HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 1

1-1: Brief History of Roads

The earliest examples of roads with hard surfaces were discovered in Mesopotamia, dating back to
around 3,500 B.C. Similarly constructed stone-paved roads have also been found on the
Mediterranean island of Crete. These early road-building techniques are comparable to those used by
the Mayans, Aztecs, and Incas in Central and South America.

The early road systems were constructed primarily for the following purposes:

l. For the movement of armies in their conquest and for defense against invasion.

2. For transport of food and trade of goods between neighboring towns and cities.

The Romans, who discovered cement, expanded their vast empire through extensive road networks
radiating in many directions from the capital city of Rome. Many of the roads built by the Romans still
exist even after 2,000 years.

Characteristically, Roman Roads were laid on three courses

L A layer of small broken stones.

2. Followed by layer of small stones mixed with mortar and then compacted firmly.

3. Wearing course of massive stone blocks properly set and bedded with cement mortar.
ROADS BACK THEN

THEIR STATE TODAY

 During the l7s century, under the rergn of Napoleon the Great, France made a great stride on
road buildings. Jerome Tresaguet (1716-1796) the famous French Engineer introduced new methods
of construction and maintenance of stone roads. He improved the crown" the drainage, and the grade
of the road, including the stone foundation by reducing the depth of broken stones to 25 centimeters.
Tresaguet made it possible for Napoleon to build the massive highways of France, He was accredited
the title "Father of modern road building.

Thirty years later, a Scottish Engineer born in Westminster Abbey, Thomas Telford (1757-
1834), president and founder of the lnstitute of Civil Engineer, introduced some improvements in the
construction methods of Jerome Tresaguet. The road foundation course of Telford was made of
stones having 3 inches minimum thickness. 5 inches breadth and 7 inches height. Smaller stones
were driven by mauls on top voids and trued the surfaces by breaking the projecting points. Telford
employed a flat sub-grade, providing slight crown using stones of varying sizes.

England followed the ongoing highway development started by France. The McAdam road
concept named after John Louden McAdam (1755-1836). another famous Scottish Engineer road
builder and contemporary of Telford, was developed and widely accepted. The invention of road
building equipment enhances the development of roads in Europe. In 1858, Eli Blake invented the
first stone crusher and at the same period, a steam road roller weighing 30 tons was introduced in
France by its inventor, Aveling and Porter.
1-2: Early Laws That Regulates Roadway
The early Saxon Laws imposes three mandatory duties for
the people to perform, namely:
l. To repair the roads and bridges.
2. To repair the castles and the garrisons
3. To aid repel invasions.

After the Norman Conquest of England, it was decreed that:

1. The king's Highway is sacred. Anybody who occupies any portion thereof, by exceeding the
boundaries of his land, is considered to have encroached on the king himself. Roads are for public
use. All persons who want to use them may do so.
2. Property owners adjoining the roads were required to drain the road, clip any bordering hedges,
and refrain from plowing and planting trees, shrubs, or bushes closer than the specified distance from
the center of the road.
It was made clear that the government concept towards the use of roads includes upholding the right
of the public to use them without interference. Since the road is intended for the benefit of the people,
in return, it becomes their duty to protect and maintain the roadway.

1-3: Highways in the Philippines

In the early part of 1900, transportation in this country depended largely on trails, waterways, railroad,
earth roads and partially graveled roads. Highway in the Philippines at that time is nothing more than
a dream to most Filipinos. The American government initiated the development of roadways in the
Philippines, connecting towns, cities and provinces. The popular Macadam Road type was
introduced. It gained wide acceptance because of the abundant supply of stones and gravel.
After the Second World War, the new independent Philippine government continued the rehabilitation
and construction of roads and bridges, through the reparations and war damages paid by the
Japanese government. Other financial grants and aids received from the U.S. government were used
in the construction and rehabilitation of roads and bridges. (Illustrations are shown in the next page.)

