Treaties and Convention
UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme
An agency of UN and coordinates its environmental activities, assisting developing
countries in implementing environmentally sound policies. Started in 1972.
Headquarter- Nairobi, Kenya
Members – 193 countries
IPCC- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Formed by UNEP and World Meteorological Organisation is a scientific and
intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations, with HQ at
Geneva.
Members - 195 countries
UNCED- United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development
It is also called the Rio Earth Summit 1992. It led to Agenda 21 dealing with
sustainable development in 21st century and two legally binding agreements-
UNFCCC and the CBD.
UNFCCC- United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change.
The objective of UNFCCC is to "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference
with the climate system”. The framework sets non-binding limits on greenhouse
gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms.
Instead, the framework outlines how specific international treaties (called
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"protocols" or "Agreements") may be negotiated to specify further action towards
the objective of the UNFCCC.
The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the
Parties (COP) to assess progress in dealing with climate change.
Kyoto Protocol
It was concluded in 1997 and established legally binding obligations for developed
countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012. The
protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan. Owing to a complex ratification process, it
entered into force on 16 February 2005. The expiration date of the treaty was
2012.
Members – 192 countries (ratified the Kyoto Protocol)
The Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol (2012) was adopted for a second
commitment period, starting in 2013 and lasting until 2020. As of 28 October
2020, 147 Parties deposited their instrument of acceptance for the Doha
Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, therefore, the threshold for entry into force of
the Doha Amendment was achieved. The amendment entered into force on 31
December 2020.
Paris Agreement
1. In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted, governing emission reductions
from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally
Determined Contributions. The Paris Agreement entered into force on
November 4, 2016. The Agreement aims to respond to the global climate
change threat by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2
degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the
temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius. It also talks about
adaptation measures.
Ratified countries – 195
Signatory countries – 198
2. Intended Nationally Determined Contributions- In the Paris Agreement, each
country determines, plans and regularly reports its own contribution it should
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make in order to mitigate global warming. There is no mechanism to force a
country to set a specific target by a specific date, but each target should go
beyond previously set targets.
Global Stocktake will analyse if the current targets set by countries will be
enough to keep temperature below the 2-degree Celsius target.
INDCs of INDIA:
1. To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45 percent by 2030 from 2005
level.
2. To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent
through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.
3. To achieve about 50 percent cumulative electric power installed capacity from
non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030 with the help of transfer of
technology and low-cost international finance including from Green Climate
Fund (GCF).
4. 175 GW renewable energy installed capacity by 2022, out of which 100 GW
from solar power (40GW from rooftop solar installations).
Adaptation provisions in Paris Agreement
1. To mobilize $100 billion a year in climate finance by 2020, and agreed to
continue mobilizing finance at the level of $100 billion a year until 2025.
2. Loss and damage mechanism- many of the worst effects of climate
change will be too severe or come too quickly to be avoided by adaptation
measures. The Paris Agreement specifically acknowledges the need to
address loss and damage of this kind, and aims to find appropriate
responses.
Problems with the Paris Agreement
According to UNEP the emission cut targets in November 2016 will result in
temperature rise by 3°C above pre industrial levels. It is being criticized that most
of the agreement consists of "promises" or aims and not firm commitments. US,
the biggest contributor to GHGs after China has already withdrawn itself from the
agreement.
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1. Global Environment Facility (GEF)- Established in Rio Earth Summit, 1992, to
serve as financial mechanism for CBD, UNFCCC, Stockholm Convention,
UNCCD and Minamata Convention.
2. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1993: Biodiversity conservation
treaty under UNEP. Legally binding goals. It has 196 Parties (168 Signatures)
at present.
It has under it: The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the CBD is an
international agreement on biosafety as a supplement to the CBD adopted in
2000. The Biosafety Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the
potential risks posed by genetically modified organisms resulting from modern
biotechnology and LMOs (Living Modified Organisms).
Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS)
It is a 2010 supplementary agreement to the 1992 Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD). Its aim is the implementation of one of the three objectives of the
CBD: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of
genetic resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity.
Aichi Biodiversity Targets are an outcome of the Nagoya Protocol to protect
biodiversity.
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone
Layer, 1985-
It acts as a framework for the international efforts to protect the ozone layer.
However, it does not include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs.
These are laid out in the accompanying Montreal Protocol in 1987.
1. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is an
international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the
production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion.
Phasing out of CFCs was undertaken. This protocol is legally binding on the
parties that ratified it.
