Behavioral Sleep Medicine
ISSN: 1540-2002 (Print) 1540-2010 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hbsm20
The Interactive Effect of Positive Mental Health
and Subjective Sleep Quality on Depressive
Symptoms in High School Students
Silvia A. Tafoya & Vania Aldrete-Cortez
To cite this article: Silvia A. Tafoya & Vania Aldrete-Cortez (2018): The Interactive Effect of
Positive Mental Health and Subjective Sleep Quality on Depressive Symptoms in High School
Students, Behavioral Sleep Medicine, DOI: 10.1080/15402002.2018.1518226
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15402002.2018.1518226
Published online: 17 Sep 2018.
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BEHAVIORAL SLEEP MEDICINE
https://doi.org/10.1080/15402002.2018.1518226
The Interactive Effect of Positive Mental Health and Subjective
Sleep Quality on Depressive Symptoms in High School Students
Silvia A. Tafoyaa and Vania Aldrete-Cortezb
a
Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
School of Psychology, Universidad Panamericana, México City, México; bNeuroscience and Cognitive Developmental
Laboratory, School of Psychology, Universidad Panamericana, México City, México
ABSTRACT
Objective/Background: The objective of this study was to observe the effect of
positive mental health (PMH) and subjective sleep quality (SQ) on depressive
symptoms in high school students. Participants: This cross-sectional study
evaluated 2,186 students (55% female and 45% male) with a mean age of
16.8 years (SD ± 0.7) at 20 private high schools in Mexico City. Methods: An
electronic survey was used, which included a questionnaire on sleep habits
that is a Spanish-language adaptation of Rosenthal’s Sleep-Wake Activity
Inventory, the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), the Morningness-
Eveningness Scale for Children and Adolescents (MESC), the combined scales
to evaluate positive aspects of mental health, and the Patient Health
Questionnaire (PHQ–9). Results: Main and interaction effects of PMH and SQ
were observed, demonstrating that students with high-PMH (p ≤ .0001) or
good-SQ (p ≤ .0001) had fewer depressive symptoms. Thus, the students with
both high-PMH and good-SQ had the lowest depressive symptomatology
(p ≤ .01). Conclusion: Depressive symptoms are associated with a combination
of sleep quality and positive mental health.
Adolescence is a phase in which the physiological requirement for sleep is greater than in adulthood.
The suggested optimal sleep time for adolescents is 8–10 hr per 24-hr period on a regular basis
(Hirshkowitz et al., 2015). The importance of sleep derives from the fact that increased maturation of
the brain occurs during this period (Crowley, Acebo, & Carskadon, 2007). However, adolescents are
characterized by chronic sleep deprivation and daytime sleepiness because of social commitments,
certain behaviors that promote wakefulness, and a change in circadian rhythms to a delayed sleep
pattern and a change in the homeostatic sleep regulation system, which allow adolescents to have
greater tolerance to sleep pressure (Owens, 2014; Pagel, 2014; Tarokh, Saletin, & Carskadon, 2016).
Thus, an estimated 36% of adolescents already experience sleep disturbance. Moreover, after puberty,
the prevalence of depression exceeds 4% (Thapar, Collishaw, Pine, & Thapar, 2012). Therefore, both
depression and sleep difficulties are associated with adverse outcomes such as suicidal ideation,
school absenteeism, decreased cognitive functioning, and difficulty maintaining social relationships
(Lovato & Gradisar, 2014; Yen, King, & Tang, 2010; Zhang et al., 2017).
Various studies have explored the relationship between depression and sleep difficulties in
adolescence. For example, an association has been found between the duration of sleep and certain
disorders such as insomnia and depression (Sivertsen, Harvey, Lundervold, & Hysing, 2014). Lovato
and Gradisar (2014) suggest that sufficient evidence exists to establish directionality in this associa-
tion, such that sleep disorders act as precursors in the development of depression. Similarly, an
increase in depressive symptoms in adolescence has been found to be mediated by age-related
CONTACT Silvia A. Tafoya [email protected] Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine, UNAM,
Circuito Exterior S/N, Edif. F, Ciudad Universitaria, Copilco Universidad, Coyoacán, México City, C.P. 04510, México
© 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 S. A. TAFOYA AND V. ALDRETE–CORTEZ
changes in sleep, such as changes in the duration and quality of sleep that explain depressive
symptoms in both men and women (Raniti et al., 2017). Other researchers have observed that,
although greater stress within the family unit is linked with greater depressive symptoms and
negative affect, this relationship is stronger in adolescents with lower sleep efficiency. These authors
suggest that low sleep efficiency interferes with the restorative process of sleep that can help alleviate
the emotional consequences of daily stress (Chiang et al., 2016, 2017).
