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Reviewer in Earth and Life Science

1st Semester: 1st Grading
Lesson 1: Conditions for Life to Exist
For a planet to be habitable, it should satisfy all the four conditions: Atmosphere,
temperature, energy and nutrients.

Aside from temperature, water, atmosphere, energy and nutrients, there are still many
conditions such as size of the planet, magnetic core, distance from the sun and gases present
in the atmosphere.

Lesson 2: Earth’s Subsystem

Earth System Science (ESS) is the study of the Earth as a system. It considers
interaction between the Earth’s “sphere” - atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and
biosphere.
Hydrosphere – is the totality of Earth’s water, including the permanently frozen parts
called cryosphere. Water can be in three phases: solid, liquid and gas. About 70% of the
Earth is covered with water and only 2.75% of Earth’s water in fresh water.
Geosphere – considered the portion of the Earth that includes the Earth’s interior, rocks
and minerals, landforms and processes that shape the Earth’s surface. Composed of naturally-
occurring rocks and loose particles of rocks called regolith.
Atmosphere – is the mixture of gases that surround the planet. Atmosphere is generally
composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon and 0.1% is made of different gases.
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Biosphere – includes all life forms. Most life on Earth exists within a zone no wider that
20km where the interaction between the lithosphere and atmosphere. Biosphere is evident in
different subsystem of the Earth.
Interaction between the system helps in maintaining the life within the Earth.
Examples of interaction are:
1. Biosphere and Geosphere - plants that thrive and grow from the ground. Humans living
on the surface of the Earth.
2. Biosphere and Atmosphere – plants sustain oxygen to the atmosphere through
photosynthesis.
3. Hydrosphere and Atmosphere – water vapors that form into clouds.

Lesson 3: Physical and Chemical Properties of Minerals

Minerals are naturally-occurring, inorganic and homogenous solids that has a definite
crystalline structure and chemical composition. Some minerals are made up of only one element
such gold, graphite, diamond and copper.
Physical Properties of Minerals
1. Luster - describes the appearance of minerals when light is reflected from it.

2. Streak – is the color of the powdered mineral produced when it dragged across a
surface.

3. Color – is caused by the absorption or lack thereof, of visible light by their crystalline
structure.

4. Hardness – is a mineral’s ability to resist scratching or abrasion. It is determined by

comparing the relative hardness of specimen with another mineral of known
hardness. We can determine the hardness of material by scratching it with another
mineral scaled from 1 to 10 known as Mohs Scale of Hardness.

5. Cleavage – is the tendency of a mineral to split or cleave along planes of weakness.

Minerals that break easily and cleanly along one or more planes are said to have
good cleavage. Example is the MICA that splits like onion peels.

Lesson 4: Classification of Rocks

Different rocks are found on Earth’s lithosphere. Rocks are constantly transformed,
generated and destroyed in a process called “Rock Cycle”. The rocks can be categorized
depending on how they are formed.
Igneous rocks are formed through the cooling of magma or lava.
1. Intrusive or Plutonic Rocks – formed underneath the surface of the Earth and from a
slow cooling magma. It is coarse-grained.

2. Extrusive or Volcanic Rocks – formed on the surface and cools quickly. It is fine-
grained.

Sedimentary rocks accumulate in a process called deposition of soil and other materials. It is
formed from the products of weathering and erosion, and organic materials. Those materials
become solidified into rock called lithification. Sedimentary rocks can be clastic, chemical or
organic.
Metamorphic rocks are formed through exposure of igneous or sedimentary rock to high
pressure, high temperature or both deep within the Earth’s surface.
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Lesson 5: Exogenic Processes

Weathering is the general term applied to the combined action of all physical and
chemical processes that disintegrate and decomposes rocks. There are two types of
weathering: physical or mechanical weathering and chemical weathering.
Physical weathering happens whenever rock are broken into smaller pieces without
change in chemical composition. Calcium carbonates are produced.
1. Frost Wedging – refers to the alternate freezing and thawing of water inside the
joints of the rock causing them to split.
2. Abrasion – wearing away of rocks by constant collision of loose particles.
3. Biological Activity – when plants break up rocks with roots or roots exudates.

Chemical weathering is weaking or disintegration of rocks and the formation of new

compounds or new substances caused by chemical reactions. There are three catalyst or
reagents of chemical weathering: water, oxygen and carbon dioxide.

1. Dissolution – is the process in which some of the minerals in rocks are directly
dissolved in water.
2. Hydration – is the result of absorption or combination of water and a particular
substance on the rock, leading to a change in shape.
3. Carbonation – is the process involving the formation of various type of carbonates in
rock.
4. Oxidation – is the process where oxygen reacts with the rock and changes its
mineral composition.

