................................................128
The Geoid.......................................................................................................134
The Modern Geocentric D atum ...................................................................135
North American Datum 1983..................................................................... 137
H eights............................................................................ 145
Exercises.............................................................................................................148
Answers and Explanations...............................................................................149
x
6. P lanning a S u rv e y .......................................................................................... 153
Elements of a GPS Survey D esign...................................................................153
How Much Planning Is Required?.............................................................. 153
Visiting the Site............................................................................................. 156
Project Planning, Off-Site.............................................................................157
Some GPS Survey Design F acts.................................................................. 166
Drawing the Baselines.................................................................................. 173
Finding the Number of Sessions................................................................. 178
Combining GPS Surveying M ethods.......................................................... 179
Exercises............................................................................................................. 180
Answers and Explanations...............................................................................182
7. O b se rv in g ..........................................................................................................187
Preparing to O bserve........................................................................................ 187
T raining..........................................................................................................187
Equipm ent............................................................................................ 187
Reconnaissance..................................................................................................191
Station Data S h e e t........................................................................................ 191
Visibility D iagram s....................................................................................... 195
Reconnaissance for Kinematic GPS............................................................ 200
M onum entation............................................................................................ 200
Final Planning and O bservation..................................................................... 200
Logistics............................................................... 200
O bservation....................................................................................................201
Daily Progress Evaluation ................................................................. 204
Exercises.............................................................................................................205
Answers and Explanations...............................................................................207
xi
DGPS................................................................................ 224
Identical Constellation..................................................................................224
L atency...........................................................................................................224
Real-Time or Postprocessed......................................................................... 226
Error Correlation and Accuracy.................................................................. 226
Real-Time D G PS........................................................................................... 226
RTCM-104 Message F orm at............................................................................ 226
GIS Applications for D G PS..............................................................................227
R TK .....................................................................................................................228
Fixing the Integer Ambiguity in R T K ........................................................228
Radio License................................................................................................ 230
Typical R T K .................................................................................................. 230
The Vertical Component in R TK ................................................................ 231
Some Practical RTK Suggestions..................................................................... 232
Typical Satellite Constellations................................................................... 232
Dual Frequency Receiver.............................................................................232
Setting up a Base Station..............................................................................232
Comparing RTK and DGPS..............................................................................233
Multipath in RTK and DG PS...................................................................... 233
Base Station................................................................................................... 233
Initialization....................................................................... 234
Summary.............................................................................................................234
Exercises.............................................................................................................235
Answers and Explanations.............................................................................. 237
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 241
References................................................................................................................. 275
Index.......................................................................................................................... 277
x ii
1
A Passive System
The ranges are measured with signals that are broadcast from the GPS satellites
to the GPS receivers in the microwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum; this
is sometimes called a passive system. GPS is passive in the sense that only the
satellites transmit signals; the users simply receive them. As a result, there is no
limit to the number of GPS receivers that may simultaneously monitor the GPS
signals. Just as millions of television sets may be tuned to the same channel w ith
out disrupting the broadcast, millions of GPS receivers may monitor the satellite’s
signals without danger of overburdening the system. This is a distinct advantage,
but as a result, GPS signals must carry a great deal of information. A GPS receiver
must be able to gather all the information it needs to determine its own position
from the signals it collects from the satellites.
Time
Time measurement is essential to GPS surveying in several ways. For example,
the determination of ranges, like distance measurement in a modern trilateration
survey, is done electronically. In both cases, distance is a function of the speed of
light, an electromagnetic signal of stable frequency and elapsed time. In a
1
2 GPS fo r L and Surveyors
Control
Both GPS surveys and trilateration surveys begin from control points. In GPS
the control points are the satellites themselves; therefore, knowledge of the
satellite’s position is critical. Measurement of a distance to a control point without
knowledge of that control point’s position would be useless. It is not enough that
the GPS signals provide a receiver w ith information to measure the range be
tween itself and the satellite. That same signal must also communicate the posi
tion of the satellite, at that very instant. The situation is complicated somewhat by
the fact that the satellite is always moving.
In a GPS survey, as in a trilateration survey, the signals must travel through the
atmosphere. In a trilateration survey, compensation for the atmospheric effects
on the EDM signal, estimated from local observations, can he applied at the signal’s
source. This is not possible in GPS. The GPS signals begin in the virtual vacuum
of space, but then, after hitting the earth’s atmosphere, they travel through much
more of the atmosphere than most EDM signals. Therefore, the GPS signals must
give the receiver some information about needed atmospheric corrections.
