Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2024) 14:342–357

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-023-00884-z

RESEARCH AND THEORY

The perceived potential of religion in mitigating climate change

and how this is being realized in Germany and Switzerland
Adam X. Hearn1 · Fabian Huber1 · Jens Koehrsen1,2 · Ann‑Lea Buzzi1

Accepted: 16 December 2023 / Published online: 12 January 2024

© The Author(s) 2024

Abstract
Scholars of religion have repeatedly debated and contested the role of religion and spirituality in combatting climate change.
In recent years, the potential of religion has also become an issue among natural scientists, politicians, environmental
organizations, and civil society. Indeed, the potential of religion to mitigate climate change is perceived both internally and
externally, and various expectations are placed on religion. This article examines the perceived potential of religion in miti-
gating climate change and how this is being realized. Based on 38 interviews, conducted with representatives from religious
communities and umbrella organizations in Germany and Switzerland, we focus on the areas of values, political influence,
and materialization. Our results show that the potential of religion in addressing climate change remains largely unfulfilled
despite increasing steps in this direction.

Keywords Religion · Sustainability · Climate change · Religious organizations

Introduction studies by shedding light on some of the social expectations

concerning religion and climate change.
The potential of religions for mitigating the climate crisis There is debate on whether overall, religions are green-
has been examined from a variety of perspectives (Hitzhusen ing, with indications that some sections of some religions
and Tucker 2013; Harmannij 2019, 2022; Christie et al. may be engaged in certain forms of climate change mitiga-
2019; Preston and Baimel 2021). However, this has been tion (Koehrsen et al. 2023). However, other sections may
problematized (Veldman 2019), as religions can motivate be disengaged and sceptical of the climate crisis (Carr et al.
strong convictions both against and in support of pro-envi- 2012; Ecklund et al. 2017; Veldman et al. 2021), and yet oth-
ronmental action (Preston and Baimel 2021). In this paper, ers attribute the climate crisis to God, to be either addressed
we describe the expectations that are placed on religions through prayer (Taylor et al. 2016), or even welcomed, as is
when it comes to environmental engagement with an empha- the case for some apocalyptic evangelicals (Veldman 2019;
sis on climate change mitigation. Based on these expecta- Bjork-James 2023; Zaleha and Szasz 2015). Christian reli-
tions, we study forms of religious climate engagement taking gious groups may frame climate change (often implicitly)
place in two European countries, Switzerland and Germany. from broadly two approaches (Clingerman and O’Brien
This contributes to social science climate change research 2017). Firstly, as an entirely new kind of problem calling
by providing a better understanding of the ways in which for innovative solutions but also conversely enabling apoca-
religious organizations may contribute to climate change lyptic world views as well as the creation of new religions.
mitigation. It further provides a contribution to religious Secondly, as a problem which is prefigured by other major
historical challenges such as World War II (Clingerman and
O’Brien 2017). The latter approach emphasizes the contin-
ued relevance of religion in providing solutions and build-
* Adam X. Hearn ing upon prior commitments to social justice and was more
[email protected] prevalent in the religious communities we interviewed.
1 Research in religious environmentalism indicates that
Center for Religion, Economy and Politics, University
of Basel, Basel, Switzerland congregations may not always implement the greening
2 strategies of their umbrella organizations (Torabi and Noori
Faculty of Theology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

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Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2024) 14:342–357 343

2019). Therefore, a focus which examines both umbrella of religion are visible: A) materialization, B) shaping values,
organizations and congregations provides fertile ground as and C) political influence (as a moral authority and with cor-
a basis for study (Koehrsen et al. 2022; Koehrsen and Huber responding connections).
2021). Accordingly, our research focus is on both congrega-
tions and religious umbrella organizations. Congregations A) Materialization
are social institutions in which individuals gather on a regu-
lar basis for events and activities with explicitly religious Religious actors often have vast financial resources (Grim
content and purpose (Chaves 2004). As such, congregations and Tucker 2014), as well as significant material and human
are the centre of religious community activities. They usu- resources. This enhances the potential of religions to engage
ally involve local religious leaders (e.g., pastor and imam), in the fight against climate change, given that more than
congregational staff (paid employees or non-paid volun- 80% of the global population are part of a religious tradition
teers), and members, participating to different extents in the (Pew Research Center 2017). However, it should be noted
congregational activities. Religious umbrella organizations that ascribing people to a single religion is also a simplifica-
are head organizations for a certain religious faith in a cer- tion and not without contention (Lawson and Ramey 2018).
tain geographical space. They cover congregations related Religions are not necessarily exclusive of each other (i.e., it
to this faith in the given space. is possible to follow more than one religion simultaneously),
Henceforth, for the purpose of this research, we use the and criteria used to determine belonging are often contested
term “religious communities” to encompass both congrega- (Ramey 2007).
tions and umbrella organizations. Religious actors can also work to mitigate climate change
We structure our paper by providing an overview of by initiating projects to reduce their own ­CO2 emissions.
research on the expectations placed on religions in the next This may involve the introduction of renewable energies
section, followed by a short section on the distinct religious (e.g., the installation of solar panels) or more efficient use of
landscapes of Germany and Switzerland. We then detail our resources (e.g., reduced heating output in buildings, purchas-
methods and provide relevant results which are then further ing and consuming regional, sustainable products, or recy-
analyzed in “Discussion,” before concluding in our outlook. cling) (Gottlieb 2006; Koehrsen 2015, 2018). Although this
is directly related to human and financial resources, reducing
energy consumption involves drawing on these resources but
The expectations conferred upon religions can also result in an increase in future financial resources
owing to the potential savings made through energy effi-
Studies on religion and the environment received significant ciency measures and renewable energy generation.
interest following White’s (1967) article “The Historical
Roots of our Ecologic Crisis.” White argued that Western B) Shaping values
Christianity with its anthropocentricism and its “dogma of
man’s transcendence of, and rightful mastery over, nature” Many scholars emphasize that religions shape people’s
(1206) contributed to the ecological crisis. This dogma facil- values and can thereby help mitigate climate change, cre-
itated the development of ever-more invasive technologies ating a more environmentally sustainable society (Grim
(e.g., agricultural technologies). Combined with growing and Tucker 2014; Koehrsen 2018). For Tucker and Grim
technological possibilities that allowed humans to massively (2001), religions are the central shapers of values. Some
intervene in nature, Western Christianity is portrayed as one authors argue that value dissemination is religion’s specific
of the central causes of extensive environmental destruction. contribution to the fight against climate change, as politics,
However, he asserted that religions must also be part of the science, and economy cannot take over the dissemination of
solution to the crisis, concluding. values and worldviews (Gardner 2006; Tucker 2006; Posas
“Since the roots of our problems are so largely religious, 2007; Gottlieb 2008; Bergmann 2009), although this has
the remedy must also be essentially religious” (White 1967: been challenged (c.f. Baugh 2017; Gade 2023). By spreading
1207). pro-environmental values and worldviews through preaching
In recent years, there has been an increase in research and religious education, religious communities can influence
on religion and ecology with some focus on religion and the lifestyles of broad segments of the population (Shib-
climate change (Jenkins et al. 2018: 86). This has been cou- ley and Wiggins 1997; Djupe and Hunt 2009). Social net-
pled with increased reflection on the potential of religion works available to religious organizations via their members
in combating climate change (Gardner 2003, 2006; Posas increase the potential reach of any climate mitigating action
2007; Haluza‐DeLay 2014; Jenkins et al. 2018; Koehrsen (Gardner 2003, 2006; Haluza‐DeLay 2014). Furthermore, by
2018; Ives and Kidwell 2019). Based on the literature, it is offering compelling reasons to resist the spread of consum-
possible to outline three areas in which the various potentials erism, religions could turn environmental actions into flags
344 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2024) 14:342–357

