We get

Industrial Robotics | Volume 6

technical
Industrial robots
and their human
counterparts

How sensor fusion

enables AMRs to
maneuver around
factory floors efficiently

How delta robotics

optimize and
streamline electronics
manufacturing
processes

Use compact industrial

robots to make any
shop more productive

we get technical
1
 4
Industrial robots and
their human counterparts

8 What are the key factors

used to classify industrial robots?
contents

14 What are the important considerations

when assessing cobot safety?

20 Safely and efficiently integrating amrs into

industry 4.0 Operations for maximum benefit

26 How sensor fusion enables AMRs to

maneuver around factory floors efficiently

32 Robotics in today’s
automotive manufacturing

40 How delta robotics optimize and streamline

electronics manufacturing processes

How SCARA, six-axis, and cartesian pick-and-place

46 robotics optimize and streamline electronics
manufacturing processes

56 Use compact industrial robots to

make any shop more productive

64
Fundamentals of pneumatic grippers
for industrial applications

2
Editor’s note
Today’s manufacturing landscape is filled with
obstacles and difficult choices. While facing
the biggest workforce shortage in our lifetime,
manufacturers also have to compete against
low-cost labor markets all while trying to meet
an ever-rising customer demand. One way to
combat this is through automation. The benefits
of adopting automation into their business model
allows them to locate in more business-friendly
environments. Industrial Robotics have been in
the industry for decades, but new on the scene
are Cobots (Collaborative Robotics). These new
cobots are able to work side by side with their
human counterparts. They provide humans with
the ability to focus on more mentally challenging
tasks while the cobot handles the more tedious/
menial tasks. This new partnership of man
and machine means greater accuracy, more
efficiency, less waste and higher throughput. In
this magazine, we will discuss the various types of
industrial robots, fundamentals of robots, AMRs,
and much more.
Industrial robots
and their human
counterparts
By Eric Halvorson
Marketing Technology Manager, Automation & Control

4
The conversation around robots illness, and complacency. Robots
and their use in manufacturing and machines do not. But the
has long been controversial. question is what happens to those
Many fear that the introduction employees after their jobs are
of robots into the workplace will made obsolete? This is where the
displace human jobs. In some employee benefits. Now, those
respects, yes, robots will replace same employees who were being
some jobs, but it’s not that simple. underutilized in the past can move
Yes, robots will replace some into better quality jobs, including
lower-level jobs. These jobs are jobs that require problem solving
the more menial and tedious jobs. or jobs that require more job
These are jobs such as quality fulfillment. These are higher
control on a factory line. Some quality jobs. Many of these jobs

People have off-days and are subject to

fatigue, illness, and complacency. Robots
and machines do not.

of us can recall the opening are in concert with robotics. These

scene of “Laverne and Shirley” in are called collaborative robots or
Shotz Brewery. While their antics cobots for short.
are funny and over the top, in
As I said earlier, there is quite a bit
today’s manufacturing world, the
of fear about the implementation
demands for quality are quite high.
of cobots in the workplace. Yes,
The need to ensure those bottles
some jobs will be made obsolete.
are properly filled and meet
But what many will experience
customer expectations is more
is a shift in their job roles. There
important than ever. With the use
will be a need for robot designers,
of robotics and machine vision, we
programmers, and maintenance
can now inspect every bottle as it
workers. Others will need to be
passes at break-neck speed. From
upskilled; basically, they will
ensuring the liquid is filled to the
need to get an upgrade in their
proper level and color accuracy
skillset. This means better pay,
to checking labeling applications
better benefits, and greater job
and cap being seated correctly, all
satisfaction. There are also things
aspects of the product’s quality
that humans are inherently good at,
are checked and made to meet
where their robot counterparts are
specific tolerances. People have
not, such as problem-solving skills,
off-days and are subject to fatigue,
critical thinking, and creativity.

we get technical
5
Industrial robots and their human counterparts

Cobots have come a long way But how do we ensure human This enables shop managers
over the past decade. With safety around cobots? Great and manufacturers to safely
safety in mind, these robots question. Today’s safety standards incorporate cobots into overlapping
work right alongside their human for cobots are exceptionally workspaces between humans and
counterparts. These cobots are stringent, as they should be. There their mechanical counterparts.
capable of handling the heavy are numerous safety features
Some examples:
lifting for humans, allowing them on cobots as defined by ISO/TS
■ Maximum Allowable Speed.
to focus on the more mental 15066, which provides guidelines
This is set at the point of the
workload. For example, at for the design and implementation
EOAT (End-of-arm-tooling).
Amazon, cobots are used to move of collaborative workspaces.
product to pickers rather than the
picker going to the shelf, pulling
the product, and returning to their
Cobots have come a long way over the
station. This saves the worker
time, steps, and possibly a lot of past decade. With safety in mind, these
heavy lifting. The cobot saves the
worker’s energy and reduces the
robots work right alongside their human
wear and tear on their bodies daily. counterparts

6
 These speeds are inline with human equivalent
speeds.
■ Speed and Separation Monitoring. Defines the
minimum safety distance between the worker
and the robot system to prevent contact between
the robot and the human. This can be achieved
utilizing safety scanners, light curtains, and
operator presence mats.
■ Power, Force, and Torque Limits. Cobots are
designed to measure torque at every joint in case
of excessive torques or forces, and monitors for
sudden impacts, including soft obstructions.
■ Redundant Checking Systems Diagnostics. If the
robot detects an anomaly or error at any point,
the robot will disable motor power instantly.
■ Safety Rated Stop Modes. Cobots are required to
act based on the level of risk. That could be a full
emergency stop if a safety mishap has occurred, or
it may be a protective stop if a human has entered
its operating area.
■ Ergonomic Design. In six axis robots, there are a
number of potential pinch points. By designing
those joints ergonomically, the worker can avoid
injury should their hand, fingers, or even loose
clothing get trapped in a joint.

With the installation of any robot in a production

setting, great care must be taken to ensure a
truly safe workspace. This is particularly true in
an overlapping workspace that will be shared by
humans and their robot counterparts. Consulting a
professional installer or integrator will help you to
do a full risk assessment and ensure you meet all
applicable safety codes and regulations with regards
to cobots.

Cobots have the ability to reduce worker fatigue,

increase production rates, and increase quality, all while
reducing waste. In truth, they can be a force multiplier
for your production force. In today’s world where we all
face labor shortages, increased competition, and high
consumer demand, cobots can be an equalizer while
creating higher quality jobs.

we get technical
7
What are the key
factors used to classify
industrial robots?
By Jeff Shepard
Contributed By DigiKey's North American Editors

8
Millions of industrial robots are ISO 8373:2021 defines an industrial
active in Industry 4.0 factories robot as an "automatically
around the world. They are controlled, reprogrammable,
used to increase production multipurpose manipulator,
rates, improve quality, reduce programmable in three or more
costs, and support more flexible axes, which can be either fixed in
and sustainable operations. place or fixed to a mobile platform
Because of the importance of for use in automation applications
industrial robots, the International in an industrial environment."
Organization for Standardization
Reprogrammability is a crucial
(ISO) developed standard
differentiator. Some industrial
8373:2021, Robotics Vocabulary,
machines may have manipulators
to define terms used in robotics
and move in multiple axes that
and provide a common language
can handle specific tasks like
for discussing the many types of
picking up bottles on a beverage
robots and their applications.
filling line and placing them into
The International Federation a box. But it's not a robot if it's
of Robots (IFR) used key terms dedicated to that single purpose
defined in ISO 8373:2021 to and not reprogrammable.
identify six robot classifications "Reprogrammable" is defined in
based on their mechanical ISO 8373 as "designed so that the
structure, including: programmed motions or auxiliary
■ Articulated functions may be changed
■ Cartesian without physical alterations."
■ Cylindrical

■ Parallel/Delta

■ Polar
Types and numbers
■ SCARA
of robot joints

This article reviews ISO 8373:2021, ISO 8373 defines two types of
looking at the four key terms that robot joints:
■ Prismatic joint, or sliding joint, is
define a robot, focusing on the
need for reprogrammability and the an assembly between two links
types and numbers of robot joints that enables one to have a linear
used by the IFR to develop robot motion relative to the other.
■ Rotary joint, or revolute joint, is an
classifications. It then digs into
the details and nuances of each assembly connecting two links
robot classification and presents that enables one to rotate relative
exemplary robots from several to the other about a fixed axis.
makers. Along the way, it also looks
The IFR has used these and other
at systems called robots that don't
ISO 8373 definitions to identify
meet all the ISO requirements.
six industrial robot classifications

we get technical
9
What are the key factors used to classify industrial robots?

based on their mechanical structure This is a large class of robots. with safety barriers, a cobot is
or topology. In addition, different Articulated robots can have ten designed for close interaction
robot topologies have different or more axes, with six being the with people. For example, the
numbers of axes and, therefore, most common. Six-axis robots LXMRL12S0000 cobot from
different numbers of joints. can move in x, y, and z planes Schneider Electric has a maximum
and pitch, yaw, and roll rotations, reach of 1,327 mm, a maximum
The number of axes is a key
enabling them to mimic the payload of 12 kg, and a pose
characteristic of industrial robots.
movement of a human arm. repeatability of ±0.03 mm. Cobots
The number of axes and their types
often feature collision protection,
determines the robot's range of They are also available with a
rounded edges, force limits, and
motion. Each axis represents an wide range of payload capacities
lighter weight for enhanced safety.
independent motion or degree of from under 1 kg to over 200 kg.
freedom. More degrees of freedom The reach capabilities of these
result in a robot being able to move robots also vary widely from under
through larger and more complex 1 meter to multiple meters. For
spaces. Some robot types have a example, the KR 10 R1100-2 from
fixed number of degrees of freedom, KUKA is a six-axis articulated
while others can have different robot with a maximum reach of
numbers of degrees of freedom. 1,101 mm, a maximum payload of
10.9 kg, and a pose repeatability
End effectors, also called end-of-
of ±0.02 mm (Figure 1). It also
arm tooling (EOAT) or "multipurpose
features high-speed movements,
manipulators" in ISO 8373, are
short cycle times, and an
another important element in most
integrated energy supply system.
robots. There's a wide range of
end effectors, including grippers, Articulated robots can be
dedicated process tools like permanently mounted on the
screwdrivers, paint sprayers, or floor, wall, or ceiling. They can
welders, and sensors, including also be mounted on tracks on the
cameras. They can be pneumatic, floor or overhead, on top of an
electric, or hydraulic. Some end autonomous mobile robot or other
effectors can rotate, giving the movable platform, and moved
robot another degree of freedom. between workstations.

The following sections begin with They are used for various tasks,
the IFR definition for each robot including material handling,
topology and then examine their welding, painting, and inspection.
capabilities and applications. Articulated robots are the
most common topology for
Articulated robots have three or
implementing collaborative robots Figure 1: Six-axis articulated robot
more rotary joints. with a pose repeatability of ±0.02
(cobots) designed to work with
mm. (Image source: DigiKey)
humans. While a conventional
robot operates in a safety cage

10
Cartesian robot (sometimes support linear motions in three- can carry up to 5 kg and move at
called a rectangular robot, linear dimensional space. But gantry up to 1.0 m/s with a repeatability of
robot, or gantry robot) has a robots are configured with two ±0.5 mm (Figure 2).
manipulator with three prismatic base x-axis rails, a supported y-axis
Cylindrical robot has a
joints whose axes form a rail spanning the two x axes, and a
manipulator with at least one
Cartesian coordinate system. cantilevered z-axis attached to the
rotary joint and at least one
y-axis. For example, the DLE-RG-
Modified Cartesian robots are prismatic joint, whose axes form a
0012-AC-800-800-500, from Igus,
available with two prismatic cylindrical coordinate system.
is a gantry robot with an 800 mm x
joints. Still, they don't meet the
800 mm x 500 mm work area that
ISO 8373 requirement that they
must be "programmable in three
or more axes" and so aren't
technically robots.