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Adopted on 15 September 1987, the Protocol is to date the only UN treaty
ever that has been ratified every country on Earth - all 198 UN Member
States.
2. The Kigali Agreement of 2016 amends the 1987 Montreal Protocol and aims to
phase out 85% of Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by 2045. The Kigali Agreement
or amended Montreal Protocol for HFCs reduction will be binding on countries
from 2019. It also has provisions for penalties for non-compliance. Under it,
developed countries will also provide enhanced funding support estimated at
billions of dollars globally.
3. RAMSAR Convention, 1971- For the management and conservation of
wetlands.
Montreux Record- Under the Ramsar convention, a register of wetlands
affected adversely by human interference. Keoladeo National Park and Loktak
Lake are the two wetlands included in this register from India.
4. CITES- Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora
and fauna. 1975. Administered by UNEP.
5. IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources,
formed in 1948. It is an NGO. It publishes the Red Book- IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species, having list of near threatened, vulnerable, endangered
and critically endangered and extinct species.
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD)
It was Adopted in 1994, the UNCCD is the sole legally binding international
agreement linking environment and development to sustainable land management.
197 countries have ratified the UNCCD.
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants, 2001.
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are hazardous organic chemical
compound that is resistant to biodegradation and thus remains in the
environment for a long period of time. POPs can accumulate and pass from
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one species to the next through the food chain. Some e.g., of POPs are PCBs-
manmade chemical, DDT insecticide etc.
The Convention came into effect in May 2004.
Basel Convention on The Control of Transboundary
Movement of Hazardous Waste-
especially from developed nations to LDCs. The convention was adopted in 1989
and it came into force in 1992.
Rotterdam Convention on proper use
import and information sharing of hazardous chemicals. It has mechanism of
seeking PIC- Prior Informed Consent. It was adopted in 1998 in Rotterdam,
Netherlands. It came into effect in 2004.
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-
2030
It is an improved version of the existing Hyogo Framework, with a set of common
standards, a comprehensive framework with achievable targets, and a legally-
based instrument for disaster risk reduction. The Sendai Framework for Disaster
Risk Reduction (SFDRR) highlights the role of improved disaster resilience of
infrastructure as a cornerstone for sustainable development.
Member states also emphasized the need to tackle disaster risk reduction and
climate change adaption when setting the Sustainable Development Goals,
particularly in light of an insufficient focus on risk reduction and resilience in the
original Millennium Development Goals.
The SFDRR includes four specific targets related to loss reduction:
1. Reduce global disaster mortality;
2. Reduce the number of affected people;
3. Reduce direct disaster economic loss; and
4. Reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure.
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Target (IV) on infrastructure is an important prerequisite to achieving the other
loss reduction targets set out in the framework.
The Sendai Framework sets four specific priorities for action (procedure to
achieve the aforementioned targets):
1. Understanding disaster risk;
2. Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk;
3. Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience;
4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to "Build Back
Better" in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
Wassenaar Arrangement
The Wassenaar Arrangement was established to contribute to regional and
international security and stability by promoting transparency and greater
responsibility in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use goods and
technologies, thus preventing destabilizing accumulations.
Participating States seek, through their national policies, to ensure that
transfers of these items do not contribute to the development or enhancement
of military capabilities which undermine these goals, and are not diverted to
support such capabilities. The aim is also to prevent the acquisition of these
items by terrorists.
Every six months member countries exchange information on deliveries of
conventional arms to non-Wassenaar members.
Presently, there are 42 participating states.
India joined the group in December 2017.
Missile technology control regime
WHAT
The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) is an informal political
understanding among states that seek to limit the proliferation of missiles and
missile technology.
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The regime was formed in 1987 by the G-7 industrialized countries (Canada,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK, and the United States).
There are currently 35 countries that are members. India joined the treaty in
2016.
WHY
The MTCR was initiated by like-minded countries to address the increasing
proliferation of nuclear weapons by addressing the most destabilizing delivery
system for such weapons.
In 1992, the MTCR’s original focus on missiles for nuclear weapons delivery
was extended to a focus on the proliferation of missiles for the delivery of all
types of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD), i.e., nuclear, chemical and
biological weapons.
Such proliferation has been identified as a threat to international peace and
security.
One way to counter this threat is to maintain vigilance over the transfer of
missile equipment, material, and related technologies usable for systems
capable of delivering WMD.