Highways in the 1900s before World War 2:

Highways in the 1900s during World War 2:

Highways in the 1900s after World War 2:

1-4: Planning Difficulties

Development and maintenance of roads and highways is a continuing process alongside with the
technological advancement. New equipment and management techniques revolutionized, the
construction and maintenance methods. Advance knowledge in the field of soils, highway materials,
and designs were adopted for reliability and economic considerations.
Engineers are conscious of the need for roadways to be safe, useful, and attractive. These needs
include improvement of the roadside, erosion control, and noise abatement. They are aware of the
fact that highways are vital to the country's development. Unfortunately, highway planners are
confronted with problems categorized as follows:

1. Financial
2. Political and
3. Technical

1-5: Highway Programming

Overview
-Highway programming involves a multifaceted approach that integrates economic, financial, and
political inputs.
-Projects are prioritized based on their viability, financial feasibility, and political/administrative
alignment.
-Discuss the direct effects of highway construction and its use.
-Explore both quantifiable market values and non-quantifiable non-market values.

Economic Inputs:
Focus on resource management and allocation.
Financial Inputs:
Determines funding sources, expenditure, and allocation.
Political and Administrative Inputs:
Involves decision-making processes and political considerations.

Highway Programming Approaches

l. financial resources are either short or long ranged implementation by the agency’s functions like
construction, operations, and maintenance.
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire and constraint.
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical situations, present and future expected
level of traffic, and claims based on political subdivisions.
4. Providing continuity of route system and coordination with other transportation mode.
5 Selection of projects based on availability of labor and materials, including climatic conditions.
6. Scheduling the project implementation in coordination with other agencies, acquiring right of way
and making final plan and specifications.
7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like floods and other natural disasters.

Direct Effects of Highway Construction and its Use

Quantifiable Market Value
1. Costs of Highways:
 Planning Costs: Initial expenses for highway planning.
 Right of Way Appropriations: Costs for acquiring land.
 Construction Costs: Expenses for building the highway.
 Maintenance Costs: Ongoing costs for maintaining the highway.
 Operating Costs: Daily operational expenses.

2. Cost Benefits to Highway Users:

 Vehicle Operating Costs: Including congestion costs; net savings or increased costs per year.
 Travel Time Savings (Commercial): Net increase or decrease in travel time, multiplied by the
economic value of time.
 Motorist’s Safety (Economic Cost of Accidents): Net change in the expected number of accidents
multiplied by the average cost per accident per year.
Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value:
1. Cost Benefits to Highway Users:
 Motorist’s Safety: Cost of pain, suffering, and deprivation from accidents.
 Comfort and Convenience: The discomfort, inconvenience, and strain associated with driving.
 Aesthetic Value from Driving: The benefit of pleasing views and scenery along the road.

Quantifiable Non-Market Value;

1. Cost Benefits to Highway Users:
 Travel Time Savings (Non-Commercial): Minutes saved per vehicle trip, contributing to overall
time efficiency.

1-6: The Planner

Overview:
 Every project begins with rigorous studies and involvement from various line agencies.
 The planner's role is critical in coordinating, facilitating, and ensuring all perspectives are
considered.

The Planner as a Coordinator and Catalyst

 Key Responsibilities:
 Appointing Coordinators or Catalysts:
- Facilitating the exchange of information between agencies.
 - Addressing and incorporating the needs, goals, and alternative solutions of affected parties
into planning and decision-making.
 Maintaining Neutrality:
-Planners should avoid partisanship and not advocate for any specific
solution.

The Planner’s Neutral Role

 Roles and Duties:
 Providing Technical and Organizational Support:
- Ensure all relevant information is available and organized.
 Receiving Input:
- Gather information on the needs and goals of affected groups and agencies.
 Incorporating Input:
- Integrate the collected data into the planning and decision-making process.

Ethical Responsibilities of the Planner

 Acting as a Clarifier, Expediter, and Negotiator:
 Planners must act as impartial facilitators, helping clarify issues, expedite processes, and
negotiate fairly.
 Avoiding the Myth of Rationality:
 Planners should recognize that their professional expertise does not automatically make them the
ultimate authority on what is best for society.
 Acknowledge that personal values and goals may differ from those of other stakeholders.

Key Functions of the Planner

1. Preliminary Design and Initial Work Program:
 Develop a preliminary design and work program, taking into account the basic needs, plans,
and objectives of affiliated persons.
2. Exploration of Alternatives:
 Gather data by contacting representatives of other agencies involved.
 Conduct detailed analysis and prepare a plan for appropriate community interaction.
3. Securing Formal Ratification:
 Obtain approval from local officials and document the results. If all goes well, this step is
considered final.