Mass wasting refers to the downslope movement of rock, regolith and soil because of
gravity. It is a natural process that occurs after weathering.

Erosion is the separation and removal of weathered rock due to different agents like
water, wind and glacier that causes transportation of the materials to where they are deposited.
The agents of erosion are running water, ocean/sea waves, glaciers, groundwater, wind
and gravity.
Deposition takes place when particles are carried away by water, ice or wind and
deposited it in certain location adding to a landform or landmass.

Lesson 6: Earth’s Internal Heat and Magmatism

Earth’s Structure
Crust – the lightest and least dense layer of the geosphere. Consist of mostly solid rock
with high percentage of silicon and oxygen composed minerals. Crust can be divided into two
parts: Oceanic crust and Continental Crust.

Mantle – the largest layer of geosphere. Consist of mostly silicate rock with high
percentages of magnesium and iron compared to the crust. Mantle can be divided into two:
Lower mantle and upper mantle.

Core – the heaviest portion of the geosphere. Mostly consist of iron and nickel alloy.
Core can be divided into two: inner core and outer core. Outer core has a temperature of 4,500
to 5,200 degree Celsius. Inner core has a temperature of 5,200 degree Celsius.

Geothermal gradient is the rate of increasing temperature with respect to increasing

depth in the Earth’s interior. Away from tectonic plate boundaries, it is about 25°C per km of
depth.
Convection current happens in the outer core and mantle is the continuous loop of
sinking hot, soft rocks caused by energy transfer in asthenosphere.
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Sources of heat:
1. Primordial heat – heat from the accretion and bombardment of the Earth during the
early stages of formation.
2. Radiogenic heat – involves the disintegration of natural radioactive elements inside
the Earth.

Figure A shows a convection cell, warm material rises (up to the surface of the earth) and cool
material sinks. These cooled materials will eventually turn to land formation. In mantle
convection, the heat source is the core. It happens in the outer core and mantle.
The core of the earth is very hot. It is nearly as hot as the surface of the sun – about 6000˚C.
Convection current is relevant to the movement of tectonic plate because the heat builds up
pressure underneath the crust (tectonic plates). As they become unstable, they push against
each other (subduction) and rise upwards or one goes under the other.

Figure B shows the process of conduction on how air molecules come in contact with the
warmer surface of the land or ocean, resulting to the increase of its thermal energy through
conduction. The thermal energy of the core is transferred to the surface of the earth and the
lower levels of ocean by conduction

Conduction is the transfer of heat by vibration of molecules.

Plutonism is when magma from underneath the earth tried to go up in the area with low
pressure out of the volcano

Magmatism
Magmatism is a process by which mantle rocks are subjected to heat enough to melt
those quantities that leads to the formation and movement of magma. Magma and lava contain
three components: melt, solids and volatiles. Magma contains 46.6% oxygen and 27.7%
silicon.
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Lesson 7: Metamorphism

Metamorphism is the process of transforming rock into another form. Metamorphic rock
comes from pre-existing rock called parent rock.
Rock transformed due to application of :
>>high temperature and
>>high pressure and
>>water.
A magnifying glass is usually used to see the grain size in identifying the type of
metamorphism the rock went through.

Types of Metamorphism
1. Contact metamorphism – occurs when magma moves into a rock or when a rock is
near a body of magma. The changes are driven by the increasing temperature.

2. Regional metamorphism – occurs deep in the Earth’s crust. These are rocks that
are subjected to direct pressure from tectonic activity

Lesson 8: Igneous Rocks

The source of all rock is from the magma which are molten materials inside the Earth.
When this molten materials solidify, igneous rocks are formed.

Two types of Igneous Rocks

After magma is formed, magma may escape in two forms:
1. Intrusive or Plutonic Rock– results when magma solidifies and cools beneath the
Earth’s surface.
2. Extrusive or Volcanic Rock – formed when magma flows onto the surface of the
Earth then cools and hardens.

Color of Igneous Rocks

1. Ultramafic – very low content of silica and very dark-colored.
2. Mafic – dark-colored and rich in magnesium and iron.
3. Intermediate – intermediate between mafic and felsic rock.
4. Felsic – light-colored and contains large amount of silica 65 to75%.

Lesson 9: Movement of Plates, Folds and Faults

Plate tectonic is a model or theory explaining how Earth works more specially the origin
of continents and oceans introduced by Albert Wegener. The Earth’s crust is divided into
segment of landmasses called plates.

Stress is the force exerted per unit area. The following are the types of stress:
a. Compressive stress – involves forces pushing together
b. Tensional stress – involves forces pulling in opposite direction
c. Shearing stress – involves forces sliding to each other.