It takes more than one measured distance to determine a new position in a
trilateration survey or in a GPS survey. Each of the several distances used to de
fine one new point must be measured to a different control station. For trilateration,
three distances are adequate for each new point. For a GPS survey the minimum
requirement is a measured range to each of at least four GPS satellites.
Just as it is vital that every one of the three distances in a trilateration is cor
rectly paired with the correct control station, the GPS receiver must be able to
match each of the signals it tracks with the satellite of its origin. Therefore, the
GPS signals themselves must also carry a kind of satellite identification. To he on
the safe side, the signal should also tell the receiver where to find all of the other
satellites as well.
To sum up, a GPS signal must somehow communicate to its receiver: (l) what
time it is on the satellite, (2) the instantaneous position of a moving satellite,
(3) some information about necessary atmospheric corrections, and (4) some sort
of satellite identification system to tell the receiver where it came from and where
the receiver may find the other satellites.
The GPS Signal 3
Wavelength
A wavelength w ith a duration of 1 second, known as 1 cycle per second, is
said to have a frequency of 1 hertz (Hz) in the International System of Units
(SI). A frequency of 1 Hz is rather low. The lowest sound hum an ears can detect
has a frequency of about 25 Hz. The highest is about 15,000 hertz, or 15 kilo
hertz (kHz).
Most of the modulated carriers used in EDMs and all those in GPS instruments
have frequencies that are measured in units of a million cycles per second, or
megahertz (MHz). The two fundamental frequencies assigned to GPS are called
LI at 1575.42 MHz and L2 at 1227.60 MHz.
Codes
GPS codes are binary, strings of zeroes and ones, the language of computers.
The three basic codes in GPS are the precise code, or P code; the coarse/acquisi-
tion code, or C/A code; and the Navigation code. There are a few related second
ary codes, which will be discussed later.
The Navigation code has a low frequency, 50 Hz, and is modulated onto both
the LI and L2 carriers. It communicates a stream of data called the GPS message,
or Navigation message (Figure 1.1). This message is 1500 bits long, divided into
five subframes with 10 words of 30 bits each. These subframes are the vehicles for
telling the GPS receivers some of the most important things they need to know.
The accuracy of some aspects of the information included in the Navigation
message deteriorates w ith time. Fortunately, mechanisms are in place to prevent
the message from getting too old. The message is renewed each day by govern
ment uploading facilities around the world, or by the satellites themselves, in the
case of the Block HR satellites, the R stands for replenishment—more about that
later. These installations, along with their tracking and computing counterparts,
are known collectively as the Control Segment (see Chapter 3).
4 GPS fo r L and Surveyors
5 2
as
TLM jj How jj Ephemeris
so
o
to
3 TLM jj H ow jj Ephemeris
GPS Time
One example of time-sensitive information is found in subframe 1 of the Navi
gation message. Using a standard time scale called GPS Time, the message con
tains information needed by the receiver to correlate its clock with that of the
clock of the satellite. But the constantly changing time relationships in GPS can
only be partially defined in this subframe. It takes more than a portion of the
Navigation message to define those relationships. In fact, the rate of the GPS Time
standard is defined outside the system.
For example, the rate of GPS Time is kept w ithin 1 microsecond of the rate of
the worldwide time scale, which is called Coordinated Universal Time, and is
abbreviated UTC. The rate of UTC, determined by more than 150 atomic clocks
located around the globe, is more stable than the rotation of the earth itself. This
causes a discrepancy between UTC and the earth’s actual motion. This difference
is kept w ithin 0.9 seconds by the periodic introduction of leap seconds in UTC.
But since GPS is not earthbound, leap seconds are not used in GPS Time. GPS
Time was identical to UTC on midnight January 5, 1990. Since then, many leap
seconds have been added to UTC but none have been added to GPS Time. This
complicates the relationship between UTC and GPS Time. Even though their
rates are virtually identical, the numbers expressing a particular instant in GPS
Time are different by some seconds from the numbers expressing the same in
stant in UTC.