Another factor that has been implicated in not only sleep but also a broad range of health aspects is
the positive aspect of mental health (Roberts, 2008). The positive aspect of mental health has been
conceptualized in several ways: “a positive emotion (affect), such as feelings of happiness; as a
personality trait inclusive of the psychological resources of self-esteem and mastery; and as resilience,
which is the capacity to cope with adversity” (Herrman, Saxena, Moodie, & World-Health-
Organization, 2005, p. 35). This study adopts the perspective of positive mental health (PMH) as an
attribute, initially proposed by Jahoda (1958), that addresses some individual positive characteristics
such as life satisfaction, resilience, and self-concept that have been linked to sleep as well as depression.
In line with the previously mentioned research, Kelly (2004) found that individuals whose sleep is
of shorter duration report significantly lower levels of life satisfaction. Other authors found that both
positive affect and certain positive attributes that are directly associated with sound sleep mitigate the
impact of psychosocial risk factors on health outcomes (Steptoe, O’Donnell, Marmot, & Wardle,
2008). In addition, these factors are linked with low psychological distress, less social isolation,
greater emotional support, fewer negative social interactions, and less chronic stress (Steptoe et al.,
2008). Similarly, it has been suggested that greater mental toughness leads to improved sleep quality,
shorter periods of sleep latency, fewer awakenings during sleep, and longer sleep duration. An
association has also been found between better sleep and less perceived stress and depressive
symptoms (Brand et al., 2014a). One possible explanation is that positive attentional bias can be a
mechanism by which positive aspects promote well-being and reduce depression (Xu et al., 2015).
Although some studies have addressed the moderating effect of PMH on sleep and depression,
these variables have been examined independently. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to
evaluate the effect of PMH and sleep quality (SQ) on depressive symptoms. Our hypothesis is that
higher PMH indicators, in terms of resources to face the challenges of daily life, mitigate the negative
effects of low SQ on depressive symptoms in students.
Methods
Participants
The current study was approved by the Ethics Committee Panamericana University (protocol number
E1510). Students participated voluntarily and were required to complete an informed assent letter and
provide written consent by their parents or guardians. For this purpose, 2,564 high school students at 20
private high schools in Mexico City were invited to answer a survey. They were chosen based on availability.
Twenty-six students did not provide consent to participate, 332 did not fully complete the questionnaires,
and 12 were older than 20 years and hence could not be included in the study. In the end, the sample was
comprised of 2,186 participants, or 85% of the total student population. The data were gathered during the
month of January 2016 through an electronic survey distributed through Google Docs. The survey
consisted of five instruments that students were asked to answer within a time limit of 45 min.
Measures
Sleep properties
Questionnaire on sleep habits. The questionnaire on sleep habits included questions referring to
sleep habits, including sleep schedules during the week and on weekends, subjective sleep duration
(“On average, how many hours are you able to sleep?”), number of naps per day, school schedule,
BEHAVIORAL SLEEP MEDICINE 3
exercise, and consumption of substances (Valencia-Flores et al., 1998). To evaluate the last question,
students were asked to answer an item on products containing caffeine, an item on alcoholic
beverages, and an item on energy drinks. The students were asked to indicate the number of cups,
glasses, or pieces consumed per week, as appropriate. Tobacco consumption was evaluated using the
question: Have you smoked in the last 7 days? after which they were asked to indicate the total
number of cigarettes consumed. For medications, they were asked to list the names of those they had
consumed in the last seven days. Finally, exercise was quantified when respondents responded
affirmatively to the question: Do you regularly perform any type of physical exercise? after which
they were asked how many days they did so.
Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). The PSQI provides a global score of SQ and partial scores in
seven components. The global score ranges from 0 (no difficulty) to 21 (difficulty in all areas), with a
cutoff point of 5 to differentiate between good and poor SQ. This study used the version of the PSQI
that was used among university students in Mexico City, with a reliability of α = .79, and the scale
correlated with the Athens Insomnia Scale (r = .71, p ≤ .0001) and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale
(r = .47, p ≤ .0001; Tafoya, 2014).
Morningness-Eveningness Scale for Children and Adolescents (MESC). This instrument consists of
10 questions that evaluate the preferred schedule for performing various activities, such as a test or sports
practice or the ideal time to retire to bed and rise, among others. Each item included 4 or 5 answer
choices, with scores ranging from 10 (eveningness) to 43 (morningness). The scale has been adapted and
validated in Spanish among high school students, with a reliability of α = .82 (Díaz–Morales, Dávila, &
Gutiérrez, 2007).
Positive mental health
PMH was determined through the sum of the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS), AC-2 Self-
Concept Scale, and Brief Resilience Scale (BRS). The psychometric characteristics of these scales were
evaluated among Mexican university students, demonstrating an internal consistency of α = .81,
α = .83, and α = .77, respectively, and divergent validity with respect to the Symptom Check List 90
(SCL–90), with correlations of r = –.50, r = –.63, and r = –.40, respectively (Fouilloux, 2013). These
scales use a Likert-type scale that ranges from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The sum of the
three scales constituted the total PMH, with higher scores representing more positive mental health
indicators. Based on the sum of the three scores, groups with high and low PMH were created, using
the median value as the cutoff point (a score ≥ 54 indicated high PMH, and a score ≤ 53 indicated
low PMH).
Depressive symptoms
Patient health questionnaire (PHQ–9). This instrument is a self-report questionnaire with nine items
that examine the presence and extent of depressive symptoms rated on a scale from not at all to almost every
day, plus an additional item that examines the impact of depression on the patient’s general functioning.
This questionnaire has been widely used among the Spanish-speaking population and medical students in
Mexico City, among whom it exhibited a reliability of α = .89 (Romo-Nava et al., 2016).
Statistical analyses
The characteristics of the population were compared between groups based on SQ (poor vs. good)
and PMH (high vs. low). A chi-squared test was utilized for the qualitative variables, and a t-test was
utilized for the quantitative variables. The effect size, Cohen’s d, was included in the latter analysis.
For the main study, a two-way ANOVA was conducted, using SQ and PMH as independent
variables and the depression score as the dependent variable, with post-hoc comparisons using the
Bonferroni correction. Finally, a multiple linear regression test with backward method was used to
4 S. A. TAFOYA AND V. ALDRETE–CORTEZ
evaluate the effects of global-SQ, total-PMH, morningness-eveningness, sex, and selected habits on
depression symptoms; and the normality of the residuals, their independence, homoscedasticity, and
linearity were evaluated. All analyses were performed with the IBM Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) Version 23, and the significance level was set to p < .05 (SPSS Inc., 2014).
Results
In total, 2,186 high school students in Mexico City participated in the study. The students had an
exclusively morning school schedule (7:00 a.m.–2:00 p.m.). Their average age was 16.8 (SD ± 1.0) years;
55% of the students were female, and 45% were male. The students indicated that they slept an average
of 6.7 hr (SD ± 1.6) on school days and 8.9 hr (SD ± 1.7) on nonschool days. Thus, on school days, 175
(8%) reported going to bed before 10:00 p.m., 765 (35%) at approximately 10:00 p.m., 853 (52%)
between 11:00 p.m. and 12:00 a.m., and 393 (18%) after midnight. The majority—1,618 (74%)—had to
wake up around 6:00 a.m. to go to school.