around which society can rally (McKibben 2001). These (and non-followers). These findings, also described as the
arguments have been contested (Baugh 2017; Gade 2023) “Francis Effect” (Maibach et al. 2015), suggest that Laud-
indicating that religion may play also a negative role or no ato Si’ led many people with prior high levels of concern
role at all in shaping environmentally friendly values. An to take additional actions—that is, their attitude-behavior
example of this is research from Poland that indicates that consistency increased (Arbuckle 2017; Myers et al. 2017;
urban, better-educated, less religious people are more open Schuldt et al. 2017). Nevertheless, this effect was limited to
towards notions of an energy transition than those that live the politically liberal and did not take place among conserva-
more rurally, are less educated and are more religious (attend tives, who relativized the importance and authority of the
church regularly) (Żuk et al. 2021). Pope on climate change attitudes (Li et al. 2016; Landrum
et al. 2017; Harmannij 2019; Berry 2022; Taylor et al. 2016;
C) Political influence, connections Danielsen et al. 2021). Ultimately, the assumption seems
to be that religion does not play a decisive role. Positional
The public dimension of religion enables further potential references of religious actors seem to be interpreted on an
regarding political influence (cf. Casanova 1994). Religious individual level to fit into one’s own worldview. In other
communities may have a wide reach and can influence on words, those that were already positively disposed towards
public opinion, which allows them to take a stand on envi- environmentally friendly actions found added congruence
ronmental issues (Gardner 2003; Tucker and Grim 2001). whereas climate sceptics relativized the competence of reli-
According to Hoffman (2015), the reach of major religious gious actors in this area.
figures such as the Pope may be much greater than that of Overall, the results of research from the social sciences
other public figures such as politicians. This is reinforced by remain mixed. Even if often negative/no influence could be
the connections that religious actors have to policymakers proven, studies on the encyclical in particular (Arbuckle
(Haluza‐DeLay, 2014). Thus, religion can engage using pub- 2017; Myers et al. 2017; Schuldt et al. 2017) show that reli-
lic visibility and political influence to promote (or hinder) gion has the potential to move people to act in more climate-
environmental protection through public statements, media friendly ways.
exposure, and lobbying of decision makers (Gardner 2006; In the natural sciences, climate change is now recognized
Wardekker et al. 2009; Johnston 2010; Glaab 2022; Huber as a problem that cannot be solved with technology alone,
2022). and there is a growing understanding that cultural aspects
Research has been conducted on how religion/religios- need to be taken into account (Hulme 2017: 240–241).
ity affect the environmental behavior of individuals, show- Accordingly, the latest IPCC report (IPCC 2022) also
ing different effects of religious attitudes on environmental addresses and calls into action more diverse actors, includ-
behaviour (Greeley 1993; Kanagy and Willits 1993; Wood- ing religious actors. The potential of religion is also explic-
rum and Hoban 1994; Kanagy and Nelsen 1995; Wolkomir itly mentioned: “Religion could play an important role in
et al. 1997; Woodrum and Wolkomir 1997; Biel and Nils- enabling collective action on climate mitigation by providing
son 2005; Sherkat and Ellison 2007; Djupe and Gwiasda cultural interpretations of change and institutional responses
2010; Barker and Bearce 2013; Gutsche 2019). Some have that provide resources and infrastructure to sustain collective
suggested a negative influence of religion on attitudes of actions.” (IPCC, 2022: 570).
adherents towards climate change. This may be due to a Influential climate scientists have also publicly called for
focus in research on religious conservatives which are often enhanced collaboration among religious institutions, poli-
associated with climate change denial (Szasz 2012; Veldman cymakers, and the scientific community, and the engage-
2019). At the same time, there is evidence to show that this ment of religious actors is often well-received (Dasgupta and
is not a static state and that religious conservative beliefs Ramanathan 2014; Hayhoe, 2019). However, even if there
regarding climate change shift throughout time (Veldman are some opportunities and few major barriers to coopera-
et al. 2021; Hempel and Smith 2020). tion, religious actors are seldom directly addressed by the
Other studies (Buckley 2022; Myers et al. 2017; Maibach natural sciences (Hulme 2017; Harmannij 2019).
et al. 2015) also attribute a positive effect to religion and Internally, climate change influences religious discourse
thus point to their potential for instigating climate change and is an important subject in theological debate (Jenkins
mitigatory action, such as through the encyclical, Laudato et al. 2018), with corresponding theologies and statements
Si’ (Francis 2015). The encyclical, subtitled “on care for from leaders and umbrella organizations1 (Harris 1995;
our common home,” examines topics such as consumerism Foltz 2006; Tucker 2008; Boff 2011; Saniotis 2012; Dessì,
and global warming and implores people to take remedial 2015; Blanc 2017; Chaplin 2016). Some scholars from the
action. Studies on the encyclical Laudato Si’ show that com-
mitment increased following the encyclical (Buckley 2022),
pointing to a positive effect on the behaviour of followers 1
See sidebar at: https://​fore.​yale.​edu/​World-​Relig​ions
Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2024) 14:342–357 345