Importance of Ethical Conduct

 Providing Knowledge and Unbiased Information:
 Planners should remain impartial and avoid becoming emotionally involved in any particular
solution.
 Partisanship can jeopardize their credibility and lead to feelings of personal defeat if their
solutions are rejected.

1-7: Community Involvement

Overview:
 In a democratic government, public participation is essential in planning and decision-making
processes.
 The public has the right to be informed and to contribute to decisions that affect their
communities.
The Role of Public Hearings
 Current Practice:
 Often, public hearings are held after major decisions have already been made, reducing
them to mere information forums.
 This approach limits the public’s ability to influence the planning process.
Importance of Early Public Involvement
 Ideal Scenario:
 Public hearings should be conducted from the start of the planning process.
 Early involvement allows the public to actively participate in discussions and influence
decisions before they are finalized.
Steps to Ensure Effective Community Involvement
1.Solicit Cooperation and Support:
 Engage public officials, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), influential persons, and
conservative groups in the community to ensure broad support.
2. Create a Special Staff:

 Establish a dedicated team to manage and facilitate public involvement throughout the
planning process.

3. Encourage Continuous Participation:

 Provide community leaders with opportunities to participate continuously during the

planning stage, ensuring their input is considered at every step.
4. Develop Skilled Facilitators:
 Organize and train individuals to conduct group meetings, workshops, hearings, and
other related activities effectively.

Benefits of Community Involvement

 Enhanced Decision Making:
 Involving the community early leads to better-informed decisions that reflect the public’s
needs and desires.
 Increased Trust and Support:
 When the public feels heard and involved, trust in the process increases, leading to stronger
support for the final decisions.
 Stronger Community Relations:
 Collaborative planning fosters a sense of ownership and pride in the community,
strengthening relationships between the public and decision-makers.

1-8: Highway Economy

A Country who will not avail of loans or grant from foreign financing institutions will not feel the
great impact of their infrastructure projects, if domestic income through taxes alone will be depended
on. Financing institution such as the World Bank insists that projects to which they make grants or
loans be justified primarily on the economic basis. According to W. Gillespe, professor of Civil
Engineering at the Union College:
 "A minimum of expenses is of course, highly desirable; but the road which is truly the cheapest
is not the one which has cost the least money, but the one which makes the mast profitable returns in
proportion to the amount expended upon it."
There are many designs and administrative decisions that does not involve public policy, but
these should be made by selecting the alternative that is cheapest in the long run. Meaning: the result
from an economic study that is reasonably interpreted must prevail.

The intent of expenditures for highways and public transportations are enumerated as
follows:
1. To augment the country's level of economy.
2. To provide easy access to working place.
3. To facilitate public services; police, fire protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of related basic services.
5. To give landowner benefits to transportation and increase property assessment.
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower cost of operations and maintenance.
7. Benefit in time saving.
8. Less road accident.
9. To give maximum comfort and ease of travel.

Most of the country's expenditures for highways and public transport facilities are based on the
principle of "Pay as you go. Meaning, road appropriations and expenditures depend on tax
collections.

Legally, the appropriation and expenditures of taxes being the people's contribution to the
government must be prorated proportionally to the different provinces, municipalities, and cities in
terms of infrastructure projects and not just be concentrated in specific place. Under that principle,
progress of the country would be very slow considering the meager amount each province will get,
and the infrastructure it will accomplish. Hence, borrowing from foreign banks is the ultimate solutions
of the government to deliver impact infrastructure projects to boost the economy and move quickly
forward.
Arguments of those who Favors Borrowings are:
1. The need is immediate to have instant infrastructures.
2. No impact project will be seen because the "pay as you go" fund is scattered throughout the
entire road system where the situation is most critical.
3. Borrowings encourage investors because of fast progress.

Counter Arguments of those Against Financing Infrastructures through Borrowing:

1. Borrowing may impair the credit rating of government agencies obstructing other more
important improvements.
2. If future income is committed to pay past improvements, no more funds available to maintain
the existing system.
 3. With much amount available temptation is there to over build and recklessly spend
extravagantly.
4. Interest of the loan is a big waste of public funds.