Of the participants, 1,279 (58%) were classified as having poor-SQ, and 907 (41%) were classified as
having a good-SQ; 1,048 (48%) had low-PMH, and 1,138 (52%) had high-PMH. Most students with
poor-SQ were female (58%), p ≤ .0001. This group had relatively fewer days of exercise, p ≤ .05, and a
slightly higher consumption of substances, namely, energy drinks, alcoholic beverages, and tobacco, each
p ≤ .05; all of these differences had a small effect size. Additionally, this group reported a shorter
subjective sleep duration during the week, p ≤ .0001; a lower morningness-eveningness score (indicating
a tendency toward eveningness), p ≤ .0001; a lower total-PMH score, p ≤ .0001; and greater depressive
symptoms, p ≤ .0001; all of these characteristics had a moderate effect size. Students with low-PMH were
also predominantly female (59%), p ≤ .0001. They had fewer days of exercise, p ≤ .0001, with a small effect
size; a lower morningness-eveningness score, p ≤ .0001, with a small to moderate effect size; and greater
depressive symptoms, p ≤ .0001, with a large effect size (see Table 1).
Upon combining the groups, 745 (34%) students had poor-SQ with low-PMH, 534 (24%) had poor-
SQ with high-PMH, 303 (14%) had good-SQ with low-PMH, and 604 (28%) had good-SQ with high-
PMH. The evaluation of the effect of PMH and SQ on depressive symptoms demonstrated that students
with either high-PMH, F(1, 2182) = 243.91, p ≤ .0001, or good-SQ, F(1, 2182) = 388.13, p ≤ .0001, experienced
fewer depressive symptoms. Similarly, the analysis showed that students with high-PMH and good-SQ
exhibited the least depressive symptoms, F(1, 2182) = 9.67, p ≤ .01 (see Figure 1).
Finally, the multiple linear regression with a 5-step model showed that the global-SQ, total-PMH,
morningness-eveningness, and consumption of energy drinks were the factors that most explained
depression, R2adjusted = .45, F(4, 2056) = 423.07, p ≤ .0001 (see Table 2), whereas the insignificant
factors were caffeine, tobacco, and alcohol consumption, sex, and exercise.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of PMH and SQ on depressive symptoms. The
hypothesis that higher PMH indicators in students will attenuate the negative effects of low sleep
quality on said symptoms was supported, and an enhancing effect of the combination of PMH and
sleep quality was observed. To our knowledge, this study is the first to evaluate the impact of this
interaction on depressive symptoms.
On the one hand, adolescents in general reported sleeping for less time than recommended for their
age, thus contributing to lower sleep quality. Accordingly, students classified as having poor-SQ (more
frequent among females) had greater depressive symptoms, which is consistent with past literature
reports about sleep disturbances (disorders, duration, and quality) being associated with depression
(Lovato & Gradisar, 2014; Raniti et al., 2017; Sivertsen et al., 2014). The explanation for this phenom-
enon suggests that depressive symptoms during adolescence are partly mediated by developmental
changes related to sleep such as a delayed sleep phase and an altered homeostatic regulation system
(Raniti et al., 2017). It has been argued that greater latency in falling asleep without auditory or visual
Table 1. Population characteristics based on the groups of sleep quality and positive mental health.
Sleep quality Positive mental health
Poor Good t or χ2 Cohen’s d Low High t or χ2 Cohen’s d Total
a
Sex 533 (42) 455 (50) 15.45** - 426 (41) 562 (49) 16.81** - 988 (45)
Male 746 (58) 452 (50) 622 (59) 576 (51) 1198 (55)
Female
Ageb (years) 16.8 (1.0) 16.7 (1.0) 0.80 0.10 16.7 (1.0) 16.8 (1.1) –2.40* –0.09 16.8 (1.0)
Exerciseb (days/week) 2.6 (1.0) 2.8 (1.0) –2.95* –0.19 2.6 (1.1) 2.8 (1.0) –4.24** –0.19 2.7 (1.0)