There's more than one way to

configure three prismatic joints
and, therefore, more than one way
to configure a Cartesian robot.
In a basic Cartesian topology, all
three joints are at right angles,
with one moving in the x-axis,
attached to a second one moving
in the y-axis, that's attached to a
third one moving in the z-axis.

Although often used as a synonym

for a Cartesian robot, the gantry
Figure 2: Gantry robot with an 800 mm x 800 mm x 500 mm workspace.
topology is not identical. Like a (Image source: Igus)
basic Cartesian, gantry robots

we get technical
11
 What are the key factors used to classify industrial robots?

Cylindrical robots are relatively cylindrical robots can be found can perform 30 picks per minute
simple and compact, and their in automotive, pharmaceutical, move with a maximum speed of
limited range of motion makes food and beverage, aerospace, 0.7 m/s and an acceleration of
them easy to program. They are electronics, and other industries. 2 m/s2. It has a repeatability of
less common than their more ±0.5 mm (Figure 4).
Parallel/Delta robot is a
complex cousins. Still, they are
manipulator whose arms have links
especially suited for applications
that form a closed loop structure.
like grinding processes, palletizing,
welding (especially spot welding), While other robots, like cylindrical
and material handling, for or Cartesian topologies, are named
example, loading and unloading after their motion, the delta robot is
semiconductor wafers into named for its upside-down triangular
cassettes in an integrated circuit shape. Delta robots have 2 to 6 axes,
fabrication operation (Figure 3). with 2- and 3-axis designs being the
most common. Like 2-axis Cartesian
Cylindrical robots typically move
robots, 2-axis delta robots don't
at speeds of 1 to 10 m/s, and
technically meet the requirements of
they can be designed to carry
ISO 8373 to be called robots.
heavy loads. Applications for
Delta robots are designed for
speed rather than strength. They
are mounted above the work area
and perform functions like pick- Figure 4: Three-axis delta robot and
and-place, sorting, disassembly, controller (left). (Image source: DigiKey)
and packaging. They are often
found above a conveyor, moving
parts down a production line. Polar robot (spherical robot) is a
The gripper is connected to long, manipulator with two rotary joints
slender mechanical linkages. and one prismatic joint, whose axes
These linkages lead to three or form a polar coordinate system.
four large motors at the robot's
One of the rotary joints enables a
base. The other end of the
polar robot to rotate around the
linkages is attached to a tooling
vertical axis that extends up from
plate where the EOAT attaches.
the base. The second rotary joint
The RBTX-IGUS-0047 from Igus is at right angles to the first rotary
is an example of a 3-axis delta joint and enables the robot arm
robot. It has a working space to swing up and down. Finally, the
Figure 3: This cylindrical robot has one diameter of 660 mm and can prismatic joint enables the robot
rotary and prismatic joint. (Image source: handle a maximum load of 5 kg. arm to extend or retract from the
Association for Advancing Automation) When handling a load of 0.5 kg, it vertical axis.

12
Polar robots, while simple in payload of 1.5 kg, and a repeatability
construction, have drawbacks of ±0.02 mm. It has sensor-free
that limit their use compared with collision detection and drag-to-
other topologies like articulated, teach programming, making it
Cartesian, and SCARA robots: suitable for use as a cobot as well
■ The spherical coordinate as a standalone robot (Figure 5).
system makes programming
more complex.
■ They typically have a more

limited payload capacity than

other types of robots.
■ They are slower than other

robots.

The main benefits of polar robots

include a large workspace and
high precision. They are used for
machine tool tending, assembly
operations, material handling in
automotive assembly lines, and
gas and arc welding.

SCARA robot (from "selectively Figure 5: Four-axis SCARA

robot with a repeatability
compliant arm for robotic
of ±0.02 mm.
assemblies") is a manipulator with (Image source: DigiKey)
two parallel rotary joints to provide
compliance in a selected plane.

A basic SCARA robot has three

degrees of freedom, the third from Conclusion
a rotating end effector. SCARA
All industrial robots meet the
robots are also available with an
ISO 8373 requirement to be
additional rotary joint for a total of
automatically controlled with a
four degrees of freedom, enabling
reprogrammable, multipurpose
more complex motions.
manipulator. However, not every
SCARA robots are often used design has a defined number of
in pick-and-place or assembly axes for a specified topology.
applications where high speed Delta and Cartesian robots are
and high accuracy are needed. available with fewer than the
For example, Dobot's M1-PRO is a defined number of axes, while
4-axis SCARA robot with a working some SCARA robots have more
radius of 400 mm, a maximum axes than defined by IFR.

we get technical
13
What are
the important Collaborative robots (cobots) are

considerations
designed to work with humans
and support flexible production in
Industry 4.0 factories. Compared

when assessing
with traditional industrial robots,
cobots are simpler, easier to set
up, and don't require safely isolated

cobot safety?
workspaces. Because they are
designed to work with people,
cobots are built differently than other
industrial robots, including features
like collision detection systems,
By Jeff Shepard force feedback, elastic actuators,
Contributed By DigiKey's North American Editors and low-inertia servo motors.

14
Since they are different by design, focuses on robot systems and
Common protective features
specific safety standards have integration. American National
integrated into cobots include
been developed for cobots. Standards Institute/Robotics
contact detection systems based
The International Organization Industry Association (ANSI/RIA)
on torque measurements at every
for Standardization Technical R15.06 is a national adoption of
joint that monitor for unexpected
Specification (ISO/TS) 15066 ISO 10218-1 and ISO 10218-2.
impacts, obstructions, or excessive
specifies safety requirements for forces or torque. There should also
industrial cobots and their work be automatic braking systems and
environments. It supplements the
Complexities manual brake releases for moving
requirements and guidance on of collaboration the arm without power.
cobot operation in ISO 10218‑1
Before getting into the details of Unexpected contact with the person
and ISO 10218‑2.
cobot safety, it's helpful to define by the cobot is a particular concern.
This article briefly reviews the collaboration. Collaboration in The standards dictate that contact
requirements of ISO/TS 15066 robotics is complex and includes should be prevented anywhere
and how they fit in with ISO 10218- three factors: on a person's head. In addition,
■ A cobot is a "robot designed for
1 and 10218-2. It then considers the standard splits the body into
the complexities of collaboration, direct interaction with a human 29 specific areas and details
including how the collaborative within a defined collaborative limitations for two types of contact:
workspace is defined. It examines workspace," according to ANSI/ ■ Transient contact is a moving,

factors related to robot safety, like RIA R15.06. dynamic event where the cobot
■ A collaborative operation is
safety features built into cobots, hits a person. Limitations are
and what external safety functions a "state in which a purposely based on location, inertia, and
are needed, along with exemplary designed robot system and relative speed.
devices like proximity sensors, light an operator work within a ■ Quasi-static contact occurs

curtains, and safety contact mats. collaborative workspace," when a body part is trapped
It closes with a brief review of a according to ISO/TS 15066. between the cobot and a
■ Finally, a collaborative
few applications specific to cobot surface. Limitations are based
safety considerations. workspace is the "workspace on pressure and force related to
within the safeguarded crushing and clamping effects.
There are several key safety space where the robot and
standards for industrial robots a human can perform tasks The specification provides
and cobots. ISO/TS 15066 details simultaneously during guidance, not absolute limits, based
safety requirements for industrial production operation," on application considerations. It
cobot systems and the work according to ANSI/RIA R15.06. also states that the guidance is
environment and was written informative and reflects current
to build on and supplement the It comes down to the definition best practices since collaboration
limited requirements in previous of the collaborative workspace between people and robots is a new
standards like the ISO 10218 "within the safeguarded space." field, and research is ongoing.
series. ISO 10218-1 focuses The safeguarded space includes
on general robots and robotic a layer of safety protection in
devices, while ISO 10218-2 addition to the standard safety
functions included in the cobot.

we get technical
15
What are the important considerations when assessing cobot safety?

Continuum of collaboration reducing the hazards and risks Protection and efficiency
associated with the application.
There is no single collaborative ISO 10218 includes a list of safety While cobots are designed for safe
application. People and cobots features that can be appropriate operation, additional protection
can interact and collaborate in a in various circumstances but no layers can improve collaborative
continuum of ways. Collaborative definitive requirements. ISO/TS applications' efficiency. Without
applications range from co- 15066 brings additional details additional safety, when a person
existence, where a robot stops to cobot risk assessments. In enters the collaborative workspace,
under power when a person enters each case, the goal of the risk ISO/TS 15066 mandates a
the collaborative workspace, to assessment is to identify external maximum speed of 0.25 meters
an interactive activity with the safety devices and systems needed per second (m/s) per axis. For
person touching the cobot while in to ensure the safe implementation most cobots, that's very slow.
operation (Figure 1). of collaborative applications.
For example, the LXMRL12S0000
A risk assessment is required For a deeper dive into risk Lexium cobot from Schneider
to identify the safety needs assessment and robots, see the Electric has a maximum payload
of individual collaborative article "Safely and Efficiently of 12 kilograms (kg), an operating
applications. It includes Integrating AMRs into Industry 4.0 radius (working range) of 1327
identifying, evaluating, and Operations for Maximum Benefit." millimeters (mm), positioning

Figure 1: Human and robot collaboration includes a broad range of possible levels of interaction. (Image source: SICK)

16
 accuracy of ±0.03 mm, and a In many applications, the cobot
maximum speed of the tool end can be operating alone for long
of 3 meters per second (m/s), 12 periods. So, sensing the presence
times faster than the maximum or absence of people in the
allowed by ISO/TS 15066 when collaborative workspace can
a person is in the collaborative enable much faster operation and
workspace (Figure 2). higher efficiency when no one
is present. Common devices for
sensing the presence of people
include safety scanners, light
curtains, and safety contact floor
mats. Each technology offers a
different set of benefits, and they Figure 3: This safety scanner has a
are often used in combination. safety radius of up to 4 m and can
support multiple warning zones up
to 15 m. (Image source: DigiKey)
Safety scanners

Safety scanners monitor a designated

area to detect the presence of people.
Light curtains
They can determine how far away
a person is and implement various Light curtains can measure the
warning zones in addition to the presence of people and can be
active safety zone. designed to detect objects of
various sizes, like fingers or hands.
Omron's model OS32C-SP1-4M
Unlike safety scanners, light
is a good example of a safety
curtains don't measure distance.
laser scanner designed for use
They send a series of light beams
with cobots. It has a safety
between linear emitter and receiver
radius of up to 4 meters (m) and
arrays and can sense when an
can support multiple warning
object breaks one or more beams.
zones up to 15 m. It includes 70
standard sets of safety zone and In terms of safety ratings, there
warning zone combinations to are two primary light curtain
support complicated collaborative classifications: Type 2 and Type
workspaces. In addition, the 4. They have similar outward
minimum object resolution can be appearances but are designed to
set to 30, 40, 50, or 70 mm, and provide different levels of safety.
Figure 2: This cobot can move 12 times
faster than the maximum allowed by
the response time can range from Type 4 monitors the safeguarded
ISO/TS 15066 when a person is in the 80 milliseconds (ms) up to 680 space that defines a collaborative
collaborative workspace. (Image source: ms, further increasing application workspace. Type 2 light curtains are
Schneider Electric) flexibility (Figure 3). designed for lower-risk applications.

we get technical
17
What are the important considerations when assessing cobot safety?

