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CHAPTER 7

Q 3,163,000 J
t  ·   5185 s  1 h 26 min
Q ave 610 J/s

Discussion The time of cooling could also be determined more accurately us-
ing the transient temperature charts or relations introduced in Chapter 4. But
the simplifying assumptions we made above can be justified if all we need is a
ballpark value. It will be naive to expect the time of cooling to be exactly 1 h 26
min, but, using our engineering judgment, it is realistic to expect the time of
cooling to be somewhere between one and two hours.
Flow
direction
↑


7–4 ■
FLOW ACROSS TUBE BANKS
Cross-flow over tube banks is commonly encountered in practice in heat
transfer equipment such as the condensers and evaporators of power plants,
refrigerators, and air conditioners. In such equipment, one fluid moves
through the tubes while the other moves over the tubes in a perpendicular
direction.
In a heat exchanger that involves a tube bank, the tubes are usually placed
in a shell (and thus the name shell-and-tube heat exchanger), especially when
the fluid is a liquid, and the fluid flows through the space between the tubes
and the shell. There are numerous types of shell-and-tube heat exchangers,
some of which are considered in Chap. 13. In this section we will consider the
general aspects of flow over a tube bank, and try to develop a better and more
intuitive understanding of the performance of heat exchangers involving a
tube bank.
Flow through the tubes can be analyzed by considering flow through a sin-
gle tube, and multiplying the results by the number of tubes. This is not the
case for flow over the tubes, however, since the tubes affect the flow pattern
and turbulence level downstream, and thus heat transfer to or from them, as
shown in Figure 7–25. Therefore, when analyzing heat transfer from a tube
bank in cross flow, we must consider all the tubes in the bundle at once.
The tubes in a tube bank are usually arranged either in-line or staggered in
the direction of flow, as shown in Figure 7–26. The outer tube diameter D is
taken as the characteristic length. The arrangement of the tubes in the tube
bank is characterized by the transverse pitch ST, longitudinal pitch SL , and the
diagonal pitch SD between tube centers. The diagonal pitch is determined from
SD  S 2L  (S T /2) 2 (7-38)

As the fluid enters the tube bank, the flow area decreases from A1  STL to
AT  (ST  D)L between the tubes, and thus flow velocity increases. In staggered
arrangement, the velocity may increase further in the diagonal region if the
tube rows are very close to each other. In tube banks, the flow characteristics
are dominated by the maximum velocitiy max that occurs within the tube
bank rather than the approach velocity . Therefore, the Reynolds number is
FIGURE 7-25
defined on the basis of maximum velocity as
Flow patterns for staggered and
max D max D in-line tube banks (photos by
ReD     (7-39) R. D. Willis, Ref 12).
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HEAT TRANSFER

SL The maximum velocity is determined from the conservation of mass re-

, T1
quirement for steady incompressible flow. For in-line arrangement, the maxi-
mum velocity occurs at the minimum flow area between the tubes, and the
ST conservation of mass can be expressed as (see Fig. 7-26a)   A1   maxAT
D or ST  max(ST  D). Then the maximum velocity becomes
A1 AT ST
max   (7-40)
ST  D

1st row 2nd row 3rd row In staggered arrangement, the fluid approaching through area A1 in Fig-
ure 7–26b passes through area AT and then through area 2AD as it wraps
(a) In-line around the pipe in the next row. If 2AD  AT, maximum velocity will still oc-
cur at AT between the tubes, and thus the max relation Eq. 7-40 can also be
used for staggered tube banks. But if 2AD  [or, if 2(SD  D) (ST  D)],
SL
, T1 SD maximum velocity will occur at the diagonal cross sections, and the maximum
velocity in this case becomes
ST
Staggered and SD (ST  D)/2: max   (7-41)
ST D 2(SD  D)
AD since  A1  max(2AD) or ST  2max(SD  D).
A1 AT
AD
The nature of flow around a tube in the first row resembles flow over a sin-
gle tube discussed in section 7–3, especially when the tubes are not too close
to each other. Therefore, each tube in a tube bank that consists of a single
A1 = ST L
transverse row can be treated as a single tube in cross-flow. The nature of flow
AT = (ST D)L (b) Staggered around a tube in the second and subsequent rows is very different, however,
AD = (SD D)L because of wakes formed and the turbulence caused by the tubes upstream.
The level of turbulence, and thus the heat transfer coefficient, increases with
FIGURE 7–26 row number because of the combined effects of upstream rows. But there is no
Arrangement of the tubes in in-line significant change in turbulence level after the first few rows, and thus the
and staggered tube banks (A1, AT, and heat transfer coefficient remains constant.
AD are flow areas at indicated Flow through tube banks is studied experimentally since it is too complex
locations, and L is the length of the to be treated analytically. We are primarily interested in the average heat trans-
tubes).
fer coefficient for the entire tube bank, which depends on the number of tube
rows along the flow as well as the arrangement and the size of the tubes.
Several correlations, all based on experimental data, have been proposed for
the average Nusselt number for cross flow over tube banks. More recently,
Zukauskas has proposed correlations whose general form is
hD
Nu D   C Re mD Pr n(Pr/Prs) 0.25 (7-42)
k