Subjective sleep hours per dayb (weekdays) 6.3 (1.5) 7.2 (1.5) –14.85** –0.60 6.6 (1.7) 6.7 (1.5) –1.79 –0.06 6.7 (1.6)
Subjective sleep hours per dayb (weekend) 8.8 (1.7) 9.0 (1.6) –3.49** –0.12 8.8 (1.7) 8.9 (1.7) –0.96 –0.06 8.9 (1.7)
Energy drinksb (glasses/week) 0.3 (1.5) 0.2 (1.0) 2.10* 0.08 0.3 (1.5) 0.3 (1.1) 0.89 0.00 0.3 (1.3)
Caffeine intakeb (cups/week) 10.7 (7.2) 10.1 (6.8) 1.87 0.09 10.3 (7.5) 10.5 (6.6) –0.53 –0.03 10.4 (7.1)
Alcoholic beveragesb (glasses/week) 1.6 (2.2) 1.3 (1.9) 3.14* 0.15 1.4 (2.1) 1.5 (2.1) –1.44 –0.05 1.4 (2.1)
Tobaccob (cigarettes/week) 0.7 (1.5) 0.6 (1.4) 2.06* 0.07 0.7 (1.5) 0.6 (1.4) 1.01 0.07 0.7 (1.5)
Morningness-Eveningnessb (score) 27.7 (4.2) 29.6 (3.8) –11.38** –0.47 27.9 (4.1) 29.0 (4.0) –6.06** –0.27 28.5 (4.1)
Total Positive Mental Healthb (score) 50.2 (12.1) 57.1 (10.6) –14.10** –0.60 - - - 53.1 (12.0)
Global Subjective Quality of Sleepb (score) - - - 7.0 (2.7) 5.6 (2.4) 12.91** 0.55 6.28 (2.64)
Depressive symptomsb (score) 8.5 (5.3) 4.6 (3.8) 20.23** 0.85 9.3 (5.4) 4.6 (3.5) 23.68** 1.04 6.9 (5.1)
Note. aThe values are expressed as a frequency (%) with a chi-square as the statistical comparison. bThe values represent means (standard deviations), a t-test as statistical comparison, and a
Cohen’s d as a measure of effect size. Higher scores for Morning-Eveningness indicate a tendency toward morningness, higher scores for total PMH indicate better mental health, higher scores
for Global Subjective Quality indicate worst subjective sleep quality, and higher scores for depressive symptoms indicate worse mood. *p ≤ .05, **p ≤ .0001.
BEHAVIORAL SLEEP MEDICINE
5
6 S. A. TAFOYA AND V. ALDRETE–CORTEZ
Sleep Quality
Poor
Good
*
20 *
*
Score of depressive symptoms *
15 ns
10
0
Low High
Positive Mental Health
Figure 1. Depression in the sleep quality and positive mental health interaction.
Note. The values represent means and standard deviations. Statistical comparisons were made using a two-way
ANOVA with post hoc Bonferroni correction. *p ≤ .0001; ns = not significant.
Table 2. Final model of factors associated with depressive symptoms among high school students.
Nonstandardized coefficients Standardized coefficients
B SE β t p
Global Subjective Sleep Quality (score) 0.61 0.03 0.32 –26.25 .0001
Total Positive Mental Health (score) –0.19 0.01 –0.46 18.29 .0001
Morningness-Eveningness (score) –0.06 0.02 –0.05 – 2.75 .004
Energy drinks (glasses/week) 0.33 0.06 0.08 3.85 .0001
Note. Higher scores for Subjective Quality indicate worse subjective sleep quality, higher scores for PMH indicate better mental health,
and higher scores for Morning-Eveningness indicate a tendency towards morningness. R2 adjusted = 0.45, F(4, 2056) = 423.07, p ≤ .0001.
stimuli is the most consistent indicator for the development of depression in adolescents. This suggests
that these factors promote the intrusion of dysfunctional thoughts regarding sleep and disordered
cognitive thoughts, leading to greater difficulty falling asleep and, consequently, lower sleep duration
(Brand et al., 2014a; Lovato & Gradisar, 2014). Such thoughts are typically repetitive, ruminative, and
depressive and thus perpetuate the difficulty of falling asleep (Lovato & Gradisar, 2014).
On the other hand, low-PMH was associated with greater depressive symptoms and worse global-
SQ but not with assessments of shorter sleep duration. Studies suggest that subjects with high PMH
elements report better sleep quality, fewer awakenings, shorter sleep onset latency, longer sleep
duration (Brand et al., 2014b; Kelly, 2004; Steptoe et al., 2008), and fewer symptoms of depression
(Brand et al., 2014a; Samaranayake, Arroll, & Fernando, 2014; Xu et al., 2015). Thus, we speculate that
the lack of association with duration may be a consequence of the type of measurement (subjective).