Strain is the physical change that result in respond to the force.

Movement of Plates
1. Convergent plate boundary – when plates are moving towards each other
(compressive stress)
2. Divergent plate boundary – when plates are moving away from each other
(tensional stress)
3. Transform-fault boundary – when plates are sliding past each other (shearing
stress)
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Folding or Folds
It occurs when rocks are pushed towards each other from opposite side. The rock later
bend into folds.
1. Monocline – a step-like folds in which it has two horizontal or nearly horizontal limb
connected to a shorter incline limb.
2. Anticline – is arch like that are convex-upward in shape.
3. Syncline – is a trough like or U-shaped folds that are concave downward.

Faulting or Faults
The fracturing and displacement of brittle rock strata along a fault plane. Faults are
fracture along the crust in which displacement has occurred.

Dip-Slip Fault
1. Normal fault – occurs when the crust is being pulled apart in which overlying block
moves down. (Tensional stress)
2. Reverse fault – occurs when the crust is being pulled apart in which overlying block
moves up. (Compressive stress)
3. Strike-slip fault – a kind of transform-fault in which blocks move relatively to each
other. (Shearing stress)

Lesson 10 and 11: Formation of Rock Layers, Relative and Absolute Dating

Rock is a solid material made of minerals. When rocks break, minerals will also separate
from the composition. The small fragment of the breaking of the rock is called sediment. The
sediments result from weathering and erosion. The solidification of the sediments is called
lithification.
Sedimentary rock forms layer upon other layers. The layers are known as strata while
the process of layering is called stratification. Stratigraphy is a branch of geology that deals
with the description, correlation and interpretation of stratified sediments which was introduced
by Nicholas Steno.

Relative Dating
Relative dating is the process of determining if one rock or geologic event is older or
younger than another, without knowing their specific ages. The geologic time scale divides the
history of the Earth into different block of time by using relative dating.

Relative dates can be established by the following principles.

1. Principle of Superposition – states that the layers form the bottom is older and the
successive higher layers are younger rocks.

2. Principles of Original Horizontality – the deposited sedimentary rocks form

horizontal or nearly horizontal layers. If layers are flat, this means they were not
disturbed by any tectonic processes.

3. Principle of Cross-cutting – the geologic features like faults or igneous intrusions

are younger than the rock layers cut across.

4. Principle of Inclusions – if the rock fragments are included with another rock layer,
the rock fragments must be older than the rock layer they are embedded.
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Absolute Dating
Knowing the actual age of the rock is known as absolute dating. To determine the
actual age of the rock, scientist use unstable element called isotopes. Isotopes are elements
that have same number of proton but different number of neutrons.
The unstable isotopes are called radioactive isotopes or parent isotopes. When
parent isotopes undergo radioactive decay, it will form new isotopes called daughter isotopes.

Radiometric dating is a method used to determine the actual age of the rock using
decay of radioactive isotopes present in rocks and minerals. The decay of the radioactive
element over a long period of time is called half-life. Carbon dating is used to determine the
age of organic material. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years. Uranium dating is used to
determine the substance of material and it mostly used in absolute dating. Uranium-235 has a
half-life of 705 million years.

Lesson 12: Geologic Time Scale

The first basis of mapping and determining the history of the Earth was by looking at the
rock layers using relative dating. Scientists began to give numerical dates of the rock by using
absolute dating.
Fossils are the geological marker used by geologist to identify which organisms lived in a
certain period.

Geologic time scale has four major divisions of time, Eon, Era, Period and Epoch.
1. Eon – is the largest division that spans hundreds to thousands of millions of years.
2. Era – the subdivisions of eons is the era. It spans from tens to hundreds of millions of
years.
3. Period – one of numerous subdivisions of geologic time allowing cross-referencing of
rocks and geologic events.
4. Epoch – is a subdivision that is longer than an age and shorter than a period.
Eon>Era>Period>Epoch

Earth’s History
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The Pre -Cambrian Era is the longest era which started about 4.5 billion years ago
a. Hadeon eon - name after the Greek god and rules, Hades which means hell and
considered as the chaotic eon. The Earth was bombarded with meteors and sever
volcanic activities.

b. Archean eon – at this eon, planet Earth was warm. The atmosphere has no oxygen and
mostly methane content. Earth was covered with ocean and continents started to rise.

c. Proterozoic eon – it is the longest time scale that lasted almost half the age of the Earth.
Also known as the time for great change. The atmosphere was filled with oxygen giving
the single unit eukaryotic cell to arise. The appearance of multicellular and animal life.

d. Phanerozoic eon – plants and animals are abundant in this geologic time scale. It covers
541 million years up to the present. Phanerozoic eon means visible life. This eon has
three eras: Paleozoic era, Mesozoic era and Cenozoic era.