The GPS Signal 5
Satellite Clocks
Each GPS satellite carries its own onboard clocks in the form of very stable and
accurate atomic clocks regulated by the vibration frequencies of the atoms of two
elements. Two of the onboard clocks are regulated by cesium and two are regu
lated by rubidium, except on the Block HR satellites, where all the clocks are
rubidium. Since the clocks in any one satellite are completely independent from
those in any other, they are allowed to drift up to one millisecond from the strictly
controlled GPS Time standard. Instead of constantly tweaking the satellite’s
onboard clocks to keep them all in lockstep with each other and with GPS Time,
their individual drifts are carefully monitored by the government tracking sta
tions of the Control Segment. These stations record each satellite clock’s devia
tion from GPS Time, and the drift is eventually uploaded into subframe 1 of each
satellite’s Navigation message, where it is known as the broadcast clock correction.
A GPS receiver may relate the satellite’s clock to GPS Time with the correction
given in the broadcast clock correction of its Navigation message. This is obvi
ously only part of the solution to the problem of directly relating the receiver’s
own clock to the satellite’s clock. The receiver will need to rely on other aspects of
the GPS signal for a complete time correlation.
The drift of each satellite’s clock is not constant. Nor can the broadcast clock
correction be updated frequently enough to completely define the drift. Therefore,
one of the 10 words included in subframe 1 provides a definition of the reliability
of the broadcast clock correction. This is called AODC, or Age of Data Clock.
Another example of time-sensitive information is found in subframes 2 and 3
of the Navigation message. They contain information about the position of the
satellite, with respect to time. This is called the satellite’s ephemeris.
Atmospheric Correction
Subframe 4 addresses atmospheric correction. As with subframe 1, the data
offer only a partial solution to a problem. The Control Segment’s monitoring sta
tions find the apparent delay of a GPS signal caused by its trip through the iono
sphere through an analysis of the different propagation rates of the two frequencies
broadcast by all GPS satellites, LI and L2. These two frequencies and the effects
of the atmosphere on the GPS signal will be discussed later. For now, it is suffi
cient to say that a single-frequency receiver depends on the ionospheric correc
tion in subframe 4 to help remove part of the error introduced by the atmosphere.
Antispoofing
Subframe 4 also contains a flag that tells the receiver when a security system,
known as antispoofing, also known as simply AS, has been activated by the gov
ernment ground control stations. Since December of 1993, the P code on all Block
satellites has been encrypted to become the more secure Y code. Subframe 4 may
also be asked to hold almanac information for satellites 25 through 32.
The A lm anac
Subframe 5 tells the receiver where to find all the other GPS satellites. This
subframe contains the ephemerides of up to 24 satellites. This is sometimes called
the almanac. Here, the ephemerides are not complete. Their purpose is to help a
GPS receiver lock onto more signals. Once the receiver finds its first satellite, it
can look at the truncated ephemerides in subframe 5 of its Navigation message to
figure the position of more satellites to track. But to collect any particular satellite’s
entire ephemeris, a receiver must acquire that satellite’s signal and look there for
subframes 2 and 3.
Satellite Health
Subframe 5 also includes health data for each satellite. GPS satellites are vul
nerable to a wide variety of breakdowns, particularly clock trouble. That is one
reason some of them carry as many as four clocks. Health data are also periodi
cally uploaded by the ground control. Subframe 5 informs users of any satellite
malfunctions before they try to use a particular signal.
Each of these five subframes begins with the same two words: the telemetry
word TLM and the handover word HOW. Unlike nearly everything else in the
Navigation message, these two words are generated by the satellite itself.
The TLM word is designed to indicate the status of uploading from the Control
Segment while it is in progress. The HOW contains a number called the Z count,
an important number for a receiver trying to acquire the P code, one of the pri
mary GPS codes. The Z count tells the receiver exactly where the satellite stands
in the generation of this very complicated code.
The GPS Signal 7
PRN
The P and C/A codes are complicated; so complicated, in fact, that they appear
to he nothing but noise at first. And even though they are known as pseudoran
dom noise, or P R N codes, actually, these codes have been carefully designed. They
have to be. They must be capable of repetition and replication.
P Code
For example, the P code generated at a rate of 10.23 million bits per second is
available on both LI and L2. Each satellite repeats its portion of the P code every
7 days, and the entire code is renewed every 37 weeks. All GPS satellites broad
cast their codes on the same two frequencies, LI and L2 for now, though a new
frequency (L5) may be implemented—more about that later. Still, a GPS receiver
must somehow distinguish one satellite’s transmission from another. One method
used to facilitate this satellite identification is the assignment of one particular
week of the 37-week-long P code to each satellite. For example, space vehicle 14
( S V 14) is so named because it broadcasts the fourteenth week of the P code.