religion and ecology debate have interpreted these endeav- churches (Roman Catholic and Protestant) struggle with
ours as leading to a “greening” of religions, suggesting that declining membership and the number of people who iden-
religions become more environmentally friendly over time tify as “non-religious” is increasing. Growth is only found
(Tucker 2006, 2008; Chaplin 2016), although this is con- on a small scale, among certain evangelical communities
tested (c.f. Taylor et al. 2016). with a charismatic background, among religious groups with
The aforementioned Laudato Si’ is a good example of a migrant background (e.g., Muslim and Buddhist communi-
religious discourse on climate change and is embedded in ties), and among alternative spiritualities (Bochinger et al.
developments within Christianity. The encyclical was pre- 2012; Stolz et al. 2014, 2022; Becci 2022). The two main
ceded by developments, such as the M Forum of the WCC in Christian churches represent the largest religious groups in
Nairobi (1975), the “Justice, Peace and Creation Concerns” both countries. In Germany, approx. 28% of the population
commission in Vancouver (Gill 1983), and that Pope John are affiliated with the Catholic Church and approx. 26%
Paul II and Pope Benedict as well as Patriarch Bartholomew with the German Evangelical Church while, in Switzerland,
were already active in this area (Tucker and Grim 2001; approx. 36% are affiliated with the Catholic Church and
Blanc 2017, 2022). approx. 24% with the Swiss Reformed Evangelical Church.
Corresponding statements and actions on climate change Other religious traditions are significantly smaller, such as
are also evident in other religious traditions, for example, Muslim communities (approx. 5% of the population in each
the Dalai Lama calls for action to mitigate climate change of the two countries), and the free evangelical churches
(Tucker and Grim 2001; Posas 2007; Haluza‐DeLay, 2014; (approx. 1% in Germany and 3% in Switzerland). However,
Chaplin 2016; Hulme 2017; Jenkins et al. 2018), and both increasingly large groups in both countries are non-denom-
the Buddhism Faith Statement on Ecology (Fossey 2003), inational (41% in Germany and 29% in Switzerland) (Euro-
and the Hindu Declaration, issued calls to address climate barometer 2018; Religionswissenschaftlicher Medien- und
change through personal transformation and public action.2 Informationsdienst e.V (REMID) 2020; Forschungsgruppe
The Islamic Declaration on Climate Change puts forth the Weltanschauungen in Deutschland (FOWID) 2021; Federal
notion that all people are caretakers, calling for a “fresh Statistical Office 2023). Accordingly, many individuals have
model of wellbeing” (International Climate Change Sym- a distanced relationship with religion, and many religious
posium, 2015). The language used stops short of calling organizations have sizeable passive membership.
directly for climate justice, addressing multiple sectors of Environmental organizations have approached religious
society regardless of religion in calling for a move to a sus- actors on a national level in both countries, such as WWF
tainable circular economy and the scaling up of renewable 2020 calling on churches for donations,3 and Greenpeace
energy amongst other things (Gade 2023). Yet, it may be supporting a church in installing a photovoltaic system.4
questioned whether such public statements reflect the posi- There is also increasing collaboration between secular and
tions of broad sections of followers of the given religions or religious actors and the Swiss Climate Alliance has been
just the positions of a small elite of religious environmental- joined by various religious organizations such as A Rocha,
ists (Gade 2019). Fastenaktion, Grüner Fisch, Mission 21, Oeku, Eglise Refor-
While these statements and actions may have been par- mee Vaud and Swiss Quakers.5
tially precipitated owing to external pressure regarding the Religious communities in both countries differ in terms
potential of religion, they may increase social expectations of their recognition under public law (cf. Huber 2022). Such
on different religions to take up greater roles in mitigating recognition comes with rights such as tax sovereignty (tax
climate change. In the cases of Switzerland and Germany, collection among members), tax exemption, religious edu-
social expectations tend to be greatest when it comes to the cation, hospital and prison chaplaincy, and protection by
largest established Christian religions, Roman Catholic, and the state. This legal recognition also comes with obligations
Protestant. such as democratic constitution, respect for the legal system,
and representation vis-à-vis the state. In Switzerland, it is the
cantonal level that decides on the recognition of religions.
Religion in Switzerland and Germany The Roman Catholic and Reformed churches are recognized
in all cantons, the Christian Catholics (this is a different
Religious landscapes in Switzerland and Germany are char-
acterized by secularization, pluralization, and individualiza-
tion (Pickel 2011; Pollack and Olson 2012; Bochinger et al. 3
https://​www.​wwf.​de/​aktiv-​werden/​als-​gemei​nscha​ft-​sammel​ n/​kirch​
2012; Baumann and Stolz 2007). The two large Christian engem​einde
4
https://​www.​g reen​peace.​ch/​de/​story/​10467/​sonne​nener​gie-​vom-​
kirch​endach
2 5
http://​www.​hindu​clima​tedec​larat​ion20​15.​org/​engli​sh https://​www.​klima-​allia​nz.​ch/​mitgl​ieder/
346 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2024) 14:342–357

Table 1  Overview of umbrella organizations and congregations that were interviewed

Unit Denomination Country Interviewee job role Gender

Congregation (25) Catholic (5) Switzerland (8) Spiritual leader (10) Female (5)
Reformed (6) Germany (17) Practical leader (6) Male (20)
Evangelical (7) Staff (6)
Other Christian (1) Member (1)
Jewish (2) Key informant* (2)
Muslim (3)
Buddhist (1)
Umbrella organization (13) Catholic (2) Switzerland (4) Manager (8) Female (1)
Reformed (2) Germany (9) Environmental officer (4) Male (12)
Ecumenical (1) Politician (1)
Evangelical (3)
Other Christian (1)
Muslim (2)
Buddhist (1)
Hindu (1)