Light curtains guard perimeters Receivers have a corresponding row like areas with highly reflective
and are available with several levels of synchronized photodetectors. surfaces that can send unwanted
of resolution, like 14 millimeters The emitters have a 2-meter range, light interference, and they can trip
(mm) for finger detection and 24 and these light curtains can be because of leaking oil or grease or
mm for hand detection. The model, installed in lengths from 160 to 320 excessive dust or humidity.
SLC4P24-160P44 from Banner mm in 80 mm increments.
Some of these optical sensors
Engineering, is a Type 4 light curtain
Safety laser scanners and light include sensitivity adjustments
kit with an emitter and receiver
curtains provide non-contact that can help mitigate certain
array and has a resolution of 24 mm
means for enhancing the safety of types of interference. Those
to protect people and machines like
collaborative workspaces. However, sensitivity adjustments can also
cobots (Figure 4). The emitters have
they can be difficult to use in increase response times and
a row of synchronized modulated
optically challenging environments other performance compromises.
infrared light-emitting diodes.
Another solution is to use a safety
contact mat together with optical
Figure 4: This Type 4 light curtain has a resolution sensing devices.
of 24 mm. (Image source: Banner Engineering)

18
Safety contact mats application lie on the continuum Conclusion
of collaboration (see Figure 1)?
Safety contact mats have two The closer the interaction between Cobot safety is complex. It begins
conductive plates separated by a the cobot and people, the more with defining the collaborative
rasterized insulating layer and can safeguarding is needed. workspace within the safeguarded
be used alone or in combination with space and requires a risk
other types of sensors. If a person There are more details to consider. assessment of the collaborative
steps on the mat, the top conductive Some of them include: operation. Standards like ISO/
plate is depressed and contacts the ■ Each location needs to TS 15066 and the ISO 10218
lower plate, triggering an alert signal undergo a detailed risk series are important and provide
(Figure 5). The exterior of the mats assessment to see if the recommendations and guidelines.
is a polyurethane material that's cobot has been moved from Cobots include basic safety
slip-resistant and impervious to workstation to workstation. features like collision detection
water, dirt, and oil. The SENTIR mat Even if they appear to be the systems, force feedback, elastic
model 1602-5533 from ASO Safety same, small variations can actuators, and low-inertia servo
Solutions can connect up to 10 mats make a difference in safety. motors. Depending on the
in series to a single monitoring unit ■ If other machines are in the specifics of the collaborative
for a maximum coverage of 10 m2. collaborative workspace, do application, additional safety
they need to be linked to the devices like proximity sensors,
shutdown system or the safety light curtains, and safety contact
Safety is in the details slowdown for the cobot? mats may be needed.
■ This article has focused on
There is no single formula
safety-related hardware, but
that guarantees safety. Every
for networked systems that
collaborative application is
are increasingly common,
different and needs to be
cybersecurity is an important Figure 5: When stepped on, the safety
handled based on its unique
consideration to prevent mat's top and bottom conductive layers
characteristics and needs. A
interference with cobot make contact, triggering an alert signal.
key factor is: where does the (Image source: ASO Safety Solutions)
operation or the safety systems.

we get technical
19
Safely and efficiently
integrating AMRs into
industry 4.0 operations
for maximum benefit
By Jeff Shepard
Contributed By DigiKey's North American Editors

In response to the surging use of

autonomous mobile robots (AMRs),
also called industrial mobile
robots, in Industry 4.0 operations,
the Association for Advancing
Automation (A3), together with
the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI), recently released
the second increment of its
safety standard for AMRs: ANSI/
A3 R15.08-2, which details the
requirements for integrating,
configuring, and customizing an
AMR or fleet of AMRs into a site.
An essential requirement is the
performance of a risk assessment
per ANSI/ISO 12100 or ANSI B11.0.
The new standard complements
the previously released R15.08-1
that focused on the safe design
and integration of AMRs.

20
The R15.08 series of standards
builds on the earlier ANSI/
Industrial Truck Standards
Development Foundation
(ITSDF) B56.5 safety standard
for automated guided industrial
vehicles (AGVs). The newer
standard recognizes three classes
of AMRs based on the inclusion of
specific functions and features.

This article briefly compares

AMRs and AGVs and ANSI/ITSDF
B56.5 and International Standards
Organization (ISO) 3691-4 versus
ANSI/A3 R15.08. It then reviews the
risk assessment strategies outlined
in ANSI/International Standards
Organization (ISO) 12100 and ANSI
B11.0, how they relate to AMRs,
and how they are integrated into Figure 1: AMRs (left) navigate around obstacles while AGVs (right)
R15.08-2. Next, it reviews the three stop when they arrive at an obstacle. (Image source: Omron)

classes of AMRs defined in R15.08-2

before closing with a presentation
of practical considerations for navigation systems and can subsequently applied to AMRs
AMR integration, including how change paths and move around without modification. The newer ISO
to implement mapping and obstacles (Figure 1). Because of 3691-4 standard covers AGVs and
commissioning, how to manage these differences, AGVs are better has sections dedicated to AMRs.
fleets of AMRs, and how to navigate suited for relatively stable and
new opportunities for virtual ANSI/ITSDF B56.5 is a Safety
unchanging environments, while
commissioning using simulation and Standard for Guided Industrial
AMRs support more flexible and
digital twins using examples from Vehicles, unmanned guided
scalable deployments like those
Omron Automation and Siemens. industrial vehicles, and the
needed in Industry 4.0 operations.
automated functions of manned
AGVs can travel only along a industrial vehicles; it does not
predetermined and marked
Standard evolution cover AMRs. The newer ANSI/
path. They have no independent RIA R15.08 is a safety standard
navigation capabilities. They Some AMR standards have
for the use of AMRs in industrial
stop if they arrive at an obstacle evolved from previously developed
environments. It’s based on
and wait for it to be removed standards for AGVs and stationary
and expanded from the R15.06
before proceeding along the fixed robots. For example, EN 1525:1997
standard for safely using
path. AMRs include independent was developed for AGVs and was
stationary robotic arms.

we get technical
21
Safely and efficiently integrating AMRs into industry 4.0 operations for maximum benefit

Another important standard is Next is risk estimation, which looks AMR classes
EN ISO 13849, which defines the at the likely severity of harm from
safety performance levels (PLs) each hazard and the probability R15.08 recognizes three types of
for various types of equipment. of its occurrence. A very severe AMRs:
There are five levels, from PLa to hazard with a low likelihood of
Type A: AMR platform only. In
PLe, with increasingly stringent occurrence may receive a similar
contrast with AGVs, type A AMRs
requirements. AGV and AMR ranking as a hazard with a less
can function as independent
makers must reach PLd safety that severe outcome that’s more likely
systems without requiring
ensures continuous safe operation to occur. All identified risks are
environmental changes. They can
in the event of a single fault, i.e., by evaluated and ranked to prioritize
include optional features like a
using redundant systems. risk reduction efforts. Risk
battery management system, the
assessment can be an iterative
ANSI/A3 R15.08-2 requires a ability to independently locate a
process, identifying the most
risk assessment for integrating charger and recharge its battery,
severe risks and reducing their
and deploying AMRs. The risk the ability to integrate with
probability of occurrence and/or
assessments defined by ISO centralized fleet management
the severity of their outcome until
12100 and ANSI B11.0-2010 are software, etc. Type A AMRs are
an acceptable level of residual risk
very similar, though not identical. most often used to move materials
has been achieved (Figure 2).
ISO 12100 targets original around a factory or warehouse.
equipment manufacturers,
Type B: A type A AMR with
whereas ANSI B11.0 focuses more
the addition of a passive or
on machinery and end-user safety.
active attachment that is not a
The basics of risk assessment are
manipulator (Figure 3). Typical
similar for both standards.
attachments include conveyors,
roller tables, fixed or removable
Risk assessment totes, lifting devices, vision
systems, weighing stations, etc.
A risk assessment is a highly Type B AMRs can be used for more
structured analysis to arrive at complex logistics tasks. Vision
an acceptable level of risk. It systems can be used for product
recognizes that no system or inspections and identification,
environment is perfect; inherent weighing (or estimating the number
risks can be managed but not of) parts, and so on.
eliminated. It begins by determining
the limits of the machine’s operation
Figure 2: Key components of
and identifies hazards that can arise
a risk assessment include
if the machine operates near or risk analysis, evaluation, and
outside of those limits. reduction. (Image source: SICK)

22
Figure 3: Type B AMR with a roller table attachment. This also shows typical navigation
and safety systems common to all three types of AMRs. (Image source: Omron)

Type C: A type A AMR with the require extensive infrastructure computer. In both cases, maps
addition of a manipulator. The installation, no construction is can be customized with virtual
manipulator can be a robotic necessary for AMR deployment, routes and forbidden lines for
arm with three or more axes and programming needs can be safe operations and can be
of movement. Type C AMRs minimal. Basic commissioning is a shared across fleets of AMRs.
can be designed to function as four-step process (Figure 4): ■ Setting goals includes the
collaborative robots (cobots) ■ The AMR is delivered with all identification of pick-up and
working alongside humans. They the needed software installed; drop-off locations.
can also be machine attendants, the first task is to install and ■ Task assignment is the final
perform pick and place operations, charge the battery. step and includes scheduling
complete complex inspection ■ Mapping is critical and can and coordination of the
tasks, do harvesting and weeding be manually or automatically various AMRs in the fleet and
in agricultural settings, etc. Some implemented. For manual integration with Enterprise
designs can move from place to mapping, a technician controls Resource Planning (ERP),
place and perform different tasks the AMR and takes it around the Manufacturing Execution
at each station. the facility so it can learn about System (MES), and the
the environment. Laser-guided Warehouse Management
AMRs can automatically scan System (WMS).
Commissioning, mapping, up to 1,000 square feet per
and following the lights minute to create maps capturing
all the features in the immediate
All three types of AMRs are
area and wirelessly send the
designed to simplify deployment.
resulting map to a central
Compared with AGVs that

we get technical
23
Safely and efficiently integrating AMRs into industry 4.0 operations for maximum benefit

Figure 4: AMRs are delivered with complete software installed and can be quickly
commissioned and integrated into a production environment. (Image source: Omron)

In addition to mapping a facility Managing robot fleets Traffic management includes

using laser scanning, some Omron scheduling pick-up and drop-off
AMRs use a camera to detect and Effective management of robot locations and times for maximum
plot the location of overhead lights. fleets can multiply the benefits efficiency and notifying robots
It creates and overlays a “light of using AMRs. It can support of destination changes or new
map” with the standard “floor map.” centralized control and coordinated obstacles, enabling them to
operation of mixed types of AMRs recalculate their path for maximum
Laser localization can tolerate and provide the data and analytics efficiency and safety.
changing environments on the needed to maximize operational
floor up to a point. Suppose over efficiencies. Some common Charge management tracks the
80% of the features change, for features of AMR fleet management battery charge level of each robot in
example, on a shipping dock where systems include: the fleet, enabling proactive charging
pallets or rolling carts constantly and maximum uptime.
change location. In that case, laser Optimized task assignments are
based on the capabilities of each Coordinated software updates
localization is less useful, and
robot in the fleet, their current across the fleet to ensure the
adding the light map increases the
locations, and anticipation of where latest version is available for each
reliability of navigation. Using the
their next assignment will be located. type of robot.
light map also enables AMRs to
more easily navigate across wide-
open areas in large facilities.