C/A Code
The C/A code is generated at a rate of 1.023 million bits per second; that is, 10
times slower than the P code. Here, satellite identification is quite straightfor
ward. Not only does each GPS satellite broadcast a completely unique C/A code
on its LI frequency (and on LI alone), but also the C/A code is repeated every
millisecond.
EDM Ranging
As mentioned earlier, an EDM only needs one frequency standard because its
electromagnetic wave travels to a retroprism and is reflected hack to its origina
tion. The EDM is both the transmitter and the receiver of the signal. Therefore, in
general terms, the instrument can take half the time elapsed between the moment
of transmission and the moment of reception, multiply by the speed of light, and
find the distance between the itself and the retroprism (Distance = Elapsed Time
x Rate).
Illustrated in Figure 1.2, the fundamental elements of the calculation of the
distance measured by an EDM, p, are the time elapsed between transmission and
reception of the signal, At, and the speed of light, c.
Distance = p
Elapsed Time = At
Rate = c.
GPS R anging
However, the one-way ranging used in GPS is more complicated. It requires the
use of two clocks. The broadcast signals from the satellites are collected by the
The GPS Signal 9
receiver, not reflected. Nevertheless, in general terms, the full time elapsed be
tween the instant a GPS signal leaves a satellite and arrives at a receiver, multi
plied by the speed of light, is the distance between them.
Unlike the wave generated by an EDM, a GPS signal cannot be analyzed at its
point of origin. The measurement of the elapsed time between the signal’s trans
mission by the satellite and its arrival at the receiver requires two clocks, one in
the satellite and one in the receiver. This complication is compounded because to
correctly represent the distance between them these two clocks would need to be
perfectly synchronized with one another. Since such perfect synchronization is
physically impossible, the problem is addressed mathematically.
In Figure 1.3, the basis of the calculation of a range measured from a GPS re
ceiver to the satellite, p, is the multiplication of the time elapsed between a signal’s
transmission and reception, At, by the speed of light, c.
A discrepancy of 1 microsecond from perfect synchronization, between the
clock aboard the GPS satellite and the clock in the receiver can create a range
error of 300 meters, far beyond the acceptable limits for nearly all surveying work.
Oscillators
The time measurement devices used in both EDM and GPS measurements are
not really clocks. They are more correctly called oscillators, or frequency stan
dards. In other words, they don’t produce a steady series of ticks. They keep time
by chopping a continuous beam of electromagnetic energy at extremely regular
intervals. The result is a steady series of wavelengths and the foundation of the
modulated carrier.
For example, the action of a shutter in a movie projector is analogous to the
modulation of a coherent beam by the oscillator in an EDM. Consider the visible
beam of light of a specific frequency passing through a movie projector. It is inter
rupted by the shutter, half of a metal disk rotating at a constant rate that alter-
10 GPSfor Land Surveyors
nately blocks and uncovers the light. In other words, the shutter chops the con
tinuous beam into equal segments. Each length begins with the shutter closed and
the light beam entirely blocked. As the shutter rotates open, the light beam is
gradually uncovered. It increases to its maximum intensity, and then decreases
again as the shutter gradually closes. The light is not simply turned on and off, it
gradually increases and decreases. In this analogy the light beam is the carrier,
and it has a wavelength much shorter than the wavelength of the modulation of
that carrier produced by the shutter.
This modulation can be illustrated by a sine wave (Figure 1.4).
The wavelength begins when the light is blocked by the shutter. The first mini
mum is called a 0° phase angle. The first maximum is called the 90° phase angle
and occurs when the shutter is entirely open. It returns to minimum at the 180°
phase angle when the shutter closes again. But the wavelength isn’t yet complete.
It continues through a second shutter opening, 270°, and closing, 360°. The 360°
phase angle marks the end of one wavelength and the beginning of the next one.
The time and distance between every other minimum; that is, from the 0 ° to the
360° phase angles; is a wavelength and is usually symbolized by the Greek letter
lambda, X.
As long as the rate of an oscillator’s operation is very stable, both the length and
elapsed time between the beginning and end of every wavelength of the modula
tion will be the same.
300,000,000 mps
X=
9,840,000 Hz
X = 30.49 m
surement between an EDM and a reflector is doubled with this electronic chain
because, after it extends from the EDM to the reflector, it bounces back to where
it started. The entire trip represents twice the distance and is simply divided by 2.
But like the surveyors who used the old Gunter’s chain, one cannot depend that a
particular measurement will end conveniently at the end of a complete link (or
wavelength). A measurement is much more likely to end at some fractional part
of a link (or wavelength). The question is, where?