*Two interviewees did not give their formal job role beyond explaining that they were in paid roles within their organizations

religion from the Roman Catholic Church) in 10, and the in environmental engagement and were aware of the barriers
Jewish communities in 6. In Germany, the 16 federal states and tensions to this on a local level.
each decide on recognition within their state. Compared to Interview selection focused on key informants (Chaves
Switzerland, barriers are lower and it is easier for religious et al. 1999) from congregations and umbrella organizations
communities to become legally recognized in Germany. that in most cases held paid positions. These representa-
Just as in Switzerland, the Protestant and Roman Catholic tives were religious leaders or professionals that know their
Churches are legally recognized in all federal states. In some organization and its environmental activities well, due to
federal states, however, up to 20 different religious organi- their relationship to these activities (e.g., environmental
zations are recognized. In Bavaria, for example, humanists, officers in the case of mainline churches).
Jehovah’s Witnesses, Christian Science, Pentecostal con- The interviews covered numerous religious communities,
gregations, New Apostolic communities, and Adventists, including Catholic, Reformed, Lutheran, Evangelical, other
are recognized, and in Hesse, Muslim communities and the Christian (Old Catholic and Jehovah’s Witnesses), Muslim,
Baha’I are also recognized.6 Jewish, Buddhist, and Hindu communities (Table 1, below).
Accordingly, religious organizations have different posi- Moreover, we also conducted interviews with representa-
tions within society. Therefore, they also differ in terms tives of religious umbrella organizations at the national and
of the potential they can exploit as well as what may be regional level. It is hard to quantify membership of umbrella
expected of them. organizations as some of them also operate internationally,
and did not have regional or national figures (e.g., the Hindu
umbrella organization has over 200,000 members interna-
Data and methods tionally), and this is also reflected on a congregational level
where active membership is often significantly less than
To investigate our research questions, we conducted 38 official membership.
semi-structured interviews in Germany and Switzerland, Interviews were conducted face-to-face either in situ at
between 2018 and 2021, using a case-study approach (Yin the central location (i.e., the church and mosque) for con-
2009) focusing on three cities in Germany and one in Ger- gregations, or at the central office of the umbrella organiza-
man-speaking Switzerland. These cities were selected as tion within the district. In addition, we gathered information
they are seen as pioneering cities in terms of the energy on the training/educational level of interviewees. In terms
transition. The social location of interviewees most certainly of training/education, responses not only indicated multi-
played a role in shaping their environmental identities, in ple backgrounds in religion/theology (7 respondents) but
part because many of the congregations and umbrella organ- also an array of other backgrounds that involve significant
izations interviewed were to some extent actively involved training, ranging from journalist, engineer, lawyer, architect,
and medical doctor. This gives some indication of the social
location of respondents, which could be characterized as
6
https://​www.​perso​nenst​andsr​echt.​de/​Webs/​PERS/​DE/​infor ​matio​ vocationally devoted to their religion and mostly favorable to
nen/​relig​ionsg​emein​schaf​ten/​relig​ionsg​emein​schaf​ten-​node.​html). environmental engagement, but with a clear understanding
Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2024) 14:342–357 347

of the resources available to their respective congregations Materialization

and umbrella organizations.
Of the 38 interviews, 15 were held by two researchers Representatives of different communities explained their
(one male and one female) in which one interviewer con- commitment by pointing out that climate change is an
ducted the interview whilst the other observed (partially urgent problem in need of addressing. Communities recog-
to allow for the honing of interview techniques), with the nize the problem and now want to act, with some interview-
remainder being held by a single researcher. ees describing their commitment to the environment as a
The use of semi-structured interviews provided signifi- necessity. In addition, economic reasons were mentioned, as
cant advantages: firstly, adherence to a structure ensured a energy efficiency measures often allow for reducing energy
degree of comparability, and secondly, the freedom that is costs. If ecological aspects are considered when renovat-
built into semi-structured interviews allowed us to be open ing buildings, this may lead to medium- and long-term cost
and able to react to our interlocutors (Mayring 2002). Inter- reductions. Representatives from communities with lower
viewees gave their informed consent, and over the course of or no environmental engagement also explained the reasons
60 to 90 min, conversation partners initially explained what for their low or non-engagement. The main reason given was
their position was within the communities, and then went on a lack of resources, both financial and human. One inter-
to detail how and to what extent their religious communities viewee said:
deal (or do not deal) with environmental issues. At the end
“Environmental protection is an issue for the wealthy.
of each interview, interviewees were able to make further
If you do not have any financial difficulties, if you
comments. Interviews were transcribed and coded in MAX-
know, yes tomorrow I have enough to eat, tomorrow I
QDA. The analysis was carried out partly on the basis of
can pay the electricity in the mosque, tomorrow I can
previously fixed theoretical codes (e.g., the four functions of
also pay the Imam, that will not be a problem, then you
the environmental commitment of religious communities),
can say: Okay, now we can also dedicate ourselves
and partly on the basis of codes that were developed during
to this topic. But if you’re always in a state of finan-
the analysis. As such, a large part of coding and grouping
cial emergency, as is the case with 99 percent of the
of codes from the interviews took place following the tran-
mosques (…) you just don’t have time to deal with this
scriptions of all interviews and emerged from the data itself
topic properly now.” (Interview 5)
which continuously refined and revised our understanding.
In addition to interviews, documents of the religious com- Nevertheless, it may be the case that explicit forms of
munities concerning environmental issues were collected environmentalism are not perceived as taking place, but
and analyzed. These include books, brochures, press releases that implicit pro-environmental attitudes and behaviours
or the website of religious communities, and also debates in take place regardless (Baugh 2019). This may particularly
the media. Furthermore, we examined relevant data from the be the case for Muslim communities (such as interview 5,
MOSAiCH 2019 project (Stähli et al. 2019).7 above) and other minority communities in our study. These
may indirectly embed an environmental lifestyle due to their
smaller economic means in comparison to the established
Results religious communities.
Some interviewees seemed to think that it is simply not
What are religious actors (not) doing to mitigate possible to engage in climate change mitigation without the
climate change? appropriate financial resources. Maintenance of the build-
ing, payment of employees, etc. are unavoidable, and funds
First, we show what religious communities in Germany and are limited. In addition, the lack of appropriate structures or
Switzerland are (not) doing in the fight against climate change, support was also mentioned.
focusing on the established Christian churches but also includ- It was also pointed out that religious communities had
ing other religious communities (regarding the differences other priorities. For example, for many communities, social
see Huber and Koehrsen 2020; Koehrsen and Huber 2021; justice is considered more important, including the social
Koehrsen et al. 2022). While examining the actions religious welfare of their members (e.g., welfare services for poor
communities are taking, we also examine the extent to which families). Additionally, some communities mentioned
this potential is currently fulfilled in the dimensions of A) migration and discrimination as important issues that they
materialization B) shaping values, and C) political influence. favoured over addressing climate change. Finally, it was also
noted that there are other organizations (e.g., civil society
organizations) that address the issue of climate change.
7
The data is available at: https://​devisu.​forsc​enter.​ch/​index.​php/​catal​ Accordingly, religious organizations may not feel that they
og/​1120 need to do this as well (Interviews 9, 20):
348 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2024) 14:342–357