where the values of the constants C, m, and n depend on value Reynolds num-
ber. Such correlations are given in Table 7–2 explicitly for 0.7 Pr 500 and
0 ReD 2 106. The uncertainty in the values of Nusselt number obtained
from these relations is 15 percent. Note that all properties except Prs are to
be evaluated at the arithmetic mean temperature of the fluid determined from
Ti  Te
Tm  (7-43)
2

where Ti and Te are the fluid temperatures at the inlet and the exit of the tube
bank, respectively.
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CHAPTER 7

TABLE 7–2
Nusselt number correlations for cross flow over tube banks for N  16 and
0.7 Pr 500 (from Zukauskas, Ref. 15, 1987)*
Arrangement Range of ReD Correlation
0–100 NuD  0.9 Re D0.4Pr 0.36(Pr/Prs )0.25
100–1000 NuD  0.52 Re D0.5Pr 0.36(Pr/Prs )0.25
In-line
1000–2 10 5
NuD  0.27 Re D0.63Pr 0.36(Pr/Prs )0.25
2 105–2 106 NuD  0.033 Re D0.8Pr 0.4(Pr/Prs )0.25
0–500 NuD  1.04 Re D0.4Pr 0.36(Pr/Prs )0.25
500–1000 NuD  0.71 Re D0.5Pr 0.36(Pr/Prs )0.25
Staggered
1000–2 10 5
NuD  0.35(ST /SL)0.2 Re D0.6Pr 0.36(Pr/Prs )0.25
2 105–2 106 NuD  0.031(ST /SL)0.2 Re D0.8Pr 0.36(Pr/Prs )0.25
*All properties except Prs are to be evaluated at the arithmetic mean of the inlet and outlet temperatures
of the fluid (Prs is to be evaluated at Ts ).

The average Nusselt number relations in Table 7–2 are for tube banks with
16 or more rows. Those relations can also be used for tube banks with NL pro-
vided that they are modified as
NuD, NL  F NuD (7-44)

where F is a correction factor F whose values are given in Table 7–3. For
ReD  1000, the correction factor is independent of Reynolds number.
Once the Nusselt number and thus the average heat transfer coefficient for
the entire tube bank is known, the heat transfer rate can be determined from
Newton’s law of cooling using a suitable temperature difference T. The first
thought that comes to mind is to use T  Ts  Tm  Ts  (Ti  Te)/2. But
this will, in general, over predict the heat transfer rate. We will show in the
next chapter that the proper temperature difference for internal flow (flow
over tube banks is still internal flow through the shell) is the 1ogarithmic
mean temperature difference Tln defined as
(Ts  Te)  (Ts  Ti) Te  Ti
Tln   (7-45)
ln[(Ts  Te)/(Ts  Ti)] ln(Te /Ti )

We will also show that the exit temperature of the fluid Te can be determined
from

TABLE 7–3
Correction factor F to be used in NuD, NL, = FNuD for NL 16 and ReD  1000
(from Zukauskas, Ref 15, 1987).
NL 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 13
In-line 0.70 0.80 0.86 0.90 0.93 0.96 0.98 0.99
Staggered 0.64 0.76 0.84 0.89 0.93 0.96 0.98 0.99
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HEAT TRANSFER

 
As h
Te  Ts  (Ts  Ti) exp  · (7-46)
m Cp

where As  NDL is the heat transfer surface area and m·  (N T S T L) is the
mass flow rate of the fluid. Here N is the total number of tubes in the bank, NT
is the number of tubes in a transverse plane, L is the length of the tubes, and
 is the velocity of the fluid just before entering the tube bank. Then the heat
transfer rate can be determined from
Q̇  h As Tln  ṁCp(Te  Ti) (7-47)

The second relation is usually more convenient to use since it does not require
the calculation of Tln.