1-9: Computation and Survey

Early engineering approach to highway and transportation problems were based on the results
of their computations with the aid of slide rule and replaced by calculator machine. This method is
time consuming and was totally discarded in the advent of computers and its appurtenances.
Today, most of the agencies have their own data processing and reporting is done through
computer networks. Engineering approach to highway and transportation problems are done through
computer output from the simple to complex matters.

Computers can do processing data for many problems like:

1. Projections and statistical studies of traffic and transit passengers
2. Economic analysis
3. Financial programming
4. Geometric
5. Bridges
6. Pavement design and maintenance
7. Pavement management
8. Scheduling for design and construction.
9. Computation of earthworks and other quantities both for planning and payment of contractors.

Computers are provided with stereo plotter for map making and location identification. The
computer base interactive graphics could present problems into the screen, focused on technical
matters and management decisions making data. Various computer programs are abundantly
available to solve the repetitive highway and transportation problems.
The computer graphics display a motorist view of the highway so that the engineer could make
appropriate treatment of certain portion as transition from cut to fills, route, location, traffic, and
transportation planning and accident analysis.
The interactive graphics is used without computer, referred to as environmental simulation. A
remote-controlled television camera passes through small scales physical module of the area or
route. The passage is recorded in the tape and the playback will show impression similar to that of
the walker on the road or the vehicle driver.
With the aid of sophisticated computers and its appurtenances, engineering practice today is not
as difficult as the time of slide rule era. Computers are less prone to computational error if correctly
programmed. On the other hand, too much reliance on this machine might be a trap for the
uninformed to assume that the program inputs are absolutely correct. Deeper analysis and
professional attention to computer program is the key to accurate results that could be the basis for
good decisions.
1-10: Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is otherwise called Photogrammetry. It is the science and art of obtaining
measurements by means of photography. Photogrammetry is based on aerial photographs for
engineers working data on:
1. Locations
2. Planning
3. Geometric design
4. Right of way
5. Traffic studies
6. Drainage

1-11: Photogrammetric Mapping

A vertical aerial photograph taken by a camera pointed almost straight downward is the most
useful mapping for highway purposes.
The area to be covered is photographed in parallel runs with the individual pictures lapped in the
direction of the flight (end lap) and between successive runs (side lap). For stereoscopic uses, the
following must be considered:
1. End lap must be greater than one half the picture width specified not less than 55% nor more than
65% in order that the center of one picture is included in both adjacent photograph.
2. Side lap should average at 25% with less than 15 More than 35% is unacceptable.
3. For making map purposes, the variable includes the focal length of the aerial camera, the desired
combination of map scale and contour interval, and the ratio of map scale to photograph scale

Instruments used in converting data from aerial photographs into maps are:

The Kelsh and Balplex stereoscopic plotters

The wild autograph

The Kern PG2

The Zeiss Stereoplanigraph

Features that cannot be identified on the photographs are located by ground measurements. Any
important points to be included on the ground surveys are marked for easy identification on the
photograph.
Accuracy of the ground control triangulation network is when scaled with the aerial photographs. The
third order triangulation is acceptable in rural areas, and the second order triangulation for urban
locations wherein the maximum errors in distance are I to 5000 and 1 to 10,000 respectively.
An accurate angular triangulation measurement is easily obtained by the use of Modern Theodolites.
The distance measurement is carried out by an electronic distant measuring device (EDM) that
employ infra red light beams, microwave or laser light.
The Photogrammetric technique coupled with digitizer, produces digital terrain models. The horizontal
and vertical positions of the ground surface, and other photographic features are directly transferred
from the matched aerial photograph to a computer data bank. The information is recalled and the
computer is programmed to develop showing the following:
The Highways and its Development:
1. Profiles
2. Cross sections
3. Cut and fill earthwork quantities
4. The motorist view of the road

With photographs and computer record data, a separate map could be plotted easily like:
1. The highways
2. The drainage
3. Housing
4. Land use and zoning
5. Property assessment
The ground field survey is done only as supplemental in completing the details of those that could not
be produced in the photographs.

1-12: Orthophotographs
Orthophotographs is an aerial photograph corrected for scale and tilt. When the center portion are
skillfully matched and copied, they appear to be a single photograph that shows far more detail than
maps. The uncorrected or partially corrected photographs are combined to form a mosaic, considered
better for engineering accuracy and right of way purposes.