24
Enterprise integration connects the
fleet management software to ERP,
MES, and WMS systems so jobs
can be allocated and scheduled
automatically to the fleet in real-time.

Virtual commissioning

A combination of digital twins

and simulation software enables
virtual commissioning. In this
case, a digital twin is a virtual
representation of an AMR. Digital
twins can be used to virtually
Figure 5: AMR digital twins can be virtually inserted into a simulated factory
validate the performance of
environment for virtual commissioning. (Image source: Siemens)
individual AMRs and fleets of
AMRs. Virtual commissioning
uses robotics simulation software The ability to implement virtual configuring, and customizing an
to combine the digital twins of debugging can speed up the AMR or AMR fleet into a site. A
AMRs with a digital twin of the deployment of AMR fleets. risk assessment performance is
surrounding environment (Figure 5). Debugging fleets of physical AMRs a key requirement within the new
after deployment is challenging and standards in accordance with
AMR virtual commissioning can
time-consuming. It involves work ANSI and ISO standards. The
also be used to integrate and
stoppages and negatively impacts tools for AMR commissioning are
coordinate the operation of robots
the productivity of the facility. There also evolving with the emergence
from several manufacturers. During
are no work stoppages with virtual of virtual commissioning using
the virtual commissioning process,
debugging, and users are assured digital twins and simulation.
engineers can quickly and efficiently
that the AMRs will perform as
create multiple scenarios to verify This was the first of a two-
expected in the real world.
the proper functioning of the entire part series and focused on the
system, not just isolated AMRs. implications of the recently
Conclusion released R15.08-2 standard
Virtual safety testing and debugging
regarding safety, risk assessment,
can also be implemented with AMR deployments are becoming and commissioning of AMRs.
digital twins and simulation. increasingly prevalent in a The second article is written in
Virtual AMRs can be subjected to wide range of Industry 4.0 anticipation of R15.08-3, which is
anomalous situations to test various installations. The standards currently under development and
contingencies and ensure the proper landscape for AMRs is evolving will address the topic of sensor
functioning of safety protocols. to address requirements for fusion in AMRs.
safely and efficiently integrating,

we get technical
25
 How sensor
fusion enables
AMRs to maneuver
around factory
floors efficiently
By Jeff Shepard
Contributed By DigiKey's North American Editors

With increasing instances of people To address the need for the and sensor fusion in AMRs,
and autonomous mobile robots safe and efficient operation of beginning with a brief overview
(AMRs), also called industrial AMRs, the American National of functional safety requirements
mobile robots (IMRs), working in the Standards Institute (ANSI) and currently used with AMRs,
same area, multiple inherent safety the Association for Advancing including generic industrial safety
risks must be addressed. The safe Automation (A3), formerly the standards like IEC 61508, ISO
and efficient operation of AMRs is Robotic Industries Association 13849 and IEC 62061, and the
too important to rely on a single (RIA), are developing the ANSI/ safety requirements for sensing
sensor technology. A3 R15.08 series of standards. human presence like IEC 61496
R15.08-1 and R15.08-2 have been and IEC 62998. It then presents a
Multi-sensor fusion, or simply
released, focusing on basic safety typical AMR design detailing the
"sensor fusion," combines
requirements and integrating numerous sensor technologies,
technologies like laser range
AMRs into a site. R15.08-3 is presents representative devices,
finding (LIDAR), cameras,
currently under development and looks at how they support
ultrasonic sensors, lasers obstacle
and will expand the safety functions like navigation, path
sensors, and radio frequency
requirements for AMRs, including planning, localization, collision
identification (RFID) to support a
more detailed recommendations avoidance, and inventory
range of AMR functions, including
for using sensor fusion. management/logistics support.
navigation, path planning, collision
avoidance, inventory management, In anticipation of R15.08-3, this
and logistics support. Senor fusion article reviews some of today's
also encompasses alerting nearby best practices related to safety
people to the presence of the AMR.

26
Good, better, best IEC 61496 offers guidance for related parts of control systems
several sensor types. It refers including safety performance
AMR designers have a range of to IEC 62061, which specifies levels (PLs) (Table 1).
safety standards to consider, requirements and makes
starting with general-purpose IEC 62998 is newer and can often
recommendations for the design,
functional safety standards like IEC be a better choice since it includes
integration, and validation of
61508, ISO 13849, and IEC 62061. guidance on implementing sensor
electrosensitive protective
There are also more specific safety fusion, using artificial intelligence
equipment (ESPE) for machines,
standards related to sensing (AI) in safety systems, and using
including safety integrity levels
human presence, such as IEC sensors mounted on moving
(SILs), and ISO 13849 that covers
61496, IEC 62998, and the ANSI/A3 platforms outside the coverage of
safety of machinery and safety-
R15.08 series of standards. IEC 61496.

R15.08 Part 3, when it's released,

Type may make the R15.08 series
Requirement
the best since it will add safety
1 2 3 4
requirements for users of AMR
Safety performance in accordance SIL 1 and/ SIL 2 and/ SIL 3 and/ systems and AMR applications.
N/A
with IEC 62061 and/or ISO 13849-1 or PL c or PL d or PL e Likely topics may include sensor
fusion and more extensive AMR
SIL = safety integrity level; PL = performance level stability testing and validation.

Table 1: Safety requirements for ESPE by type specified in IEC 61496.

(Table source: Analog Devices)

we get technical
27
How sensor fusion enables AMRs to maneuver around factory floors efficiently

Sensor fusion functions (is it hazy or smoky, humid, how scanners and radio frequency
bright is the ambient light, etc.) identification (RFID) devices
Mapping the facility is an essential and enable a more meaningful link the AMR to facility-wide
aspect of AMR commissioning. But result by combining the outputs of management systems and
it's not a one-and-done activity. It's different sensor technologies. integrate information from
also part of an ongoing process external sensors into the AMR's
called simultaneous localization Sensor elements can be categorized
sensor fusion system for
and mapping (SLAM), sometimes by function as well as technology.
improved performance.
called synchronized localization Examples of sensor fusion functions
■ Proximity sensors like laser
and mapping. It is the process of in AMRs include (Figure 1):
scanners and two-dimensional
continuously updating the map of an ■ Distance sensors like encoders
(2D) LiDAR detect and track
area for any changes while keeping on wheels and inertial
objects near the AMR, including
track of the robot's location. measurement units using
people's movement.
gyroscopes and accelerometers
Sensor fusion is needed to help measure the movement
support SLAM and enable the and determine the range 2D LiDAR, 3D LiDAR, and
safe operation of AMRs. Not all between reference positions. ultrasonics
sensors work equally well under ■ Image sensors like three-
all operating circumstances, and dimensional (3D) cameras and 2D and 3D LiDAR and ultrasonics
different sensor technologies 3D LiDAR are used to identify are common sensor technologies
produce various data types. AI can and track nearby objects. that support SLAM and safety in
be used in sensor fusion systems ■ Communications links, AMRs. The differences between
to combine information about compute processors, and those technologies enable one
the local operating environment logistics sensors like barcode sensor to compensate for the
weaknesses of the others to
improve performance and reliability.

2D LiDAR uses a single plane

of laser illumination to identify
objects based on X and Y
coordinates. 3D LiDAR uses
multiple laser beams to create a
highly detailed 3D representation
of the surroundings called a point
cloud. Both types of LiDAR are
relatively immune to ambient light
conditions but require that objects
to be detected have a minimum
threshold of reflectivity of the
wavelength emitted by the laser.
In general, 3D LiDAR can detect
low-reflectivity objects with more
Figure 1: Examples of common sensor types and related system elements
reliability than 2D LiDAR.
used in AMR sensor fusion designs. (Image source: Qualcomm)

28
 However, ultrasonic sensors are
sensitive to interference from
environmental noise, and their
detection ranges can be more
limited than LiDAR.

Ultrasonic sensors like the

TSPC-30S1-232 from Senix can
complement LiDAR and other
sensors for AMR SLAM and safety.
It has an optimum range of 3
meters, compared to 5 meters
for the 2D LiDAR and 12 meters
for the 3D LiDAR detailed above.
This temperature-compensated
The HPS-3D160 3D LiDAR The embedded high-performance ultrasonic sensor is IP68-rated in an
sensor from Seeed Technology processor includes filtering and environmentally sealed stainless-
integrates high-power 850 nm compensation algorithms and can steel enclosure (Figure 3).
infrared vertical-cavity surface- support multiple simultaneous
emitting laser (VCSEL) emitters LiDAR operations. The unit has Sensor fusion usually refers to
and high-photosensitive CMOS. a range of up to 12 meters with using several discrete sensors. But
centimeter accuracy. in some cases, multiple sensors
are co-packaged as a single unit.
When a 2D LiDAR solution is
needed, designers can turn to
the TIM781S-2174104 from SICK.
It features an aperture angle
of 270 degrees with an angular
resolution of 0.33 degrees and
a scanning frequency of 15 Hz.
It has a safety-related working
range of 5 meters (Figure 2).

Ultrasonic sensors can accurately

detect transmissive objects
like glass and light-absorbing
materials that LiDAR can't
always see. Ultrasonic sensors
Figure 2: This 2D LiDAR sensor has an
aperture angle of 270 degrees. are also less susceptible to
(Image source: SICK) interference from high dust, Figure 3: Environmentally sealed
smoke, humidity, and other ultrasonic sensor with an optimum range
of 3 meters. (Image source: DigiKey)
conditions that can disrupt LiDAR.

we get technical
29
How sensor fusion enables AMRs to maneuver around factory floors efficiently

Three sensors in one

Figure 4:
Visual perception using a pair of This module
cameras to produce stereoscopic includes stereo
images plus image processing depth cameras
based on AI and ML can enable the separated by 95 mm, a
separate color camera, and an
AMR to see the background as well
IMU. (Image source: DigiKey)
as identify nearby objects. Sensors
are available that include stereo
depth cameras, a separate color matched to the depth imager alarms. They can vary between
camera, and an IMU in one unit. field of view (FOV), improves the AMR makers and are often
correspondence between the color developed to reflect the specific
Stereo depth cameras like the
and depth images, enhancing activities in the facility where the
Intel RealSense D455 RealSense
the ability to understand the AMR operates. Light strips are
Depth Cameras use two cameras
surroundings. D455 depth available with and without built-
separated by a known baseline
cameras integrate an IMU with six in audible alert mechanisms.
to sense depth and calculate the
degrees of freedom that enables For example, the model
distance to an object. One key to
the depth calculation algorithm to TLF100PDLBGYRAQP from Banner
precision is using a sturdy steel
include the rate of motion of the Engineering includes a sealed
framework that ensures an exact
AMR and produce dynamic depth audible element with 14 selectable
separation distance between
awareness estimates. tones and volume control (Figure 5).
the cameras, even in demanding
industrial environments. The
accuracy of the depth perception Lighting and
algorithm is dependent on sounding the way
knowing the exact spacing
between the two cameras. Flashing lights and audible alerts
for people near an AMR are
For example, the model important to AMR safety. The lights
82635DSD455MP depth camera are usually in the form of a light
has been optimized for AMRs tower or light strip on the sides
and similar platforms and has of the AMR. They help the robot
extended the distance between communicate its intended action(s)
the cameras to 95 mm (Figure 4). to people. They can also indicate
That enables the depth calculation status like battery charging, loading
algorithm to reduce the estimation or unloading activities, intention
error to less than 2% at 4 meters. to turn in a new direction (like the
turn signals on a car), emergency
D455 depth cameras also include
conditions, and so on.
a separate color (RGB) camera. A Figure 5: This light bar annunciator
global shutter for up to 90 frames There are no standards for light includes a sealed audible element (top
per second on the RGB camera, colors, flashing speeds, or audible black circle). (Image source: DigiKey)

30
Logistics support Conclusion

AMRs operate as part of larger Sensor fusion is an important

operations and are often tool for supporting SLAM and
required to integrate with safety in AMRs. In anticipation
enterprise resource planning of R15.08-3, which may include
(ERP), manufacturing execution references to sensor fusion and
system (MES), or warehouse more extensive AMR stability
management system (WMS) testing and validation, this
software. The communications article reviewed some current
module on the AMR coupled with standards and best practices
sensors like barcode and RFID for implementing sensor fusion
readers enable AMRs to be tightly in AMRs. This is the second
fused into enterprise systems. article in a two-part series.
Part one reviewed the safe and
When a barcode reader is needed,
efficient integration of AMRs
designers can turn to the V430-
into industry 4.0 operations for
F000W12M-SRP from Omron,
maximum benefit.
which can decode 1D and 2D
barcodes on labels or Direct Part
Mark (DPM) barcodes. It includes
variable distance autofocus, a wide
field of view lens, a 1.2-megapixel
sensor, a built-in light, and high-
speed processing.