Pressure Drop
Another quantity of interest associated with tube banks is the pressure drop
P, which is the difference between the pressures at the inlet and the exit of
the tube bank. It is a measure of the resistance the tubes offer to flow over
them, and is expressed as
max
2
P  NL f  (7-48)
2

where f is the friction factor and  is the correction factor, both plotted in Fig-
ures 7–27a and 7–27b against the Reynolds number based on the maximum
velocity max. The friction factor in Figure 7–27a is for a square in-line tube
bank (ST  SL), and the correction factor given in the insert is used to account
for the effects of deviation of rectangular in-line arrangements from square
arrangement. Similarly, the friction factor in Figure 7–27b is for an equilateral
staggered tube bank (ST  SD), and the correction factor is to account for the
effects of deviation from equilateral arrangement. Note that   1 for both
square and equilateral triangle arrangements. Also, pressure drop occurs in the
flow direction, and thus we used NL (the number of rows) in the P relation.
The power required to move a fluid through a tube bank is proportional to
the pressure drop, and when the pressure drop is available, the pumping power
required can be determined from
ṁP
Ẇpump  V̇P   (7-49)

where V̇  (NT S T L) is the volume flow rate and ṁ   V̇  (NT S T L) is

the mass flow rate of the fluid through the tube bank. Note that the power re-
quired to keep a fluid flowing through the tube bank (and thus the operating
cost) is proportional to the pressure drop. Therefore, the benefits of enhancing
heat transfer in a tube bank via rearrangement should be weighed against the
cost of additional power requirements.
In this section we limited our consideration to tube banks with base surfaces
(no fins). Tube banks with finned surfaces are also commonly used in prac-
tice, especially when the fluid is a gas, and heat transfer and pressure drop cor-
relations can be found in the literature for tube banks with pin fins, plate fins,
strip fins, etc.
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CHAPTER 7

60
40 SL ST
PL  SL/D 10
103
20 6
104
PT  ST /D 
10 1.5 PT  PL 2
ReD,max  105
8 1
6 106
0.6
4
PL  1.25 0.2
2 0.1 0.2 0.6 1 2 6 10
Friction factor, ƒ

2.0
1
0.8 (PT  1)/(PL  1)
0.6
0.4

0.2
3.0 2.5
0.1
8
6
4 6 8 101 2 4 6 8 102 2 4 6 8 103 2 4 6 8104 2 4 6 8 105 2 4 6 8 106

ReD,max
(a) In-line arrangement

80
60
40 SD
1.6
ReD,max  102
20 105
1.4 103
1.5
10 
8 SD  ST
6 1.2 104 104
4 103
1.0 105
2 102
Friction factor, ƒ

2.0 PT  1.25
1 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4
0.8 PT /PL
0.6 2.5
0.4

0.2 3.5
FIGURE 7–27
0.1
2 4 6 8101 2 4 6 8 102 2 4 6 8103 2 4 6 8 104 2 4 6 8105 2 4 6 8 106 2 Friction factor f and correction
ReD,max factor  for tube banks (from
(b) Staggered arrangement Zukauskas, Ref. 16, 1985).

EXAMPLE 7–7 Preheating Air by Geothermal Water in a Tube

Bank
In an industrial facility, air is to be preheated before entering a furnace by geo-
thermal water at 120ºC flowing through the tubes of a tube bank located in a
duct. Air enters the duct at 20ºC and 1 atm with a mean velocity of 4.5 m/s,
and flows over the tubes in normal direction. The outer diameter of the tubes is
1.5 cm, and the tubes are arranged in-line with longitudinal and transverse
pitches of SL  ST  5 cm. There are 6 rows in the flow direction with 10 tubes
in each row, as shown in Figure 7–28. Determine the rate of heat transfer per
unit length of the tubes, and the pressure drop across the tube bank.

SOLUTION Air is heated by geothermal water in a tube bank. The rate of heat
transfer to air and the pressure drop of air are to be determined.
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HEAT TRANSFER

AIR
 = 4.5 m/s Ts = 120°C Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The surface temperature of
T1 = 20°C the tubes is equal to the temperature of geothermal water.
Properties The exit temperature of air, and thus the mean temperature, is not
known. We evaluate the air properties at the assumed mean temperature of
60ºC (will be checked later) and 1 atm are Table A–15):

k  0.02808 W/m  K,   1.06 kg/m3

Cp  1.007 kJ/kg  K, Pr  0.7202
  2.008 10 5
kg/m  s Prs  Pr@Ts  0.7073

Also, the density of air at the inlet temperature of 20ºC (for use in the mass flow
rate calculation at the inlet) is 1  1.204 kg/m3
Analysis It is given that D  0.015 m, SL  ST  0.05 m, and   4.5 m/s.
ST Then the maximum velocity and the Reynolds number based on the maximum
velocity become
SL = ST = 5 cm D = 1.5 cm
ST 0.05
max   (4.5 m /s)  6.43 m /s
ST  D 0.05  0.015
FIGURE 7–28
Schematic for Example 7–7. max D (1.06 kg /m 3)(6.43 m /s)(0.015 m)
ReD     5091
2.008 105 kg /m  s