TELL ME MORE
The MTCR is not a treaty and does not impose any legally binding obligations
on Partners (members).
Rather, it is an informal political understanding among states that seek to limit
the proliferation of missiles and missile technology.
The Regime places particular focus on rockets and unmanned aerial vehicles
capable of delivering a payload of at least 500 kg to a range of at least 300
km and on equipment, software, and technology for such systems.
India became its member in 2016.
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
WHAT
Date of adoption: 12 June 1968 at United Nations, New York
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Date of entry into force: 5 March 1970
Number of States Parties: 191 (those who have ratified the treaty)
India is not a member of this treaty.
The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear-Weapons, commonly known as
the Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT, is an international treaty whose objective
is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to
promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the
goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete
disarmament.
It includes three elements - 1) non-proliferation, (2) disarmament, and (3)
peaceful use of nuclear energy.
WHY
The impetus behind the NPT was concern for the safety of the world with
many nuclear weapon states. It was recognized that the cold war deterrent
relationship between just the United States and Soviet Union was fragile.
Having more nuclear-weapon states would reduce security for all, multiplying
the risks of miscalculation, accidents, unauthorized use of weapons, or from
escalation in tensions, nuclear conflict.
Moreover, the use of nuclear weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, it
has been apparent that the development of nuclear capabilities by States
could enable them to divert technology and materials for weapons purposes.
Thus, the problem of preventing such diversions became a central issue in
discussions on peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
TELL ME MORE
NPT was introduced as international law in 1970.
At that time, 5 nuclear weapon states existed- the US, Soviet Union (Russia),
UK, France and China.
Since then India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea have developed nuclear
weapons. WhileIndia, Pakistan and North Korea have openly tested and
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declared that they possess nuclear weapons, Israel has had a policy
of opacity regarding its nuclear weapons program.
A total of 191 states have joined the Treaty, thoughNorth Korea, which
acceded to the NPT in 1985 but never came into compliance, announced its
withdrawal in 2003.
FourUN member states have never joined the
NPT: India, Israel, Pakistan and South Sudan. In addition to the UN members,
North Korea (the non-UN member) has also not signed the NPT.
Nuclear weapon states in the NPT – USA, UK, France, Russia, and China
Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons
Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (first ever treaty on banning
nuclear weapons) has come into force on January 22, 2021.
The treaty was approved by UN in 2017.
Nine countries (including India) which are known or believed to possess
nuclear weapons did not join the treaty and neither did the NATO alliance.
Signatories: 93. Ratified countries: 70
Tell Me More:
The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) includes a
comprehensive set of prohibitions on participating in any nuclear weapon
activities. These include undertakings not to develop, test, produce, acquire,
possess, stockpile, use or threaten to use nuclear weapons.
The Treaty also prohibits the deployment of nuclear weapons on national
territory and should not support any State in the conduct of prohibited
activities.
The Treaty also obliges States parties to provide adequate assistance to
individuals affected by the use or testing of nuclear weapons, as well as to
take necessary and appropriate measure of environmental remediation in
areas under its jurisdiction or control contaminated as a result of activities
related to the testing or use of nuclear weapons.
Other Nuclear Treaty:
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A) Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)
o At present, Not in Force.
o Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) prohibits “any nuclear weapon test
explosion or any other nuclear explosion” anywhere in the world.
o The treaty was opened for signature in September 1996, and has been signed
by 187 nations and ratified by 178
o Three nuclear weapons-holding States - France, Russia and the United
Kingdom - have also ratified the treaty.
o The treaty cannot enter into force until it is ratified by 44 specific nations, eight
of which have yet to do so: China, India, Pakistan, North Korea, Israel, Iran, Egypt,
and the United States (all nuclear possessing nations).
Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure
WHAT
The Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) is a multi-stakeholder
global partnership of national governments, UN agencies and programmes,
multilateral development banks and financing mechanisms, the private sector,
and knowledge institutions.
CDRI was launched by the Prime Minister of India during his speech at the UN
Climate Action Summit on 23rd September 2019.
CDRI has been established to promote the resilience of new and existing
infrastructure systems to climate and disaster risks in support of sustainable
development.
CDRI deals with certain thematic areas which are:
Governance and Policy,
Risk Identification and Estimation,
Standards and Certification,
Capacity building,
Innovation & Emerging Technology,
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Recovery and Reconstruction,
Finance,
Community-based approaches.
The CDRI Secretariat is based in New Delhi, India.