Phase Shift
With the original Gunter’s chain, the surveyor simply looked at the chain and
estimated the fractional part of the last link that should be included in the mea
surement. Those links were tangible. Since the wavelengths of a modulated car
rier are not, the EDM m ust find the fractional p art of its m easurem ent
electronically. Therefore, it does a comparison. It compares the phase angle of the
returning signal to that of a replica of the transmitted signal to determine the
phase shift. That phase shift represents the fractional part of the measurement.
This principle is used in distance measurement by both EDM and GPS systems.
How does it work? First, it is important to remember that points on a modu
lated carrier are defined by phase angles, such as 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, etc. (Figure
1.4). When two modulated carrier waves reach exactly the same phase angle at
exactly the same time, they are said to be in phase, coherent, or phase locked. How
ever, when two waves reach the same phase angle at different times, they are out
of phase or phase shifted. For example, in Figure 1.5, the sine wave shown in the
gray dashed line has returned to an EDM from a reflector. Compared with the
sine wave shown in the dark solid line, it is out of phase by one-quarter of a
wavelength. The distance between the EDM and the reflector, p, is then:
(nK + d)
where: n = the number of full wavelengths the modulated carrier has completed
d = the fractional part of a wavelength at the end that completes the
doubled distance.
end of a range. In GPS, the process is called carrier phase ranging. And as the name
implies, this measurement is actually done on the carrier itself.
TWO OBSERVABLES
The word observable is used throughout GPS literature to indicate the signals
whose measurement yields the range or distance between the satellite and the
receiver. The word is used to draw a distinction between the thing being mea
sured, the observable, and the measurement, the observation.
The GPS Signal 15
In GPS there are two types of observables: the pseudorange and the carrier phase.
The latter, also known as the carrier heat phase, is the basis of the techniques used
for high-precision GPS surveys. On the other hand, the pseudorange can serve
applications when virtually instantaneous point positions are required or rela
tively low accuracy will suffice.
These basic observables can also be combined in various ways to generate addi
tional measurements that have certain advantages. It is in this latter context that
pseudoranges are used in many GPS receivers as a preliminary step toward the
final determination of position by carrier phase measurement.
The foundation of pseudoranges is the correlation of code carried on a modu
lated carrier wave received from a GPS satellite with a replica of that same code
generated in the receiver. Most of the GPS receivers used for surveying applica
tions are capable of code correlation. That is, they can determine pseudoranges
from the C/A code or the P code. These same receivers are usually capable of
determining ranges using the unmodulated carrier as well. However, first let us
concentrate on the pseudorange.
C /A -C o d e
C a rrie r @ 1.023 M B P S is C/A P
F0/10 = 1 0 .2 3 M H z / 10 Code Code
Chipping 1.023 x 10* 10.23 x I0 6
C o d e C h ip s Rate Chips/Sec. Chips/Sec.
Repetition
C o d e C h ip s 0.001 Sec. 7 D ays
Period
P -C o d e
Codes are modulated onto the
@ 10.23 M B P S
C a rrie r carrier by multiplication with the
is
code states. Each shift from +1,
F0= 10.23 M H z to -1, or from -1 to +1 causes a
corresponding phase shift o f 18(f
Carrier is in the carrier.
shown here
@ 2 cycles C o d e States
per P-Code
P -C o d e + 1 X = C o d e Chip
chip. There
(O o r 1)
are actually
154 cycles -1 1- 2 X = C o d e State
per P-Code ( + 1 o r -1)
chip - The C/A Code is only modulated onto a 90° ^
phase shifted version (Quadrature Component)
o f LI.
The codes are also based on F0. 10.23 code chips of the P code, zeros or ones,
occur every microsecond. In other words, the chipping rate of the P code is 10.23
million bits per second, 10.23 Mbps, exactly the same as F0, 10.23 MHz.
The chipping rate of the C/A code is 10 times slower than the P code, a tenth of
F0, 1.023 Mbps. Ten P code chips occur in the time it takes to generate one C/A
code chip, allowing P code derived pseudoranges to be much more precise. This is
one reason the C/A code is known as the coarse/acquisition code.
Even though both codes are broadcast on LI, they are distinguishable from one
another by their transmission in quadrature. That means that the C/A code modu
lation on the LI carrier is phase shifted 90° from the P code modulation on the
same carrier.