The average Nusselt number is determined using the proper relation from Table
7–2 to be

NuD  0.27 Re 0.63

D Pr
0.36
(Pr/Prs) 0.25
 0.27(5091)0.63(0.7202)0.36(0.7202/0.7073)0.25  52.2
This Nusselt number is applicable to tube banks with NL  16. In our case, the
number of rows is NL  6, and the corresponding correction factor from Table
7–3 is F  0.945. Then the average Nusselt number and heat transfer coeffi-
cient for all the tubes in the tube bank become

Nu D, NL  FNu D  (0.945)(52.2)  49.3

NuD, NLk 49.3(0.02808 W/m  ºC)
h   92.2 W/m2  ºC
D 0.015 m

The total number of tubes is N  NL NT  6 10  60. For a unit tube

length (L  1 m), the heat transfer surface area and the mass flow rate of air
(evaluated at the inlet) are

As  NDL  60(0.015 m)(1 m)  2.827 m2

ṁ  ṁ1  1(NT S T L)
(1.204 kg/m3)(4.5 m/s)(10)(0.05 m)(1 m)  2.709 kg/s

Then the fluid exit temperature, the log mean temperature difference, and the
rate of heat transfer become

 
Ash
Te  Ts  (Ts  Ti) exp 
ṁCp
(2.827 m 2)(92.2 W/m 2  ºC)
 120  (120  20) exp  
(2.709 kg/s)(1007 J/kg  ºC) 
 29.11ºC
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CHAPTER 7

(Ts  Te)  (Ts  Ti) (120  29.11)  (120  20)

Tln    95.4ºC
ln[(Ts  Te)/(Ts  Ti)] ln[(120  29.11)/(120  20)]
Q̇  hAsTln  (92.2 W/m2  ºC)(2.827 m2)(95.4ºC)  2.49  104 W
The rate of heat transfer can also be determined in a simpler way from
·
Q  hAsTin  m· Cp(Te  Ti)
 (2.709 kg/s)(1007 J/kg · °C)(29. 11  20)°C  2.49 104 W

For this square in-line tube bank, the friction coefficient corresponding to
ReD  5088 and SL/D  5/1.5  3.33 is, from Fig. 7–27a, f  0.16. Also,
  1 for the square arrangements. Then the pressure drop across the tube
bank becomes
V 2max
P  NL f 
2
(1.06 kg/m3)(6.43 m/s)3
 6(0.16)(1)
2 
1N

1 kg  m /s 2
 21 Pa

Discussion The arithmetic mean fluid temperature is (Ti + Te)/2  (20 

110.9)/2  65.4ºC, which is fairly close to the assumed value of 60°C. There-
fore, there is no need to repeat calculations by reevaluating the properties at
65.4°C (it can be shown that doing so would change the results by less
than 1 percent, which is much less than the uncertainty in the equations and
the charts used).

TOPIC OF SPECIAL INTEREST

Reducing Heat Transfer through Surfaces: Thermal Insulation
Thermal insulations are materials or combinations of materials that are Insulation
used primarily to provide resistance to heat flow (Fig. 7–29). You are prob- Heat
ably familiar with several kinds of insulation available in the market. Most loss
insulations are heterogeneous materials made of low thermal conductivity Heat
materials, and they involve air pockets. This is not surprising since air has
one of the lowest thermal conductivities and is readily available. The Sty-
rofoam commonly used as a packaging material for TVs, VCRs, comput-
ers, and just about anything because of its light weight is also an excellent
insulator.
Temperature difference is the driving force for heat flow, and the greater
the temperature difference, the larger the rate of heat transfer. We can slow
down the heat flow between two mediums at different temperatures by FIGURE 7–29
putting “barriers” on the path of heat flow. Thermal insulations serve as Thermal insulation retards heat
such barriers, and they play a major role in the design and manufacture of transfer by acting as a barrier in the
all energy-efficient devices or systems, and they are usually the cornerstone path of heat flow.
of energy conservation projects. A 1991 Drexel University study of the
energy-intensive U.S. industries revealed that insulation saves the U.S.

*This section can be skipped without a loss in continuity.