Members – 40 countries and 7 organisations
WHY
Between 2016 and 2040, the global annual infrastructure investment needs
are estimated at USD 3.7 trillion per year. Thus, there is a clear case for
ensuring that all future infrastructure systems are resilient in the face of
disasters in order to protect our investments.
This will also ensure safety of human lives and mitigate the impact of
disasters.
This will help in achieving sustainable development goals better and make
infrastructure more sustainable.
TELL ME MORE
CDRI promotes rapid development of resilient infrastructure to respond to the
Sustainable Development Goals’ imperatives of expanding universal access to
basic services, enabling prosperity and decent work.
The following are CDRI’s strategic priorities:
Technical Support and Capacity-building: This includes disaster
response and recovery support; innovation, institutional and community
capacity-building assistance; and standards and certification.
Research and Knowledge Management: This includes collaborative
research; global flagship reports; and a global database of infrastructure
and sector resilience.
Advocacy and Partnerships: This includes global events and initiatives;
marketplace of knowledge financing and implementation agencies; and
dissemination of knowledge products.
A large share of the estimated fund requirements to cover the core costs over
the first five years has been invested by India. There are no obligations on the
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part of members to make financial contributions to CDRI.
However, members can make voluntary contribution at any point (during the
first five years or beyond).
Who benefits from the CDRI?
The Coalition provides a forum for countries at all stages of development, to
access knowledge and resources from other members to make their
infrastructure resilient and thus, contribute to each other’s economic growth.
1. For countries that are in the early stages of infrastructure development, the
Coalition provides access to good practices to develop appropriate standards
as well as regulatory mechanisms to manage infrastructure development in a
manner that fosters resilience.
2. For countries at an advanced stage of infrastructure development, CDRI
provides an opportunity to engage with the development of robust
infrastructure systems that are interconnected globally.
As with other nations, the challenge for them is to transform how
infrastructure is designed, constructed, operated and maintained, and develop
the financial incentives, standards, governance arrangements and capacities
that are required to facilitate the resilience of infrastructure to extreme events
and changes in future hazard patterns, while fulfilling the commitment to leave
no one behind.
International Solar Alliance
WHAT
It was launched by the Prime Minister of India and the President of France on
30th November 2015 in Paris, France, with 121 solar resource-rich countries
lying fully or partially between the tropic of Cancer and tropic of Capricorn as
prospective members.
ISA aims to collectively address key common challenges to the scaling up of
solar energy in ISA member countries.
The ISA is located at the National Institute of Solar Energy Campus in
Gurugram.
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The Government of India has allocated Rs. 160 crores for creating a corpus
fund, building infrastructure and meeting day to day recurring expenditure of
the ISA up to the year 2021-22.
International Solar Alliance (ISA) is the first treaty-based international
government organisation which is based in India.
Fact-File
Headquarters – Gurugram, Haryana
Members (as on 23.06.2023) – 99 (signed and ratified) and 119 (signatory
countries)
Director – General – Ajay Mathur
The D-G of ISA holds the office for four years.
Mathur was appointed in February 2021.
Establishment – 2015
WHY
The ISA provides a dedicated platform for cooperation among solar-resource-
rich countries, through which the global community, including governments,
bilateral and multilateral organizations, corporates, industry, and other
stakeholders, can contribute for scaling up solar energy.
ISA exists to achieve the following objectives:
To collectively address key common challenges to scale up solar energy
applications in line with their needs;
To mobilize investments of more than USD 1000 billion by 2030;
To take coordinated action through programmes and activities launched on
a voluntary basis, aimed at better harmonization, aggregation of demand,
risk and resources, for promoting solar finance, solar technologies,
innovation, R&D, capacity building etc.;
Reduce the cost of finance to increase investments in solar energy in
member countries by promoting innovative financial mechanisms and
mobilizing finance from Institutions;
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Scale up applications of solar technologies in member countries, and
Facilitate collaborative research and development (R&D) activities in
solar energy technologies among member countries.
Promote a common cyber platform for networking, cooperation and
exchange of ideas among member countries;
TELL ME MORE
The Assembly of the ISA is the apex decision-making body which comprises
of representatives from each Member Country.
The Assembly deliberates matters of substance such as the selection of the
Director General, achievement of ISA objectives, its functioning, approval of
operating budget and more.
ISA Assembly conducts its meeting annually.
First meeting of ISA was held in 2018, second was in 2019, and third was in
October 2020
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