The DLP-RFID2 from DLP Design

is a low-cost, compact module for
reading from and writing to high-
frequency (HF) RFID transponder
tags. It can also read the unique
identifiers (UDI) of up to 15 tags
at once and can be configured
to use an internal or external
antenna. It has an operating
temperature range of 0°C to
+70°C, making it suitable for use
in Industry 4.0 manufacturing and
logistics facilities.

we get technical
31
Robotics in
today’s automotive
manufacturing
By Jody Muelaner, Lisa Eitel
 Industrial robots are essential Within robots themselves and
to modern manufacturing — in complementary industrial-
executing a vast array of functions automation equipment are
while coordinating tasks with electric motors, hydraulic
other forms of automation. In fact, systems, and fluid power
the $1T automotive industry was systems; drives, controls,
the first industry with the means to networking hardware, human-
make large-scale use of robotics machine interfaces (HMIs),
… and advance the technologies and software systems; and
associated with robotics as well. sensing, feedback, and safety
No wonder, as automobiles are components. These elements
highly sophisticated big-ticket impart efficiency by executing
items that can justify plant preprogrammed routines that can
investments that may not yield ROI readily adapt to changing real-
for years. Now, the vast majority of time conditions. Increasingly, it’s
automotive manufacturing centers expected that robotic workcells
employ robotics. Only over the also feature reconfigurability
last two decades have the fields to produce new automobile
of packaging, semiconductor offerings ... as consumer
production, and the relatively new preferences have come to evolve
field of automated warehousing more rapidly than ever.
hastened their robotics adoption
to rival the automotive industry.

Figure 1: The automotive industry, more than perhaps any other, has spurred the advancement
of robotics technologies. (Image source: Getty Images)

we get technical
33
Robotics in today’s automotive manufacturing

Clarifying terminology used

for automation and robotics

The Oxford English Dictionary

defines robots as “machines capable
of automatically carrying out
complex series of movements, esp.
programmable.” Confusing matters
is that this definition could describe
everything from washing machines
to CNC machine tools. Even the
ISO 8373 definition of a robot
as an “automatically controlled,
reprogrammable, multipurpose
manipulator, programmable in three
or more axes” could describe a
warehouse conveyor with vertical lift Figure 2: In some cases, the distinction between robot and machine is based on
stations. However, such machines how an automated design looks. Some classify articulated arms that resemble
would never normally be classified mechanized human arms as robots — and classify automated cartesian
arrangements of linear slides (as the CT4 for small parts assembly and inspection)
as robots.
as machines. (Image source: IAI America Inc.)
The practical differentiator to
remember is that machines built
flexible, with mill-turn centers The bottom line is that in the
for a single [read: very clearly
performing the roles of both automotive industry today,
defined] use in a fixed location
milling machines and lathes — and automated systems classified
aren’t usually considered robots
many such machines executing as robots are indeed often
… at least not in industrial circles.
inspection and measurement expected to exhibit high flexibility
For example, although a typical
tasks on parts with contact — capable (with reconfiguration)
milling machine can run any
probes and laser scanners as well. of executing transport, sorting,
number of complex programs
Such machine tools may even assembly, welding, and painting
to machine different parts, it’s
be equipped to perform additive tasks that may vary day to day.
designed to cut metal using rotary
manufacturing. On the other hand, These industrial robotics are also
blades mounted in its spindle …
supposedly flexible industrial expected to be relocatable to new
and it’s likely to remain securely
robots are often supplied as areas in a plant — whether for
fixed in a single location for its
specialized models designed redeployment as manufacturing
entire service life.
for a specific task such as paint systems and reconfigured or
Sometimes, even these definitions spraying or welding … and may continually movable on seventh-
are contradicted. For example, well spend their entire service life axis linear tracks to service
automated machines such as CNC parked within one workcell on a workcell arrays in a line.
machine tools are increasingly production line.

34
Robot families for Parallel manipulator robotics
excel where applications need
automotive production sites
high rigidity and operational
Robots in automotive production speed. In contrast with
sites are broadly classified by articulated arms (suspended
their mechanical structures — in 3D space via a single line of
including their joint types, linkage linkages), parallel manipulators
arrangements, and degrees of are supported or suspended by
freedom. arrays of linkages. Examples
include delta and Stuart robots.
Serial manipulator robotics
include most industrial robots. Mobile robotics are wheeled
Designs in this design family have units that move materials and
a linear chain of links with a base stock items around factories
at one end and an end effector at and warehouses. They may
the other end … with a single joint function as automated forklifts to
between each link in the chain. retrieve, move, and place pallets
These include articulated robots, on shelving or the factory floor.
selective compliance articulated Examples include automated
robot arm (SCARA) robots, guided vehicles (AGVs) and
collaborative six-axis robots, autonomous mobile robots
Figure 3: Collaborative robots are
cartesian robots (essentially increasingly common in Tier-2 (AMRs).
consisting of linear actuators), automotive supplier facilities that
and (somewhat uncommon) benefit from automated palletizing.
cylindrical robots. (Image source: Dobot)

we get technical
35
Robotics in today’s automotive manufacturing

Classic robot uses in

automotive manufacturing

Classic robotic applications

in automotive manufacturing
facilities include welding,
painting, assembly, and (for the
transport of the 30,000-odd parts
that go into the average car)
material-handling tasks. Consider
how some robot subtypes are put
to use in these applications.

Six-axis articulated arm robots

are serial manipulators in which
Figure 4: High-performance barcode readers can quickly and reliably decode 1D
every joint is a revolute joint. The
and 2D barcodes. Some mount on robotic end effectors to support part picking of
most common configuration is the electronic and automotive parts as well as subassembly elements. (Image source:
six-axis robot having degrees of Omron Automation and Safety)
freedom to position objects in any
position and orientation within its
working volume. These are very
flexible robots suited to myriad
industrial processes. In fact, six-
axis articulated arm robots are
what most people picture when
thinking of an industrial robot.

In fact, large six-axis robots are

often used in automobile frame
welding and spot welding of body
panels. In contrast with manual
approaches, robots have the ability
to precisely trace weld paths in
3D space without stopping while
concurrently accommodating the
changing parameters of the weld
bead in response to environmental Figure 5: These six-axis robots are what most people picture when imagining an
conditions. industrial robot. (Image source: Kuka)

36
 Elsewhere, six-axis articulated
arm robots ride on seventh-axis
systems to execute priming,
painting, clearcoating, and other
sealing processes on automobile
panel bodies. Such arrangements
deliver flawlessly consistent results
that are in part so reliable because
these processes are executed
in well-isolated spray booths
effectively kept uncontaminated
by particles from the outside
environment. Six-axis robots also
follow programmatically optimized
spray paths for perfect finishes
even while minimizing overspray
and paint and sealer waste. What’s
more, they eliminate the need to
expose automobile-plant personnel
to the harmful vapors associated
with some spray-applied materials.

Selective Compliance Articulated

Robot Arm (SCARA) robots have
two revolute joints having parallel
turning axes running in the vertical
direction for X-Y positioning in a
single plane of motion. Then a third
linear axis allows motion in the Z
(up and down) direction. SCARAs
are relatively low-cost options that
excel in confined spaces — even
while delivering faster moves
than equivalent cartesian robots.
Figure 6: The SIMATIC Robot Integrator app simplifies the integration of robots into No wonder SCARA robots are
automated settings by accommodating the parameters of various suppliers’ robots used in production of automotive
and various applications’ geometries and mounting requirements; completing electronics and electrical
these installations are scalable high-performance SIMATIC S7 controllers having
systems — including those for
integrated I/O and various communication options for flexible design adaptations.
climate control, mobile-device
(Image source: Siemens)
connectivity, audio/visual elements,

we get technical
37
Robotics in today’s automotive manufacturing

entertainment, and navigation. Here, New and novel robot uses in extremely high accelerations,
SCARAs are most commonly used making them highly effective
automotive manufacturing
to execute the precise material for pick-and-place operations
handling and assembly tasks to Cylindrical robots are compact in applications involving the
produce these systems. and economical robots that give sorting and other handling of
three-axis positioning with a small automotive fasteners and
Cartesian robots have, at
revolute joint at the base and two electrical components.
minimum, three linear axes that
linear axes for height and arm
are stacked to execute motion in Stewart platforms (also called
extensions. They are particularly
the X, Y and Z directions. In fact, hexapods) consist of a triangular
well suited to machine tending,
some cartesian robots employed base and triangular end effector
packing, and palletizing automobile
by Tier-2 automotive suppliers connected by six linear actuators
subcomponents.
take the form of CNC machine in an octahedron. This imparts
tools, 3D printers, and coordinate Collaborative six-axis robots six degrees of freedom with an
measurement machines (cobots) mentioned earlier feature extremely rigid structure. However,
(CMMs) to verify the quality and the same basic linkage structure the range of motion is relatively
consistency of end products. If as larger industrial variations, limited in comparison to the size
counting these machines in the but with extremely compact and of the structure. Stewart platforms
tally, cartesian robots are easily integrated motor-based drives are used for motion simulation;
the industry’s most common form at each joint … typically in the mobile precision machining; crane
of industrial robot. As mentioned form of a gearmotor or direct- motion compensation; and high-
earlier though, cartesian machines drive option. In automotive speed vibration compensation in
are often only called robots when settings, these are tasked with precision physics and optics test
they are used for operations welding brackets, mounts, and routines … including those to verify
involving the manipulation of geometrically complicated vehicle suspension designs.
workpieces and not tools — in subframes. Benefits include high
Automated guided vehicles (AGVs)
assembly, pick-and-place, and precision and repeatability.
follow set routes marked by lines
palletizing, for example.
Delta robots have three arms that painted on the floor, wires on the
Another cartesian robot variation are actuated via revolute joints floor, or other guidance beacons.
used in the automotive industry from the base — often mounted AGVs typically have a degree of
is the automated gantry crane. to the ceiling for a suspended intelligence so they stop and start
These are indispensable arrangement. Each arm has a to avoid collisions with each other
for fastening and joining parallelogram with universal joints and with humans. They are highly
processes requiring access to mounted at its end, and these suitable for material-transport tasks
the undercarriage of partially parallelograms all then connect in automotive-production facilities.
completed vehicle assemblages. to the end effector. This gives
Autonomous mobile robots
the delta robot three degrees of
(AMRs) don’t require fixed
translational freedom with the end
routes and are able to make
effector never rotating relative to
more sophisticated decisions
the base. Delta robots can achieve