“But it does not matter. Um, when you come together an issue where I think we could also make progress.”
like that, you obviously have a different goal. The goal (Interview 24)
of the collaboration is actually, um, to stand together
Religious actors engage in the fight against climate
for Christ in this world, right.” (Interview 9)
change in various forms. However, it is still only a minority
As a reason for commitment to climate change mitiga- of communities that are highly engaged in different types of
tion, some interview partners from the established churches materialization activities (e.g., reducing temperature, using
pointed out that the churches have to take some responsibil- photovoltaics, and improved building insulation). Most of
ity and take action (Interviews 1, 15, and 21). In addition, those that are engaged often do so on a low level (e.g., buy-
the potential from available human resources was recognised ing fair-trade coffee). While many consider it important to
by some of those interviewed but remains largely untapped. address climate change, they are unable and/or unwilling to
However, we detail below some of the ways in which reli- invest more.
gious organizations attempt to harness the potential of
their membership by promoting environmentally friendly Shaping values
behavior.
An example for the commitment of the established In this area, the religious communities interviewed are active
churches in the area of “materialization” is the “Green in various forms. Representatives of all Abrahamic religions
Rooster.” The “Green Rooster” is an environmental certifica- mentioned, for example, that the Holy Scriptures already
tion scheme for Christian churches for which congregations include environmental protection, and thus climate change
in Germany and Switzerland can apply. To achieve this cer- mitigation. If adherents live their life according to the scrip-
tificate, environmental auditors accompany congregations to tures, they should automatically be environmentally friendly.
enable them to reach measurable environmental goals (e.g., While representatives of Jewish and Muslim communities
saving thermal energy or reducing waste): (e.g., interviews 14 and 16) concluded that this was enough,
others (evangelicals) stated that this was what they were try-
“And once these buildings and all the properties have
ing to communicate to their followers—however, they point
been recorded, then it’s about making sure that you set
out that it is ultimately up to individuals to decide how they
yourself small goals, it’s not about completely renovat-
want to live (interviews 6 and 12):
ing a parish in a big all-round attack so that it is in
a top ecological position. But you can set your own “So, of course we have, but of course that’s not the
small, ecologically sensible goals.” (Interview 32) core task of the church, to somehow pass this on to
all members. So, I feel like that might be going a little
In addition, interview partners point to various materi-
(too) far.” (Interview 20)
alization projects in which they are involved. For example,
heating, lighting and electrical systems are optimized, heat- Many communities were more active in shaping the val-
ing temperatures lowered, building insulation improved, ues of the adherents. Climate change is addressed in indi-
investments have been made in renewable energy (although vidual sermons or is part of an environmental education
in one case a photovoltaic system was not approved due to within the communities. Further, various religious com-
legislation on the historic preservation of buildings), and munities produce or use magazines or brochures to educate
palm oil-free cleaning agents have been used. Full-scale their members. Christian and Muslim umbrella organiza-
commitment to some or many of these activities, however, tions provide material for this purpose (for Muslim envi-
tends to be the exception. Most congregations undertake ronmental activism in Germany, see also Willms 2021). For
more basic activities. For example, respondents reported instance, in Switzerland, the association “Oeku Church and
recycling or buying fair-trade coffee and regional products Environment” produces publications, such as the environ-
for their congregational activities. According to an inter- mental handbook “Let’s go green” and guidelines for saving
viewee from a Protestant umbrella organization, there have energy. Also, the Muslim organization VIOZ (Association of
been some successes, but there is also significant potential Islamic Organizations in Zurich) published an environmental
for further engagement. brochure “Environmental Protection and Sustainability in
Islam.” The major Christian churches often emphasize that
“When I see that we have been able to successfully
the environment is important in youth education. Climate
introduce energy management systems in many of our
change is discussed within the Scouts or at youth camps.
regional churches and have thus far exceeded our
Thus, attempts are also being made by different means and
2015 climate targets of saving 25% CO2 in buildings,
to different extents to bring climate protection and appropri-
then that’s great. But I see that there is still a lot we
ate behavior closer to the followers. This task should not be
can do in the areas of procurement and food, and that
underestimated, as one interviewee says:
this will lower our overall targets again. Mobility is
Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2024) 14:342–357 349

Graph 1  Authors own elaboration, data taken from MOSAiCH, 2019

“And that is actually quite a lot of educational work, evangelical free churches attribute an important role to reli-
but I have the feeling that there should be more, it gion in this area, with almost 80% of the surveyed followers
should bare more fruit, when this is really imple- of evangelical communities claiming this is important. Other
mented. However, of course, there are many people Christian communities also show high values in this respect.
and to reach all of them and … I have the feeling that This can probably be attributed to the fact that religion
(this) is such an ongoing task, to just stick to it. That seems to play a central role in the lives of adherents from
you make people aware of this again and again.” these Christian denominations and that Christian identity is
(Interview 20) perceived as a determining factor in all other areas (Stolz
and Huber 2014). Non-Christian religions, including Islam,
Even though many of those interviewed noted that cli-
Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism also show relatively high
mate change is addressed within the community, the issue
values. Here, too, there is still hidden potential. This can
tends to remain in the background. However, some recog-
often be attributed to the fact that in migrant communities’
nized that more should be done in this regard.
religion forms an important part of identity, and strongly
As a Swiss survey shows (Stähli et al. 2019), respondents
influences life (Stolz et al. 2014). The great potential of reli-
believed that their attitudes toward nature and the environ-
gion for addressing climate change appears to ultimately lay
ment are affected by religion. Of those surveyed, 15.1% said
in the transmission of values. However, religion is but one of
religion played an important role in attitudes toward nature
many ways that values are transmitted. It may be that adher-
and the environment; 14.9% said it played a role, but not
ents to different faiths perceive other factors as being more
as important; and 42.7% said none at all. 27.3% gave no
important for informing their environmental values (e.g.,
answer. In effect, of those that responded, more than 40%
education, mass media consumption, and family members).
indicated that they believed that religion plays a role in
Furthermore, values are not transmitted uniformly, and there
shaping attitudes and behaviors towards the environment.
are significant tensions that can be identified within denom-
Furthermore, the potential appears to be smaller for com-
inations, between denominations, between religions, and
munities that address climate change than for those that do
between a religion and wider society (Koehrsen et al. 2022).
not or rarely address it. Graph 1 shows that adherents of
both the Roman Catholic Church and the Reformed Church
Political influence
are less likely to state that religion plays an important role
in attitudes toward nature and the environment than adher-
Political influence offers a potential that is acquired through
ents from other religious groups. Indeed, the followers of
power. Here, however, the question arises to what extent
350 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2024) 14:342–357