PSEUDORANGING
Strictly speaking, a pseudorange observable is based on a time shift. This time
shift can be symbolized by di, d tau, and is the time elapsed between the instant a
GPS signal leaves a satellite and the instant it arrives at a receiver. The concept
can be illustrated by the process of setting a watch from a time signal heard over a
telephone.
Propagation Delay
Imagine that a recorded voice said, “The time at the tone is 3 hours and 59
minutes.” If a watch was set at the instant the tone was heard, the watch would be
wrong. Supposing that the moment the tone was broadcast was indeed 3 hours
and 59 minutes; the moment the tone is heard must be a bit later. It is later be
cause of the time it took the tone to travel through the telephone lines from the
point of broadcast to the point of reception. This elapsed time would be approxi
mately equal to the length of the circuitry traveled by the tone divided by the
speed of the electricity, which is the same as the speed of all electromagnetic en
ergy, including light and radio signals. In fact, it is possible to imagine measuring
the actual length of that circuitry by doing the division.
In GPS, that elapsed time is known as the propagation delay and it is used to
measure length. The measurement is accomplished by a combination of codes.
The idea is somewhat similar to the strategy used in EDMs. But where an EDM
generates an internal replica of its modulated carrier wave to correlate with the
signal it receives by reflection, a pseudorange is measured by a GPS receiver using
a replica of the code that has been impressed on the modulated carrier wave. The
GPS receiver generates this replica itself to compare w ith the code it receives from
the satellite.
Code Correlation
To conceptualize the process, one can imagine two codes generated at precisely
the same time and identical in every regard: one in the satellite and one in the
18 GPS fo r L and Surveyors
receiver. The satellite sends its code to the receiver but on its arrival, the two
codes don’t line up. The codes are identical but they don’t correlate until the rep
lica code in the receiver is time shifted.
Then the receiver generated replica code is shifted relative to the received satel
lite code. It is this time shift that reveals the propagation delay, the time it took the
signal to make the trip from the satellite to the receiver, dx. It is the same idea
described above as the time it took the tone to travel through the telephone lines,
except the GPS code is traveling through space and atmosphere. Once the time
shift is accomplished, the two codes match perfectly and the time the satellite
signal spent in transit has been measured; well, almost.
It would be wonderful if that time shift could simply be divided by the speed of
light and yield the true distance between the satellite and the receiver at that
instant, and it is close. But there are physical limitations on the process that pre
vent such a perfect relationship. More about that later.
Autocorrelation
Actually lining up the code from the satellite with the replica in the GPS re
ceiver is called autocorrelation, and depends on the transformation of code chips
into code states. The formula used to derive code states (+ 1 and -1) from code
chips (0 and 1) is:
code state = 1 - 2x
where x is the code chip value. For example, a normal code state is + 1, and corre
sponds to a code chip value of 0. A mirror code state is -1, and corresponds to a
code chip value of 1.
The function of these code states can be illustrated by asking two questions:
First, if a tracking loop of 10 code states generated in a receiver does not match
10 code states received from the satellite, how does the receiver know? In that
case, the sum of the products of each of the receiver’s 10 code states, with each of
the 10 from the satellite, when divided by 10, does not equal 1.
Secondly, how does the receiver know when a tracking loop of 10 replica code
states does match 10 code states from the satellite? In that case, the sum of the
products of each code state of the receiver’s replica 10, with each of the 10 from
the satellite, divided by 10, is exactly 1.
The autocorrelation function is:
I t 1 N
In Figure 1.8, before the code from the satellite and the replica from the receiver
are matched:
+1 +1 +1 + 1 +1 +1 +1 + 1-
J U T - T L , -i
Satellite
C /A C ode © ; : + 11 +1 +1 +1
Time Shift
for
_ri Correlation C od e States
(+1 a n d - I)
Receiver ^
Replica » X-iX +i x -i x +ix -i
x +i x -i x -ix +ix +i
-I +1 -I -I +1 +1 -I -I -I +1
l/ | 0 ( + | +1 +1 -I -I + 1 +1 +1 -I +l)= + 0 . 40
+1 +1 +1 + i +i +i +i +i
-d T L A iT L rLiTLiP*
Satellite
C /A C ode
: i + 11 : + 1: + 1: +1
Correlation !
u r t m
Receiver Replica
n x
-I x +1x -Ix -Ix +1x +1x -Ix x-I x-I +1
-I +1 -I -I +1
^/|q(+I +1+1 +1 +1 +1+1 +1 +1 +1)—+1.0
1 10 1
— ' L X i * X i = — (+1 + 1+1 -1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1 +1) = 40.40
lo ^ti ic r ’
1 10 1
— I X *X = —(+1 + 1+1+1 +1+1 +1 +1 +1 +1) = +1.0
10 1 ' 10l ’
the sum of the code states is exactly 1, and the receiver’s replica code fits the code
from the satellite like a key fits a lock.