38
than AGVs. Particularly useful Conclusion
in the sprawling warehouses of
automobile manufactures, these The automotive industry has
typically achieve free navigation spurred massive innovation in
using laser scanners and object the field of robotics over the
recognition algorithms to sense last 30 years, and that trend will
their environment. When a continue with the burgeoning
potential collision is detected, electric vehicles (EVs) market. The
instead of stopping and waiting industry has also begun to benefit
like an AGV, AMRs can simply from new AI and machine vision
alter course and move around adaptations to enhance robotic
obstacles. This adaptability installations for uses of all types.
renders AMRs considerably
more productive and flexible in
automotive plant loading docks.

we get technical
39
How delta robotics
optimize and
streamline electronics
manufacturing processes
By Jody Muelaner

Figure 1: The robotic linkage-arm use in electronics

production line with the lighting effect. - stock photo
(Image source: Phuchit • Getty Images)

40
Delta robots are relatively small
robots employed in handling
food items for packaging,
pharmaceuticals for casing, and
electronics for assembly. The robots’
precision and high speed make them
ideally suited to these applications.
Their parallel kinematics enables
this fast and accurate motion while
giving them a spiderlike appearance
that’s quite different from that of
articulated-arm robots.

Delta robots are usually (though

not always) ceiling mounted to tend
moving assembly and packaging
lines from above. They have a Figure 2: A delta robot is a type of parallel manipulator with three parallelograms
much smaller working volume all connected to a single rigid body at the end effector end. The base of each
than an articulated arm, and very parallelogram is actuated in a single degree of freedom relative to the robot’s base.
Delta robots are typically ceiling mounted to tend conveyors or workpieces from
limited ability to access confined
above. (Image source: Wikimedia Commons)
spaces. That said, their stiffness
and repeatability are assets in
high-precision processing of and cartesian robots. Because the two revolute joints aligned so
delicate workpieces — including rigidity and positional accuracy that their axes are parallel to
semiconductors being assembled. of each linkage is dependent each other and a third linear axis.
on the previous linkage, serial The two revolute joints provide
manipulators are decreasingly X-Y positioning in a single plane
Delta robots in context accurate and rigid the further while the third linear axis provides
Industrial robots are broadly the linkage is from the base. motion in the Z direction. While
categorized as mobile robots, Though there are exceptions, they can lack the precision of delta
serial manipulators, or parallel this morphology tends to limit robots, SCARAs are relatively low
manipulators. the accuracy of six-axis robots cost and can execute tasks quite
to a few millimeters … and after rapidly — even in confined spaces.
Mobile robots include autonomous rapidly moving to a new position
ground vehicles (AGVs) and In contrast with serial
and stopping, such robots’ end
automated forklifts that are primarily manipulators, robots classified as
effectors will oscillate for some
programmed to move materials parallel manipulators (including
time before settling.
around factories and warehouses. delta robots) have multiple
One type of serial manipulator use kinematic linkages connecting
Robots classified as serial in many of the same applications the end effector to the base.
manipulators have a chain of as delta robots is the selective Such morphology makes for
kinematic linkages connecting a compliance articulated robot a much stronger, stiffer, and
fixed base to an end effector; these arm or SCARA robot. They’re lighter structure than serial robot
robotics include articulated arms mechanically quite simple with types. Their lightweight yet rigid

we get technical
41
How delta robotics optimize and streamline electronics manufacturing processes

structure lets delta robots quickly

accelerate to deliver very short
cycle times. Another type of
parallel manipulator is the Stewart
platform or hexapod; these deliver
maximal stiffness, precision,
and speed — often to correct for
vibrations in real time in precision
optics applications.

Typically each parallelogram on a

delta robot is actuated by a rotary
electric motor via linear actuation.
(Low-cost delta robots from
the Igus Drylin series use a less
common linear-drive configuration.) Figure 3: Shown here is a vision-laden work cell that employs delta robots, SCARA
robots, and mobile robots. The delta robot is stainless steel and IP-67 rated. (Image
The coupling of parallelograms
source: KUKA)
constrains the end effector to only
translational motion. That imparts
the same degrees of motion as as food and pharmaceutical robot’s working volume. Then a
a three-axis cartesian machine packaging. When a delta robot vision system identifies parts’
but with a much stiffer and lighter operates over one or more exact locations and orientations
structure. An added advantage of conveyors or mobile assembly to guide the robot on where
this configuration is that the mass platforms, items are conveyed or and how to grasp or otherwise
of the drive motors is located in the otherwise transported into the operate on the part.
(typically ceiling-mounted) base,
so all the robot’s moving parts
Figure 4: This servomotor-driven
are passive lightweight structural delta robot moves to 200 cycles
elements. Some delta robots have per minute in three degrees of
additional rotary axes mounted in freedom (DOFs) plus a rotational
series at the end effector to provide axis. A controller can command
these robots’ axes with 2-msec
four, five, or six-axis motion.
response time to synchronize
with conveyors and other tasks.
In fact, another delta-robot is the
Overview of delta robot Quattro; it has four instead of three
applications parallelograms connecting the
base to the end effector to deliver
Delta robots are widely used in high stiffness and positioning
pick-and-place applications for accuracy at high speeds. (Image
electronics assembly as well source: Omron Automation)

42
So, the delta robot may pick PCBs are layered with but this is now uncommon.
up an item and then move it to nonconductive substrates and Through-hole components have
its required location. Next, it copper layers. Circuit layouts are leads inserted through holes in
might set the item down in the typically printed on the board the board and are soldered on
target place and orientation. For with lithography; then the rest the opposite side for greater
example, a delta robot may pick of the copper layer is chemically mechanical strength, but this extra
electronic components randomly etched away. Nonconductive process makes them more difficult
orientated on a conveyor belt and solder masks are then applied to assemble. No wonder SMT
assemble them onto a circuit to prevent solder bridging components now dominate for
board presented to the work cell between closely positioned smaller components; they’re much
via a second conveyor belt. components and copper traces. better suited to highly automated
PCB assembly involves placing volume manufacturing. That said,
Multiple delta robots often work
and then soldering through-hole or some through-hole mounting
simultaneously along a line with
surface mount technology (SMT) is often still required for larger
two parallel continuously moving
components. Older PCBs only components such as capacitors,
conveyor belts for on-the-fly pick-
used through-hole components, transformers, and connectors.
and-place. Centralized control
systems coordinate the systems
of such installations — with heavy
reliance on machine vision to
inform robot control routines.
Each individual pick and place
operation can take just a fraction
of a second to complete.

With several delta robots operating

at the same time, very rapid
assembly and packaging is possible.

Delta uses specific to

electronics manufacturing

Electronics manufacturing relies

on delta robots for the transport
and handling of printed circuit
boards (PCBs) and components, Figure 5: Electronics boards ride a conveyor through an assembly work cell.
PCB assembly, and device (Image source: Getty Images)
assembly.

we get technical
43
How delta robotics optimize and streamline electronics manufacturing processes

For both kinds of PCB component and yet another may apply semiconductor boards. Solder
attachment, machine vision heat to electrically connect the may also need to be manually
complementing a delta robot installed components. Otherwise, applied in difficult-to-reach
can check the component components may be attached locations between components.
variation and orientation before by a wave-soldering technique
For the latter, delta robots can
installation on the board. For high … though machines for this are
replace manual operations to
throughput, the robotic pick-and- expensive and best suited to very
place larger components and
place head may be designed to high-volume manufacturing. Even
solder between components.
process several components at costlier is how components too
a time. A robotic end effector large for insertion machines are Delta robots can also be far less
may also apply solder paste, often manually assembled onto costly and far easier to configure
than cartesian-type pick-and-place
machines. After all, the latter are
large and heavy — similar to CNC
machine tools. Cartesian systems
are difficult to move, and after
being moved can require costly and
time-consuming recalibration.
In contrast, delta robots are small
and light enough to relocate fairly
frequently. After setup in the new
location, they simply run a simple
self-calibration routine and then
resume operation.

Figure 6: Some delta robots maneuver

through five axes to orient objects of all types.
The IRB 365 shown here can sort, feed, pick,
reorient, and place 1-kg products at 120 picks
per minute — satisfying the requirements of
production facilities needing high throughput
and efficiency. Commanded by a compact
delta-robot controller called the OmniCore,
the system offers performance motion
control, digital connectivity, and more than
a thousand programmed functions.
(Image source: ABB)

44
Delta robot options abound. Codian
Robotics specializes in only delta robots,
in contrast with most industrial robot
manufacturers that primarily produce
articulated-arm robots. The supplier’s delta
robots offer payloads of 1.5 to 125 kg to
execute the assembly of tiny electronic
parts to many designs far larger. A
Mitsubishi Electric partnership pairs Codian
delta robots with Mitsubishi controllers.

ABB’s delta robots are produced under the

FlexPicker brand. The current model is the
IRB 360, a delta robot with two auxiliary
rotary axes in series at the end effector
for five-axis motion. These robots are
optimized for pick and place operations.

Fanuc produces delta robots in two ranges.

The M-series includes small robots used for
assembly of small parts (most commonly
electronics) as well as larger robots.
M-series robots are available in three,
four, and five-axis configurations. The
DR-3iB series robots are larger four-axis
robots designed for picking and packing
operations, with motion speeds of up to 5.5
m/sec and payloads up to 8 kg.

Conclusion

Delta robots provide affordable and flexible

automation for electronics manufacturing.
They often provide higher speed and
more flexibility than other robotics and
automated pick-and-place machines.

we get technical
45
How SCARA,
six-axis, and cartesian
pick-and-place robotics
optimize and streamline
electronics manufacturing
processes
By Lisa Eitel
Contributed By DigiKey's North American Editors

46
Introduction

By some estimates, the use

of robotics in electronics
manufacturing now rivals that
of the automotive industry.
No wonder: Fabricated chips,
components, and fully assembled
electronics are high value,
so they justify investments
in automation technologies.
Complicating matters is that
volumes and therefore throughput
must be high, and the products
Figure 1: Here, a delicate wafer is placed into an atomic layer deposition machine
are also inherently delicate …
located within a cleanroom. (Image source: Dreamstime)
with semiconductor wafers for
some applications now only
140 µm thick. These application Requirements are defined by ISO The latter is especially important
parameters demand precision 14644-1:2015, which classifies for high-speed robots that satisfy
handling with motion systems and cleanroom air cleanliness by the need for high semiconductor
robotics having exceptional reach, particle concentration. So, there’s throughput but shed more particles
speed, force, and dexterity as well especially heavy reliance on: than slower-moving equipment.
as cleanroom compliance. ■ Exacting integration, wrapping,
delivery, and installation
Hastening the adoption of
methods to prevent particulate
robotics in semiconductor
from hitchhiking into the
manufacture are burgeoning
cleanroom
classes of six-axis robots, ■ Specialty coatings that won’t
selective compliance assembly
flake or otherwise degrade
robot arms (SCARAs), cartesian ■ Stainless steel enclosures
machinery, and collaborative
and other elements wherever
robots featuring reconfigurable
feasible
or modular hardware as well ■ Specialty inert and non-gassing
as unifying software to greatly
lubricants for mechanical
simplify implementation.
components
These robots and their ■ Vacuum elements within the
supplemental equipment robotic body to direct any
must be designed, rated, and particulate to a segregated
installed for cleanroom settings exhaust area Figure 2: The use of robotics and other automation
or else risk contaminating ■ Specialty sealing of all robot for the production of micro-electronics extends
joints beyond the cleanroom. (Image source: Dreamstime)
delicate wafers with impurities.

we get technical
47
How SCARA, six-axis, and cartesian pick-and-place robotics
optimize and streamline electronics manufacturing processes

or installed to complement
SCARAs in a workcell, delta robots
in semiconductor manufacture
provide exceptionally quick and
dynamic picking and packing
capabilities. Read more about
these applications in the digikey.
com How Delta Robotics Optimize
and Streamline Electronics
Manufacturing Processes
article on delta robots in the
semiconductor industry. In fact,
the kinematics of deltas impart
accuracy and repeatability for
suitability in the assembly of
photovoltaic electronics.