attempts are made to use it. In Switzerland and Germany, How do religious actors deal with expectations?
the established Christian churches have a certain amount
of political influence via their public visibility and social Interviewees spoke of various expectations which they felt
ties with political parties and decision-makers. Other reli- were placed on religious communities regarding climate
gious traditions only have a marginal influence at best. The change. Often, it was these very expectations that resulted
focus of the established Christian churches is usually on in galvanizing communities to take action against climate
social issues or justice, and not on climate change. At the change. First, umbrella organizations have certain expecta-
level of local congregations, political involvement is spo- tions with regard to individual congregations. Then, there
radic, although individual churches get involved in voting are also expectations from the congregations’ own mem-
or elections. One example is the Swiss popular initiative bers, and finally those, which are perceived as coming from
for responsible businesses.8 This initiative sought to create outside of the community. However, these cannot always be
a new law for Swiss enterprises to follow human rights and clearly demarcated.
environmental standards in their economic activities abroad.
Various religious organizations (mainly related to the estab- Expectations from umbrella organizations or leaders
lished churches) joined in the initiatives committee,9 pro- of one’s own religious tradition
ducing and displaying posters and distributing flyers. The
public debate on this initiative was very controversial, and Various interviewees referred to their own religious tradition
it should be noted that the main focus was on justice; with in their commitment to combating climate change. From
environmental protection and climate change forming only the Christian perspective, the best-known example of this
a minor part of this. Religious engagement in such political is the Laudato Si’ encyclical which focuses on the pres-
matters as the popular initiative for responsible businesses is ervation of creation. Various interviewees from Christian
often coordinated by umbrella organizations rather than at a churches claimed their commitment was based on theology
local level. An explicit example of lobbying is shown on the or, more specifically, on Laudato Si’ (Interviews 12, 19).
occasion of the climate conference in Katowice (COP24): Very involved individuals noted with regret that they had
In a joint letter, the Swiss Bishops’ Conference, the Chris- hoped for more change within the churches from Laudato
tian Catholic Church of Switzerland, and the Federation of Si’. One person from a Reformed umbrella organization
Swiss Protestant Churches appealed to the Federal Council pointed this out:
to advocate for a fairer climate policy. Umbrella organiza-
“Although they [the Catholic Church] have actually
tions have often made attempts to influence politics:
received the boost with Laudato Si’, very little has
“I participate in various working groups in the Bunde- actually happened so far.” (Interview 38).
stag- There is also a working group `Peace Responsi-
To date, changes have failed to materialize, partially
bility of the Religions`, that I am a part of.” (Interview
because of resistance from within churches (Interviews 1
29)
and 10).
Interviewees themselves also see the potential of religious Non-Christian religious actors also face expectations
activism in this area. It is possible to approach politicians within their own religious tradition: Muslim representatives
from a Christian perspective, especially those from overtly mentioned that sustainability is a major theme in the Quran
Christian parties (such as the CVP, CDU). Thus, there is (Interviews 10 and 13), and Jewish interviewees referred to
also the possibility to work on climate protection as a topic the Torah and God (Interview 16). Buddhists argued that
from a non-left perspective (Interviews 1 and 21). Recently, although it was not an issue directly, it was implicit in the
various actions have also taken place on the local level. Par- Buddha’s teachings (Interview 8) and a representative of a
ticularly in the context of Fridays for Future, some Christian Hindu community said that care of the environment is also
churches have provided climate strikers with rooms, prayed important in the Hindu faith (Interview 22). Thus, repre-
for them, and organized panel discussions, even creating a sentatives of all religious traditions pointed out that their
network called “Churches for Future”.10 own religion expected its followers to care for the environ-
ment and the climate. However, this is rarely a top priority.

8
Expectations from members
https://​www.​admin.​ch/​gov/​en/​start/​docum​entat​ion/​votes/​20201​129/​
inizi​ativa-​popol​are-​per-​impre​se-​respo​nsabi​li-a-​tutela-​dell-​essere-​
umano-e-​dell-​ambie​nte.​html Reference was also made to the congregations’ own mem-
9
See: https://​konze​rnver​antwo​rtung.​ch/​koali​tion/ bers who have brought environmental commitment into the
10
Churches for Future-Kirchen für Klimagerechtigkeit (kirchen-fuer- given congregations. While some representatives of non-
klimagerechtigkeit.de). Christian communities claimed that climate change does
Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2024) 14:342–357 351