1. Paleozoic era – marine organisms dominate during this era. The fossil trilobites
were so common all over this time and has been used in index fossils.

2. Mesozoic era – the AGE OF REPTILES ---this era recovered from the great
dying but it took a million years ago. Mesozoic means “middle life”, form 245
million years to 65 million years ago.

3. Cenozoic Era – also known as the “modern life”. It is also known as the age of
mammals. Mammals dominated after the extinction of dinosaurs.

Lesson 13, 14 and 15: Geologic Hazards

Hazard is any event that may pose danger or risk to a certain population. Among these
hazards are geological hazards or those that occur and concern the Earth’s crust.
A. Earthquake – a sudden release of energy along a fault in the Earth’s crust.
Hazards that caused by earthquake:
1. Ground shaking – is the vibration of the ground during an earthquake.
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2. Tsunami – are giant waves caused by earthquake or volcanic eruptions under the
sea.
3. Surface faulting – a displacement that reaches the Earth’s surface during a slip along
a fault.
4. Landslide – movement of a mass or rock, debris or landmass down a slope.
5. Liquefaction – the way in which the soil liquefies during ground shaking.

B. Volcanic Eruption – occurs when molten material from the Earth’s interior is extruded
to the surface.
Hazards caused by volcanic eruptions are:
1. Ash fall – abrasive, making it an irritant to eyes and lungs. Ashfall can cause minor to
major damage to vehicles and buildings, contaminate water supplies and kill
vegetation.
2. Poisonous gases – gases released during a volcanic eruption. 99% of gases emitted
during volcanic eruption are water vapor, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
3. Pyroclastic flow – a dense, fast-moving flow of solidified lava pieces, volcanic ash
and hot gases.
4. Lahar – describes a hot or cold mixture of water, ash and rock fragments that flows
down the slopes of volcano.

C. Landslide – is an occurrence in which soil, rocks and vegetal debris are transported
suddenly or slowly down a slope due to insufficient stability.
Major causes of landslide are the following:
1. Volacanic eruptions and overloading slopes
2. Mining which uses explosives
3. Excavation
4. Cutting trees or deforestation.
5. Overpopulation and overuse of land contribute to landslides

Lesson 16: Hydrometeorological Hazards

It is a process or phenomena of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature
that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihood
and services.
1. Tropical Cyclone - It is a severe weather disturbance characterized by strong
winds and heavy rains which revolve around a central low-pressure area. In
Western North Pacific they called in typhoon, while in Eastern North Pacific it is
called hurricane.
2. Thunderstorm - A violent, short weather disturbance that is almost always
associated with lightning, thunder, dense clouds, heavy rain or hail, and strong
winds.
3. Floods - is an abnormal progressive rise in the water level of a stream that may
result in over-flowing by the water of the normal confines of the stream. A flood
can vary in size, speed of water and duration.
4. Storm surge - A storm surge is a rise in sea level that occurs during tropical
cyclones, intense storms also known as typhoons or hurricanes. The storms
produce strong winds that push the water into shore, which can lead to flooding.
5. Tornado - Locally known as Ipo-ipo, is a narrow, violently rotating column of air
that extends from a thunderstorm to the ground.
6. Monsoon - A monsoon is a seasonal wind and rain pattern, and the word
"monsoon" believed to be originated from Arabic word "mawsim" translates to
season.

Our country is prone to typhoons due to lack of enough land barriers.

A HAZARD MAP contains information about prone areas and prepare us for
potential damages from hazards.

Lesson 17: Marine and Coastal Processes

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Coastal areas refer to the land and sea areas bordering the shoreline. It comprises
the natural boundary between the land and ocean which may include beach, dunes, mangroves,
estuary, delta or lagoon. Coastal processes such as waves, tides, sea level changes, crustal
movement and storm surges will result to coastal erosion, submersion and saltwater intrusions.
Coastal erosion is the wearing down of the coastlines by the movement of wind and
water. It is not a constant process instead depends to the rate of erosions done by other events.
We can prevent further damage caused by coastal erosion by maintaining the stability. There
are three main classifications of stabilizing the shoreline: hard stabilization, soft stabilization,
and retreat.
1. Hard stabilization is done by building structures like a sea wall that will slow
down the erosion on areas that are prone to erosion.
Coastal erosion happens due to interaction of the wind and waves on the shoreline.
To mitigate the effect of coastal land development, activities and development in that
area must be controlled.