Robotics rely on end

Figure 3: Shown here is the automated soldering of chip components onto a PCB.
(Image source: Dreamstime) effectors for productivity

Advanced cleanroom-rated robotic

end-of-arm tooling (EoAT or end
Summary of where each format electronic products. On the
effectors) such as grippers are core
other hand, collaborative robots
robotic type excels to semiconductor production. Here,
(cobots) are used to bridge highly
EOATs must have high dynamics
Though application overlaps protected cleanroom zones to
and the ability to execute tracing,
abound, six-axis robots are sections of cleanrooms that can
placing, and assembling with
most strongly associated with be traversed by plant personnel.
exacting precision. In some cases,
electronic device assembly. Cobots are also seeing increased
EoAT force feedback or machine
SCARAs maneuver electronic use in soldering and other tasks
vision boosts parts-handling
components through 360° to once the near-exclusive domain of
accuracy by imparting adaptive
execute pick-and-place wafer manual operations.
capabilities — so pick-and-place
handling and processing tasks
Though beyond the scope of this routines are quickly executed even if
faster and often more precisely
article, the parallel-kinematics there’s some variability in workpiece
than other options. Cartesian
design known as delta robots is positions, for example. Such sensor
robots in contrast are often
also seeing increased adoption and feedback advancements can
associated with semiconductor
— especially for electronic sometimes render the complicated
testing and packaging tasks as
products assembly. Whether electronics-handling fixtures of
well as the processing of large-
operating alone, ganged in pairs, legacy solutions unnecessary.

48
 Figure 5: Electronics contract manufacturing makes copious use of robotics for
board testing. (Image source: Dreamstime)

Figure 4: Small-component EGK

grippers are lubricated with H1 grease
and sport cleanroom certification.
(Image source: SCHUNK Intec Inc.)

Consider how flexible workcells

served by six-axis robots often
execute two or more tasks such
as general workpiece handling,
Figure 6: Robotic end effectors can take the form of soldering iron tips to automate
conveyor and other machine the assembly of subcomponents onto PCBs. (Image source: Dreamstime)
tending, machining, assembly,
and packaging. Similarly, the
application of encapsulation, multitasking capabilities so every and place items into a fixture. Then
vibration damping, shielding, workcell is maximally useful; EoAT (after a quick EoAT changeover)
adhesion, and sealing materials is changeovers are typically fast it might apply adhesive and press
often executed within one six-axis to support the semiconductor together mating housing halves
robotic workcell. Here, robotic industry’s high throughput of an end product. A third EoAT
end effectors complemented by requirements. For example, a robot might load finished items onto an
automated tool changers impart might employ one EoAT to pick outbound conveyor or into a case.

we get technical
49
 How SCARA, six-axis, and cartesian pick-and-place robotics
optimize and streamline electronics manufacturing processes

SCARA robotics in More specifically, some abound to deliver the speed

industry-typical SCARAs deliver and accuracy needed for high-
electronics manufacturing
repeatability to within ±20 μm on throughput handling and assembly.
For decades, SCARAs have linear degrees of freedom (DOFs) The servomotors to drive the
remained the gold standard for and ±0.01° on the angular axis robots’ joints are similar to those
semiconductor wafer processing, — as well as direct-drive options found in other robot types, but six-
handling, and assembly tasks for smooth transport of thin and axis robots are far more likely to
including: relatively brittle wafers. While pair these motors with strain-wave
■ Deposition and etching payloads can be limited to 10 kg or cycloidal gearing.
■ Thermal processing or lighter for many SCARAs, that’s
■ Reticle processing
Like SCARAs, six-axis robots also
rarely an issue in semiconductor
■ Circuit board assembly
pair well with conveyors used in
applications — though is certainly
■ Testing and metrology
semiconductor processing stations.
a consideration for the related
field of solar-panel production.
After all, SCARAs offer high
speeds throughout their SCARAs pair well with conveyors
cylindrically shaped 360° reach used in semiconductor processing
— often capable of executing stations as well as wafer carousels
pick-and-place tasks far faster (also called rotary tables) designed
(and sometimes more precisely) to facilitate the addition of
than comparable six-axis and components or features to multiple
cartesian solutions. circuit boards at a time.

Six-axis robotics in
electronics manufacturing

Industrial-grade articulated
robots feature multiple rotary
joints to manipulate objects
through two to 10 DOFs. The
most common articulated-robot
format is the six-axis robot.
Semiconductor processes
necessitating cleanroom settings
benefit from six-axis robots
that are suitably rated as well
Figure 7: SCARA robots execute
pick-and-place wafer handling as compact to consume less Figure 8: This six-axis articulated robot is
and processing tasks quickly and power and less of the premium available in ISO 5 (class 100) cleanroom
precisely. (Image source: Dreamstime) cleanroom real estate. Variations models. (Image source: Denso Robotics)

50
The main strength of six-axis
robots is their dexterity and
large working volume for a given
linkage-set size — whether
installed on a floor base or
inverted from a ceiling. To
illustrate, a six-axis arm that’s
600 mm tall when folded might
reach 650 mm in all directions
with the ability to quickly and
concurrently sweep each joint
120° to 360° for nimble movement
of electronic payloads of a few
grams to several kilograms or
more. Absolute encoders at
each joint and Ethernet-based Figure 9: Cartesian robots execute fully automated semiconductor manufacturing
networking provide motion tasks. Note the linear motors that provide high-precision direct driving on the critical
feedback and connectivity for axis. (Image source: Dreamstime)
PLC, PC, or dedicated robot
controls and adaptive software
to both command and improve Cartesian robotics in Cartesian machinery typically
processes over time. These electronics manufacturing executes dedicated automation
controls include the integration of tasks, as its kinematics tend to be
sophisticated end effectors — for Cartesian robots — those based less flexible and reconfigurable
example, grippers to safely handle on modular stacks of linear axes than that of other robotic types.
small and fragile electronics — help operations satisfy the However, accuracy is exceptional
components. semiconductor industry’s need to … especially when controls use
maintain cleanroom conditions for feedback and generate commands
Six-axis robots excel at machine many processes. Nearly unlimited for millisecond responsiveness.
tending and the packaging of scalability means travel can cover Such motion is key for automated
electronics products. Beyond anything from a few centimeters board manufacturing; trimming
the assembly of the boards to more than 30 meters. Cartesian and surface polishing; and
themselves, the robots can fasten robot repeatability can stay extensive assembly routines.
electronics into end products’ within ±10 μm on linear DOFs with
metal or plastic housings and comparable angular repeatability Cartesian robotics stations are
make the necessary electrical from end effectors as well as also the top choice for large-
connections as well. Some six-axis rotary-to-linear and direct-drive format electronics such as flat-
robots can also execute finished options for especially smooth panel displays and solar panels.
electronics products kitting, case transport of wafers. Speeds to six
packing, and palletizing. meters per second are common.

we get technical
51
How SCARA, six-axis, and cartesian pick-and-place robotics
optimize and streamline electronics manufacturing processes

Specific cartesian robotics

application example

Consider cartesian robotics in

maximally automated printed
circuit board (PCB) manufacture
and assembly. Cartesian robotics
either maneuver end effectors
over the boards or take the
form of cartesian tables that
move PCBs through the reach
of fixed processing equipment.
For example, such tables might
move boards through lithography
equipment to print copper
circuits onto a nonconductive
Figure 10: Cartesian robotics can be fitted with imaging equipment (such as this
silicon substrate. Then after
thermal-imaging camera) for thermography of PCBs produced with laser-assisted
the initial PCB print process, bonding techniques. (Image source: Teledyne FLIR)
copper not part of the design
circuitry is chemically etched
off. Nonconductive solder masks
isolate adjacent traces and
components.

In many PCB assembly

operations, cartesian
robotics accept electronic
subcomponents on reel tapes or
box tapes fed into the workcell.
(The robotics’ pick-and-place
head is designed to grasp
and place a variety of these
subcomponents.) The robotics
verify each subcomponent value
and polarity and then set and
solder the subcomponents via
through-hole or surface-mount
technology (SMT) attachments.
Figures 11a and 11b: Shown here are tool heads for affixing surface-mount
technology (SMT) subcomponents to a board. (Image source: Dreamstime)

52
Through-hole subcomponent
leads insert into board holes, get
trimmed and clinched, and then get
soldered to the board backside for
top mechanical strength (though
necessitating more complicated
assembly routines). In contrast,
SMT subcomponents accept
maximally automated high-volume
set and solder routines … so they
now dominate many board designs.
That said, through-hole mounting
is still most common for attaching
large capacitors, transformers, and
connectors to boards.

For SMT components, solder paste

is pre-applied to the PCB before Figure 12: Machine-vision feedback often informs cartesian system responses.
Massive onboard processing power, advanced algorithms, and an FPGA let
component assembly. Reflow
HAWK smart cameras (including the model shown here) achieve real-time trigger
soldering then uses hot air to melt
response for code reading, verification, inspection, and guidance for 4,000 to
the solder paste to form the SMT 14,000 parts per minute. In fact, this camera is an intermediate solution between
component connections. Wave complex PC-based cameras and basic industrial smart cameras. (Image source:
soldering is more common for Omron Automation and Safety)
through-hole components; this
involves passing the board across
a standing wave formed on the caveat is that the stepper motors semiconductor industry) made
surface of a pan of molten solder. in some cartesian designs that increased use of linear motors
Such machines are costly and transport semiconductors during in recent years. A variety of
best suited to very high-volume production shouldn’t be confused industry-standard and proprietary
manufacturing. with so-called step-and-repeat motor coils, miniature end
cameras — sometimes simply positioners, piezo-based
called steppers. The latter are adjustment modules, vacuum and
Typical motors and drives essential to photolithography cleanroom-rated subsystems,
for cartesian robotics processes during chipmaking. linear bearings, controls, and
other innovations complement
Cartesian robotics use many of Just as SCARA and especially
these direct drives to help
the same types of servomotors, six-axis robotics have made
cartesian systems output ultra-
precision gearing, and increased use of direct-drive
fine ultra-fast motions.
electromechanical drives as torque motors, cartesian robotics
other robotics solutions. One have (in designs to serve the

we get technical
53
How SCARA, six-axis, and cartesian pick-and-place robotics
optimize and streamline electronics manufacturing processes

Collaborative robotics in
electronics manufacturing

Collaborative robots (cobots) have

proliferated in the semiconductor
industry over the last decade. For
more reasons about this, see the
DigiKey.com blog, Easy Automation
with Omron TM Collaborative
Robots. In semiconductor
manufacture, cobots from Omron
and other makers can prevent the
extremely costly contamination
of wafers by bridging protect
wafer workzones and those Figure 14: KUKA collaborative robots (cobots) are core to the design of this Infineon
ISO3 wafer-processing cleanroom. (Image source: KUKA)
serviced by cleanroom personnel.
Semiconductor-production
grade cobot installations also
prevent particulate and lubricant
outgassing contamination while
complementing manual operations
for placing and soldering.