Likewise, although no specific elements of mental health have been clearly linked to depression or sleep
problems, several aspects of PMH have been examined, including life satisfaction (Samaranayake et al.,
2014), tenacity broadly related to resilience (Brand et al., 2014a), and self-concept (McNamara,
Auerbach, Johnson, Harris, & Doros, 2010), all of which were evaluated in this study.
Therefore, this study observed a beneficial or detrimental enhancing influence of the combination
of sleep quality and PMH on depressive symptoms. A possible explanation for this phenomenon
BEHAVIORAL SLEEP MEDICINE 7
could be, first, that the elements of PMH, such as positive affect, have a stress-reducing effect on
adolescents (Fredrickson, Mancuso, Branigan, & Tugade, 2000; Steptoe et al., 2008), which likely
affects sleep quality. Second, sleep quality can influence reactivity to daily stress, which allows for the
deployment of elements of PMH and the reduction of hyperarousal and dysfunctional thoughts and
can therefore modify the development of depression (Brand et al., 2014a, 2014b; Parrino & Vaudano,
2018). That is, adolescents with inefficient sleep present greater cortisol responses in the face of
family demands (Chiang et al., 2016), which in turn interrupt emotional regulation and increase
negative affect and the risk of depression (Chiang et al., 2017). Thus, we suggest that these subjects
have higher levels of PMH to help them mitigate this relationship.
Additionally, with respect to the relationship between SQ and PMH and depressive symptoms,
the contribution of various factors affecting sleep should be considered, as this relationship may be
associated with an increase in depressive symptoms such as chronotype, consumption of energy
drinks, exercise, and consumption of caffeinated beverages, tobacco, and alcohol. Our analysis
demonstrated that the factors associated most strongly with increased depressive symptoms were
SQ and PHM. To a lesser extent, so, too, were morningness-eveningness and the consumption of
energy drinks. A reciprocal influence has been reported between circadian factors and depression
(Haraden, Mullin, & Hankin, 2017; Short, Gradisar, Lack, & Wright, 2013). On the one hand,
depression seems to predict preference for eveningness and vice versa, and, on the other hand, the
preference for eveningness affects sleep quality (Short et al., 2013). Some external markers that
contribute to the adjustment of circadian rhythms are fluctuations in light, physical activity, and
social interaction, such that a subject who has depression can reduce exposure to these external
markers, making it difficult to adjust his or her circadian rhythms (Haraden et al., 2017). Although
the consumption of energy drinks is used to delay sleep or palliate the consequences of a lack of sleep
(Owens, 2014), it has also been associated with the presence of depression (Park, Lee, & Lee, 2016) or
as a way to mitigate its symptoms (Owens, 2014). However, these results should be considered with
caution, given that our study had a small effect size in our sample. Given that the consumption of
energy drinks differed very little between the groups and contributed comparatively less to the
explanation of depressive symptoms, it merits investigation in greater detail.
This study has a few limitations. The most important is the lack of an objective measure of sleep
disturbance, and the findings are based on self-reports. In addition, the study’s cross-sectional design
limits the ability to determine the direction and the order of the contribution of each variable.
Among the study’s strengths are its large sample size and the use of valid and reliable instruments for
this population that, despite not being objective measures, offer relevant information concerning the
relationship of the variables explored, as well as the study of the three elements of PMH that are
generally studied independently.
This study supports the idea of the protective effect of PMH on physical and mental health. The
factors of PMH evaluated can be considered protective factors against depression and enhancers of
sleep quality. Vázquez, Hervás, and Ho (2006) state that the elements of PMH can favor the adaptive
repertories that can improve the functioning of adolescents. To this observation, we add that the
combination of PMH and SQ can promote adequate functioning among students.
In conclusion, our study demonstrates that a combination of greater PMH and good-SQ can
mitigate depressive symptoms in high school students. Previous studies have revealed an indepen-
dent association between SQ and PMH and depression; however, the joint evaluation of these
variables could allow for improved prediction of depression among high school students.
Acknowledgments
To Jenyfer Palencia-Sierra, Fernanda Talayero-García and Tania García-Corona, for her support in conducting the study.
8 S. A. TAFOYA AND V. ALDRETE–CORTEZ
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