1-13: Colored Photographs

Aerial colored photograph presents a more detailed and precise information on traffic and parking
studies. It gives clear information of the geological conditions, land use, source of materials, surfaces
and sub-surface drainage. An oblique photograph is used for special studies particularly, where the
ground condition is almost flat or where cliffs are so steep that a black and white photograph could
not give sufficient details.
1-14: Location of the Proposed Highway
To improve the highways, there should be tentative plan as to the control, and minimum design
speed, roadway cross sections, and maximum slope with the following considerations:
1. Reliable cost estimate.
2. Character and hourly distribution of traffic.
3. Economic and community benefit factor.
4. Availability of funds.

4 stages of Location surveys in the rural areas

1.. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area between the terminal points.
2. Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes.
3. Preliminary survey of the best route.
4. Location survey, staking of the right of way, the highway and the structure for construction.

Under stage I: Reconnaissance survey of the entire area

1. Stereoscopic examination of small scaled aerial photographs of the area supplemented by
available maps.
2. Determination control of photography and land use.
3. Location of feasible routes based on photographs and maps.

Under stage II Reconnaissance survey of feasible route:

l. Stereoscopic examination of largo-scale aerial photographs of each route.
2. Determination of the detailed control of photography and land use.
3. Preparation of route maps by Photogrammetric methods.
4. Location and comparison of feasible routes on photographs and maps.
5. Selection of the best route.

Stage III Preliminary Survey of the best route.

1. Preparation of large scale topographic maps using the route photograph and Photogrammetric
methods or preparation of, large scale topographic maps b-v'' ground survey guided by best route
location made on photographs in the second stage.
2. Design of the preliminary location

Stage - IV Location Survey

Staking of the right of way and the highway and structures for construction.

1-15: Location of Bridges

When the location of the bridge is approximately determined, the following requirements must be
considered:
1. A complete data report and special survey of the site.
2. Prepare sketches and full scale map and profiles.
3 The survey report must contain accurate data of the waterway for all behavior of water.
4. There must be a complete report on the foundation condition and the stream characteristics.
5. A complete data of the adjacent structures particularly the waterway opening.
6. If possible, skewed bridge should be avoided.
FIGURE 1-1 TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF SMALL BRIDGE LOCATION PROBLEM

1-16: Highway Plans and Specifications

The complete detailed scheme for the road which are incorporated in the geometric designs are:
1. Traffic
2. Drainage
3. Erosion control
4. Roadside development
5. Structure
6. Soils
7. Pavement

Presentation of a Road Plan

1. The upper sheet is allocated for the plan, top view showing the horizontal alignment, right of way
takings, drain age arrangement and other features.
2. The lower half is allotted to the profile where the original elevation of the ground surface is plotted.
The roadway centerline and the vertical alignment or grade line for the road is indicated.
3. The vertical scale of the profile is usually exaggeratedly enlarged from five to ten times for precise
detail.
4. The profile and other details of the drainage, channels or connecting roads including ramps are
also presented.
5. The estimated earthwork quantities for every 50 meters station or other intervals are indicated
along the bottom of each sheet along with the estimated overhead. This will serve the engineer and
the contractor

6. The roadway cross sections for every situation in the whole project stretch is indicated on another
sheet of the plan.
7. Another sheet of drawings showing all structures and roadway appurtenances is included.
8. The standard size of the drawing sheet is 55 cm x 90 cm
Partial List of subjects covered by the standard drawing:
1. Pipe culverts
2. Concrete Box Culverts
3. Guard rail and parapet
4. Curbs
5. Gutters
6. Curb structures
7. Sidewalks
8. Drainage inlet and outlet structures of numerous types.
9. Manholes
10. Rip-rap and other devices used for bank protection.
11. Fences and right of way
12. Other survey markers

The Specifications:
Highway Specifications is Divided into Two:
1. Standard Specifications applies to project implemented by administration which treat the subject
that repeatedly occurs in the agency work.
2. Special Provisions covers peculiar item of the project in question that include additional
modification to standard specifications. This includes copies of all documents required in securing
competitive bids and contracts. Specifications are also subdivided into two:
a.) The general clause that deals with the bidding procedures and award execution and control
of work and other legal matters.
b.) Specifying detail regarding the materials, manner of work execution and how pay quantities
are to be measured.