Imperfect Oscillators
One reason the time shift, dx, found in autocorrelation cannot quite reveal the
true range, p, of the satellite at a particular instant is the lack of perfect synchro
nization between the clock in the satellite and the clock in the receiver. Please
recall that the two compared codes are generated directly from the fundamental
rate, F0, of those clocks. And since these widely separated clocks, one on earth and
one in space, cannot be in perfect lockstep with one another the codes they gener
ate cannot be in perfect synch either. Therefore, a small part of the observed time
shift, dx, must always be due to the disagreement between these two clocks. In
other words, the time shift not only contains the signal’s transit time from the
satellite to the receiver, it contains clock errors too.
In fact, whenever satellite clocks and receiver clocks are checked against the
carefully controlled GPS time they are found to be drifting a bit. Their oscillators
are imperfect. It is not surprising that they are not quite as stable as the more than
150 atomic clocks around the world that are used to define the rate of GPS time.
They are subject to the destabilizing effects of temperature, acceleration, radia
tion, and other inconsistencies. As a result, there are two clock offsets that bias
every satellite to receiver pseudorange observable. That is one reason it is called a
pseudorange.
The GPS Signal 21
A Pseudorange Equation
Clock offsets are only one of the errors in pseudoranges. Their relationship can
he illustrated by the following equation (Langley, 1993):
p = p + c ( d t - d T ) + dion + dtrop + ep
Please note that the pseudorange, p, and the true range, p, cannot be made
equivalent, without consideration of clock offsets, atmospheric effects, and other
biases that are inevitably present.
This discussion of time can make it easy to lose sight of the real objective,
which is the position of the receiver. Obviously, if the coordinates of the satellite
and the coordinates of the receiver were known perfectly, then it would be a
simple matter to determine time shift dx or find the true range p between them.
In fact, receivers placed at known coordinated positions can establish time so
precisely they are used to monitor atomic clocks around the world. Several receiv
ers simultaneously tracking the same satellites can achieve resolutions of 10 nano
seconds or better. Also, receivers placed at known positions can be used as base
stations to establish the relative position of receivers at unknown stations, a fun
damental principle of most GPS surveying.
It can be useful to imagine the true range term p, also known as the geometric
range, actually includes the coordinates of both the satellite and the receiver. How
ever, they are hidden within the measured value, the pseudorange, p, and all of the
other terms on the right side of the equation. The objective then is to mathemati
cally separate and quantify these biases so that the receiver coordinates can be
revealed. Clearly, any deficiency in describing, or modeling, the biases will degrade
the quality of the final determination of the receiver’s position (see Figure 1.9).
X= 0.19m
The L2-1227.60 MHz frequency carrier transmitted by GPS satellites has a wave
length of approximately 24 cm.
^ _ 300xlQ6 mps
~~ 1227.60x 106 Hz
X= 0.24 m
the standard positioning service available through the C/A code. Since carrier
phase observations do not use codes, they were never affected by SA. Now that
SA has been turned off, the point is moot, unless SA should be reinstituted.
Understanding carrier phase is perhaps a bit more difficult than the pseudorange,
but the basis of the measurements has some similarities. For example, the founda
tion of a pseudorange measurement is the correlation of the codes received from a
GPS satellite with replicas of those codes generated w ithin the receiver. The foun
dation of the carrier phase measurement is the combination of the unmodulated
carrier itself received from a GPS satellite with a replica of that carrier generated
within the receiver.
Phase Difference
A few similarities can also be found between a carrier phase observation and a
distance measurement by an EDM. As mentioned earlier, an EDM sends a modu
lated carrier wave to the reflector, and generates an identical internal reference.
When the external beam returns from the reflector, it is compared with the refer
ence wave. The difference in phase between the two reveals the fractional part of
the measurement, even though the number of complete cycles between the EDM
and the reflector may not be immediately apparent until modulated carriers of
longer wavelengths are used.
Likewise, it is the phase difference between the incoming signal and the inter
nal reference that reveals the fractional part of the carrier phase measurement in
GPS. The incoming signal is from a satellite rather than a reflector of course, but
like an EDM measurement, the internal reference is derived from the receiver’s
oscillator and the number of complete cycles is not immediately known.