not interest their members, representatives of mainstream The established Christian churches in particular pointed
Christian churches noted that they also had many environ- out that they see themselves as a reflection of society and
mentally committed members, who had originally engaged take up these trends accordingly. If climate change is becom-
outside of the community in environmental activities. Over ing more and more important in society, and if it is also a
time, however, they have brought this commitment into the defining issue for the public and in politics, the churches
community. This is also reflected to some extent in non- cannot abstain from action. Another formulated this in more
Christian communities, as can be seen in the quote below general terms:
where younger members were the initiators of a project to
“Especially in the last elections to the National Coun-
create an environmentally friendly mosque:
cil, where there was a green landslide—I’ll say that—
“…green mosque has become a very attractive topic. plus the whole issue of the “Fridays for future,” the
And especially (for) young people, young Muslims. The topic has once again been put a little more prominently
first generation was very satisfied if a room was found on the agenda. It had been a side issue for a long time
for prayer. Whether that's in a garage or in the back- [...] and now, because of its socio-political relevance,
yard or somewhere else, but now Muslims - especially it has taken on a different significance [...] and that’s
the new generation - pay attention that their mosques why you have to deal with this topic in a different
are representative and must be environmentally way.” (Interview 38)
friendly. Green mosques that are ecological in how
Different expectations are perceived and addressed in reli-
they are built, with the way they are operated...There
gious communities, but reactions to these expectations vary.
are many features that this Green Mosque does with
This may lead to increased commitment, trend-setting, or
energy. That energy can be obtained from these new
counter-movements. Interestingly, communities that do not
energy sources in the most environmentally friendly
see themselves as a reflection of society are better able to set
way possible." (Interview 13)
aside expectations or to directly reject them. A representa-
This shows that members of religious communities can tive of an evangelical community, for example, said:
be drivers of religious engagement in climate change miti-
“I think that churches don’t primarily have an eco-
gation. It was also often emphasized that it was important
logical mission, but I sometimes have the impression
for members to be actively involved in order to be able to
that we miss the actual mission a bit. To be able to
achieve something and that volunteers are required to attain
love people from faith somewhere. And to see more in
success.
people than just ecology.” (Interview 25)
External expectations This was echoed by an interviewee from the Buddhist
community:
Interviewees also talked about how commitment was con-
“It is not the task of Buddhist communities to educate
textually driven from society, with, for example references
people about environmental protection. That is not the
made to Fridays for Future. Climate strikers asked commu-
task. The task of Buddhism is the training of the spirit.
nities to provide them with space and other forms of support.
I mean a sports or football club does not have the task
In some communities, “greening” activities were initiated
to enlighten about environmental protection either.”
directly as a result of this, particularly value dissemination
(Interview 2)
in the form of green themed sermons. In the words of one
interviewee: “Fridays for Future and Greta Thunberg, have
brought a certain movement into the running” (Interview
29). However, other environmental organizations have also Discussion
brought the issue to the church:
Our research shows that there were no significant differences
“...Ecology didn’t grow on the church’s dung heap,
between stakeholders interviewed in Germany and Swit-
that’s quite clear. There have been other groups.
zerland, echoing the notion that there are strong structural
There was WWF, Greenpeace, etc., which really had
similarities between the two (Koehrsen and Huber 2021).
a pioneering role in this area. (...) Then they also
Whether this means that our findings could be interpreted
found partners in churches, which supported them
as valid for the entire German speaking part of Europe is
afterwards, or then they founded their own organiza-
another matter. But the similarities in responses across both
tions, which repeatedly tried to raise awareness in the
countries certainly indicate that there may be wider-reaching
churches.” (Interview 12)
implications of our research.
352 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2024) 14:342–357

Many of the umbrella organizations and congregations inter- culture, they can spread throughout the evangelical milieu and
viewed were active in communicating environmentally friendly lead to a change of lifestyle among the adherents (e.g., choices
values to some extent. However, there were differences in the about energy consumption and mobility). It should be noted
extent to which these values are communicated and in the extent that although there is some research to indicate that members
to which it is considered useful to do so at all. While the topic of monotheistic religions are currently less likely to engage
of climate change is considered as important in the two large in pro-environmental behaviour than members of pantheistic
Christian churches, it plays only a subordinate role in other religions (Taylor et al. 2020), as the climate crisis deepens,
religious denominations. This may partially be owing to the this may well change, and the potential reach of monotheistic
social location of other religious denominations which are not religions within a European context is significant.
officially established and thus do not have access to the funding Globally, there have been some attempts from religious
available to the two established churches (raised via a church organizations to exert political influence, such as the Evangeli-
tax). However, there is no added financial burden to preaching cal Climate Initiative in the USA (Wardekker et al. 2009; John-
environmentally friendly behaviour, which may indicate that ston 2010). In this respect, individual attempts can be positively
there are other reasons for this lack of engagement in communi- highlighted, but the extent to which the potential for further
cating environmentally friendly behaviour. One possible expla- action exists here is less visible, and would require a deeper
nation for this is that smaller religious groups (e.g., Muslim analysis of the relationship between state and religions. Further-
congregations) often comprise of higher numbers of migrants more, the case could be made for umbrella organizations act-
who may be socially integrated but who are excluded from offi- ing as mediators between congregations and politics, providing
cial participation in both Swiss political processes (such are ref- the contacts and necessary networks to influence both political
erendums) and national political processes in Germany. There decisions and the uptake of policies by congregations.
is great potential here for further engagement (Grim and Tucker In the area of materialization, some religious communi-
2014; Haluza‐DeLay 2014; Koehrsen 2015, 2018; Jenkins ties engage directly in climate change mitigation. They reduce
et al. 2018; Ives and Kidwell 2019), but this has not been fully ­CO2 emissions by decreasing their energy consumption and
harnessed. This further strengthens previous research which improving energy efficiency of their buildings, or through pro-
indicates that although some action is taking place in address- ducing their own electricity renewably. The implementation
ing climate change, this is not currently the main concern of of concrete projects can indeed make a difference locally but
religious organizations (Caldwell et al. 2022). when compared to other social spheres (e.g., business sector
Religion can have a moral role model function and close and especially industrial production) the potential contribu-
social ties to its members. Looking at the empirical data, it tion of religious organizations appears small. Nevertheless, one
appears that while the larger established Christian churches are could argue that religious organizations could use their moral
the most active, the potential for change lies primarily with Mus- authority and act as role models for others when they under-
lim and Evangelical congregations. In the case of Muslim con- take materialization measures, thereby encouraging others to
gregations, as mentioned above, this potential may be affected follow, creating a much broader impact (Mohamad et al. 2012).
by the fact that a large proportion of members are migrants that In terms of resources, these are often perceived as an
may have more limited financial means. Since religion is often essential prerequisite for climate change mitigation (Gard-
a first point of contact (Norris and Inglehart 2004), there is the ner 2003, 2006; Haluza‐DeLay 2014), either in the form of
possibility of conveying corresponding values based on a reli- financial or human resources. Indeed, our empirical work
gious rationale. Furthermore, despite their reputation as highly revealed that the lack of financial resources was perceived
developed wealthy countries, there are considerable levels of of as a significant obstacle.
energy poverty in both Germany and Switzerland that may However, the increasingly visible financial benefits of some
further increase in the course of the ongoing energy transition forms of materialization (such as installing PV) help to make
processes (Hearn et al. 2022). Therefore, a potential measure a financial case for using limited resources on environmen-
that addresses both, climate change and social justice, could be tally friendly measures with investments in PV (Martinop-
religious campaigning persuading political decision makers to oulos 2020). Furthermore, the significant human capital that
channel funds towards those that are most vulnerable. is available to congregations in terms of membership pro-
The potential for Evangelical congregations stems above all vides the potential for significant change without necessitat-
from the fact that Evangelicals tend to show higher participa- ing financial input. Thus, for example, congregations can be
tion rates in congregational activities (e.g., church services). encouraged to take actions such as reduce meat consumption
Therefore, religion has a higher chance to penetrate other areas and recycle more, through the use of environmentally friendly
of members’ everyday life. Thus, evangelicals may also draw sermons which do not have a cost attached to them. In the
on religious principles in their attitudes toward the economy, context of the Catholic Church, these kinds of measures also
politics, and even the environment (Stähli et al. 2019). If envi- add clarity to the Laudato Si’ encyclical, providing concrete
ronmentally friendly attitudes become part of evangelical ways of addressing environmental issues (Wilkins 2020).
Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2024) 14:342–357 353