Beat
The carrier phase observable is sometimes called the reconstructed carrier phase
or carrier beat phase observable. In this context, a beat is the pulsation resulting
from the combination of two waves with different frequencies (Figure 1.10). An
analogous situation occurs when two musical notes of different pitch are sounded
at the same time. Their two frequencies combine and create a third note, called
the beat. Musicians can tune their instruments by listening for the beat that oc
curs when two pitches differ slightly. This third pulsation may have a frequency
equal to the difference or the sum of the two original frequencies.
The beat phenomenon is by no means unique to musical notes. It can occur
when any pair of oscillations with different frequencies are combined. In GPS a
beat is created when a carrier generated in a GPS receiver and a carrier received
from a satellite are combined. At first, that might not seem sensible.
How could a beat be created by combining two absolutely identical unmodulated
carriers? There should be no difference in frequency between an LI carrier gener
ated in a satellite and an LI carrier generated in a receiver. They both should have
a frequency of 1575.42 MHz. If there is no difference in the frequencies, how can
The GPS Signal 25
there be a beat? But there is a slight difference between the two carriers. Some
thing happens to the frequency of the carrier on its trip from a GPS satellite to a
receiver. Its frequency changes. The phenomenon is described as the Doppler
effect.
across its stern. The waves themselves have not changed; their frequency is con
stant. But to the observer on the ship their frequency seems to depend on his
motion.
= {t)~$r {T)
where <\)s(t) is the phase of the carrier broadcast from the satellite s at time t. Please
note that the frequency of this carrier is the same, nominally constant frequency,
that is generated by the receiver’s oscillator, c\>r[T) is its phase when it reaches the
receiver r at time T.
A description of the use of the carrier phase observable to measure range can
start with the same basis as the calculation of the pseudorange, travel time. The
time elapsed between the moment the signal is broadcast, t, and the moment it is
received, T, multiplied by the speed of light, c, will yield the range between the
satellite and receiver, p:
(T-t)c ~ p
left a satellite at 00 hr 00 min 00.000 sec, and arrived at the receiver 67 millisec
onds later.
{T-t)c~ p
(0.067)300,000 k m / s ~ p
20,100 km = p
This estimate indicates that if the carrier broadcast from the satellite reaches
the receiver 67 milliseconds later, the range between them is approximately 20,100
km.
Carrying this example a bit farther, the wavelength, X, of the LI carrier can be
calculated by dividing the speed of light, c, by the LI frequency, f:
300,000,000 m /s
~~ 1,575,420,000 Hz
X = 0.1904254104 m
20,100,000 m
0.1904254104 m
The 20,100 km range implies that the LI carrier would cycle through approxi
mately 105,553,140 wavelengths on its trip from the satellite to the receiver.
28 GPS for Land Surveyors
Of course, these relationships are much simplified. However, they can be made
fundamentally correct hy recognizing that ranging with the carrier phase observ
able is subject to all of the same biases and errors as the pseudorange. For ex
ample, terms such as the receiver clock offset maybe incorporated, again symbolized
by dT as it was in the pseudorange equation. The imperfect satellite clock can he
included, its error is symbolized by dt. The tropospheric delay dttop, the ionospheric
delay dion, and multipath-receiver noise e^, are also added to the range measure
ment. The ionospheric delay will be negative here; more about that later. With
these changes the simplified travel time equation can be made a bit more realistic.
This, more realistic, equation can be rearranged to isolate the elapsed time (T - t)
on one side, hy dividing both sides by c, and then moving the clock errors to the
right side (Wells et al., 1986).
[(T + d T ) - ( t + dt)] = p - L n + L o p + H
(T - t + dT - d t ) = P- ~ di- +
- dc ~°p- +-^ -
( T - t +DT-dt) = - --- +
- d—p— L t + <dt _ dT)
c
T _ t = A t _ d T + p - d>™+dtr°p+e*
c
This expression now relates the travel time to the range. However, in fact, a
carrier phase observation cannot rely on the travel time, for two reasons. First, in
a carrier phase observation the receiver has no codes with which to tag any par
ticular instant on the incoming continuous carrier wave. Second, since the re
ceiver cannot distinguish one cycle of the carrier from any other, it has no way of
knowing the initial phase of the signal when it left the satellite. In other words,
the receiver cannot know the travel time and, therefore, it is hard to see how it
can determine the number of complete cycles between the satellite and itself. This
unknown quantity is called the cycle ambiguity.
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