The interviewees were also aware of their role within concentrated in emerging economies such as India, Brazil, and
society and what expectations they face regarding climate China, with 10 countries accounting for some 78% of Global
change mitigation. In both countries, established Christian South emissions, while the remaining 120 countries account
churches see themselves as an integral part of society and for only 22%. (Fuhr 2021), and the case could be made for
try to take up corresponding trends and to participate in the examining such emerging economies separately.
fight against climate change. This may well be connected to
recognition and perceived potential from the general public.
Non-established religious organizations, on the other hand, Outlook
were able to opt out in this regard, as they did not face such
expectations from society, environmental organizations, or With regard to future research, the Global South and emerg-
their own members. Finally, with regard to expectations, it ing economies are certainly important, where attitudes on
can be noted that religious actors may believe that potentials climate change may be more influenced by religion. In less
need not be exhausted, and indeed, it may be unrealistic secularized environments, religion has more impact and can
to expect them to take the lead in climate change mitiga- (at least theoretically) better develop the potentials discussed
tion. They point out that their core purpose is spiritual, and in this article. However, financial resources are often sparser
that there are other organizations that are specifically des- in the Global South, which in turn weakens the potential of
ignated to reducing the impact of climate change. However, climate-mitigating action. It is also important to weigh up
if congregations take up a greater role in mitigating climate where the greatest savings potential lies in terms of solv-
change following encouragement from leadership, the poten- ing the climate crisis. For example, countries in the Global
tial for significant change could be considerably amplified. North have a much larger per capita C ­ O2 footprint than those
In terms of engagement, the national contexts also need to in the Global South. At the same time, due to economic
be considered. In the case of Switzerland, current tempera- development, countries in the Global South may move
tures have risen considerably faster than the global average towards a similar footprint as the Global North. This is a
(NCCS 2023), with a noticeable and visible to the eye effect major challenge that could possibly be mitigated by religion
on glacier decline (10% decrease in the past 2 years (Horton and an interesting field for future research.
and reporter 2023; GLAMOS 2023)). In addition, the impact Further research could also focus on differences in engage-
of social movements such as Fridays for Future have been ment between religious umbrella organizations and congre-
substantial with a recent study indicating that environmen- gations and to what extent umbrella organizations inhibit
tal concern and behaviour have been positively influenced engagement at the congregational level because there may be
with behavior changes reported even among those that are a perception that this topic is already being addressed. This
sceptical of the climate change movement (Fritz et al. 2023). may mean that umbrella organizations act as both inhibitors
In the case of Germany, the catastrophic flooding in 2021 and facilitators of engagement in addressing climate change.
had a noticeable effect on votes in favor of climate progres- Moreover, an interesting avenue for future research would be
sive parties (Garside and Zhai 2022), and the Green Party’s to study congregations and umbrella organization that actively
share of votes increased from 8.8% in 2017 to 14.8% in 2021 support environmentally harmful human practices and indus-
indicating broader societal tendencies towards increased tries (e.g., mining industry and non-renewable energies).
environmentalism. In light of this, religious environmental This article has shown the potentials attributed to religion
engagement in both countries appears to be relatively low in the fight against climate change, with various expectations
(in comparison to the broader societal engagement in the placed on religion by scientific, social, and religious actors.
two countries), leading us to infer that much of the assumed Based on empirical data from Germany and Switzerland, we
potential of religion remains as yet unrealized. show that many of these expectations remain, so far, unfulfilled.
It is important to note that there are limitations to our There appears to be significant untapped potential. Finally, the
research which we have tried to address. Although we con- question also arises: Do the expectations have to be fulfilled at
ducted numerous interviews, the professional role of each all? If one looks at other areas in society—such as the politi-
interviewee in the given organization may have had an impact cal and economic sphere—some may argue that these other
on how they framed their responses. Additionally, our research areas do not contribute as much as they could to address cli-
focused on the cases of Germany and Switzerland. The dynam- mate change. In contrast to religious actors, other actors may
ics found here may be to some extent similar in other Western wield greater decision-making power and may have higher
European countries. However, our results do not necessarily greenhouse gas emissions to account for. Moreover, one may
translate well to countries outside of Europe, and specifically question whether religion should be seen as set of resources
the Global South, where GHG emissions are overall signifi- to solve the climate crisis. Is it the task of religious communi-
cantly lower. However, the Global South is not a singular mon- ties to address environmental issues or should these rather be
olithic entity as the distribution of GHG emissions is heavily addressed by other types of actors (e.g., politicians and business
354 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2024) 14:342–357

leaders)? However, in addition to the external demands, there Blanc J (2022) From “why should?” to “why do?” tensions in the
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und Gesellschaft: die Schweiz zwischen Säkularisierung und
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the current study are not publicly available due to privacy restrictions. Boff L (2011) Ecología: grito de la Tierra, grito de los pobres, 5th
edn. Editorial Trotta, S.A, Publisher
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