Figure 15: KUKA cobots in this Infineon cleanroom were expertly integrated,
networked, and programmed by mechatronic and automation specialists. (Image
source: KUKA)

Cobots in the semiconductor and delicate wafers. Otherwise, tiny

electronics industry must have cracks can form. Of course,
Figure 13: Cobots in the HCR-5 above-average speed capabilities breakage is far less likely with
series meet ISO-2 cleanroom complemented by advanced properly specified cobots than
specifications. (Image source: dynamics and controls to prevent human labor.
Hanwha Corp./Momentum)
the jarring of thin and therefore

54
Automated soldering with Conclusion Complicating matters is how
cobots is also appropriate where increasingly fine details on
components are being assembled Industrial robotics can provide increasingly miniaturized
onto especially thin boards and affordable and flexible automation electronics necessitate roboticized
the effects of silicon thermal of semiconductor and electronics assembly processes that follow
expansion are a concern. Where production. Technical challenges suit. Robotics have risen to this
cobots are destined to perform this are the need to satisfy cleanroom challenge with motors, mechanical
and other assembly tasks, it’s often ratings, high throughput, and linkages, controls, and networks
logical to integrate thermography careful handling of exceedingly that allow evermore advanced
or other board-inspection expensive workpieces. Even so, capabilities. Complementary
equipment onto the EoAT. That today’s robotic hardware as well technologies such as machine
speeds error-proofing tasks for as robotic simulation software and vision and real-time industrial
higher yields and quality assurance programming have simplified the networking have also imparted
… often at relatively low cost. sizing and selection of cleanroom new capabilities in robotics
robotic solutions. for manipulating, processing,
and assembling high-volume
semiconductor production.

we get technical
55
Use compact
industrial robots to
make any shop more
productive
By Richard A. Quinnell
Contributed By DigiKey's North American Editors
Major manufacturers have long The rise of robotic
used dedicated industrial robots
co-workers
to boost efficiency and throughput
in their production lines, giving Several factors have historically
them cost advantages that smaller limited industrial robotics to large
operations could not match. But scale operations. A principal factor
industrial robots are no longer was the difficulty in generating
exclusive to large-scale production. a return on investment (ROI).
Smaller, general purpose robots are Early industrial robots required
now available to boost productivity considerable design effort and
for a wide range of operations, were customized—unique to their
working alongside humans as task. As a result, they could only
partners in workspaces as small as handle a narrowly defined range of
two square feet. operation. The resulting cost and
inflexibility meant that the robot
This article looks at what has
had to offer substantial efficiency
held robots back from large-scale
and throughput improvements over
deployment in smaller operations as
manual methods and be utilized in a
co-worker robots and why that has
high-volume production line to justify
changed. It then introduces example
its implementation. Small to mid-
robots in the form of manipulator
sized facilities could seldom meet
arms from KUKA Robotics Corp. and
such conditions.
shows how they can be applied in
both large and small facilities. To maximize benefit, most
industrial robots for large-scale
operation have also tended to
Figure 1: Traditional industrial robots
tend to be large and fast-moving, be large and fast, working with
requiring protective cages to ensure materials and at speeds beyond
worker safety. (Image source: KUKA human capabilities (Figure 1).
Robotics Corp.)

we get technical
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Use compact industrial robots to make any shop more productive

The momentum of the robot can grippers or tools mounted at the to human operators rather than
be high enough to injure or even end of the robotic arm, these a replacement for them. Such
kill any worker struck while in the generic platforms greatly expand compact collaborative robots—or
movement path. To keep workers the range of activities for which a cobots—are designed for physically
safe, large industrial robots need to robotic system can be created to close human collaboration without
be isolated behind cages or other generate a suitable ROI. Further, the need for protective cages
barriers with interlocks so that these robotic arms can readily or other such barriers to keep
human entry into their operating be programmed for different humans out of harm’s way as the
space will shut them down. movements or repurposed with robots go through their paces.
different end-effector mechanisms Compact robotic arms are less
The introduction of compact
when their initial applications expire, massive and move more slowly
robotic manipulator arms, such
extending their payback potential. than traditional industrial robots,
as the AGILUS KR 3 R540 from
allowing compact robots to stop on
KUKA Robotics, has given industrial Another key feature of these
contact, minimizing the potential
facilities managers more options compact industrial robotic arms
for injury. Further, they often have
(Figure 2). These devices provide is their ability to fit into compact
proximity sensors built in to help
a generic, off-the-shelf platform workspaces and integrate with
avoid collisions entirely.
offering considerable operational existing production efforts. Unlike
flexibility at a relatively modest their more massive cousins in large A growing number of vendors have
cost. Coupled with suitable end- manufacturing facilities, compact begun producing compact industrial
effector attachments such as robots can also serve as a partner robotic arms targeting small to mid-

Figure 2: Manipulator arms, such as the AGILUS KR 3 R540 from KUKA Robotics, are bringing ROI for industrial robotics within
reach of small to mid-size operations. (Image source: KUKA Robotics Corp.)

58
size operations. One representative
example is the KUKA Robotics
AGILUS family, which has three
versions. The AGILUS KR 3 R540,
mentioned earlier, is the smallest.
It operates within a two foot square
footprint and can handle loads of
up to 3 kilograms (kg), making it
suitable for numerous assembly
and materials handling applications.
The AGILUS KR 6 R900-2 handles
up to 6 kg and the AGILUS KR 10
Figure 4: Robotic arms can position the center of their wrist within a vertical region
R1100-2 up to 10 kg. All three have (a) oriented nearly anywhere around the robot's location (b). (Image source: KUKA
the same overall form and behavior Robotics Corp., modified by DigiKey)
and are available in kits, complete
with a controller unit and handheld
operator unit for controlling, Like many robotic arms, the skills, but that has now been
monitoring, and programming the AGILUS devices have six simplified. Robotic arms typically
robot's activity. movement axes: a rotating base come with a controller computer
(A1), a base arm (A2), a link arm and a user interface tablet that
The mechanical design of the
(A3), an in-line wrist that can rotate allows a user to move the robot
AGILUS devices gives insight into the
(A4) and bend (A5), and a rotating using simple directional buttons
flexibility of robotic arms in general
mounting flange (A6) where end- to reach desired "waypoints."
(Figure 3).
effector devices are attached. Axes Logging a series of waypoints
A2 to A5 work together to position defines the complete sequence
the center of the wrist anywhere of motions the robot can follow
within the vertical operating automatically. Some robotic
profile, shown in Figure 4(a), while systems also allow the user to
the rotating base can direct that manually position the robot arm
vertical profile almost anywhere to desired waypoints instead of
around the arm (Figure 4(b)). The using the directional buttons.
center of mass for the end effector
Both approaches serve to "teach"
attachment can be offset from this
the robot by example what
position, as shown. The arm can
movements it is to execute, which
be mounted on a floor, bench, cart,
it will then be able to repeat upon
wall, or ceiling as desired without
command. The ability for the user
impeding operation.
Figure 3: Six axes of motion provide
to teach rather than code not only
flexibility in the mounting and reach Controlling a robot's movement simplifies initial robot setup for a
of compact industrial robotic arms. with all these axes used to require task, it allows for easy adaptation
(Image source: KUKA Robotics Corp.) sophisticated programming of movement as requirements

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Use compact industrial robots to make any shop more productive

evolve. The control tablet further Complete application solutions The painting package, for
allows the user to refine and are even becoming available instance, was developed in
correct movements as needed as stock solutions from robotic conjunction with mechanical and
during production activity. arm vendors. KUKA Robotics, plant engineering firm Dürr Group
for example, offers a series and is based on the AGILUS
These types of robotic
of "ready2 use" systems for KR 10. It includes the atomizer,
arms with simplified control
riveting, paint spraying, arc or pump, and color changer for
programming provide an off-the-
spot welding, and micro-screw high and low pressure, one
shelf foundation for industrial
fastening applications, among or two component, water or
automation solutions, serving
others (Figure 5). These systems solvent-based paint applications.
as the position manipulator for
include end-effector system The Dürr EcoAUC control unit
an end-effector mechanism
elements, controller elements, and regulates the painting process
appropriate for the task to
system software along with the while the KUKA KR C4 controller
be performed. Such end-
robotic arm as a pre-configured handles robotic arm motion.
effector mechanisms can
automation package.
range from simple grippers But users are not limited to
for pickup, position, and place such pre-configured systems
operations, to machine tools when applying compact robot
such as screwdrivers and drills, technology in their operations.
to complex systems such Because of the robotic arm's
as soldering irons and paint installation and movement
sprayers. The target application flexibility, ease of programming,
will dictate what end-effectors and versatile end-effector
and system integration efforts are attachment flange, a wide variety
needed to create a full solution. of custom applications are
possible. The key is to identify
End-effector mechanisms
repetitive tasks in an existing
designed for many common
production process that the robot
operations are available from
can assist with or take over from
robotic arm vendors as well as
human operators.
third-party system integrators.
For picking up and manipulating
objects, for instance, there are Figure 5: Compact industrial
grippers with jaws, two or three robots that are complete
fingers, and magnetic or vacuum system solutions for
pickup mechanisms available from common applications are
now available "off-the-shelf",
a host of different vendors. Drills,
such as this painting system
screwdrivers, grinders, and blades from Dürr Group and KUKA
for fabrication and assembly Robotics. (Image source:
applications can also be found. Dürr AG)

60
Siemens, for instance, is using a The robot's controller works in Tasks requiring repeatable
small robotic arm in its electric conjunction with other pieces of precision are also suitable for
motor production for the stator equipment to scan the workpiece robotic handling, even for small
component. The stator is made barcode for tracking purposes, production runs. ALNEA, for
of punched magnetic sheet steel and to move the measured instance, has set up a robotic arm
with an aluminum bearing plate workpiece either to a carrier for to handle selective soldering in
that needs machining to bring transport to the next processing its SMT production line. Selective
within tolerances. The robotic station or to a holding station soldering is needed when
arm has taken over the repetitive for a human operator to make components might be damaged
task of taking workpieces out adjustments or replacements as by the heat involved in bulk
of a carrier, placing them in an needed. The robot arm's safety wave or reflow soldering. Hand
automatic lathe for machining, features allow the human and soldering an SMT device requires
removing the finished workpiece, robot to operate in the same both a steady hand and careful
cleaning it in an air blast, and workspace without protective timing to avoid solder bridges and
placing it into a measuring station fencing or other barriers that heat damage.
to check the tolerances. might impede workflow.

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Use compact industrial robots to make any shop more productive

In the ALNEA application, the rest of the production run. The precision that human operators
robotic arm provides the steady company saw a 50% reduction found difficult to sustain
hand while the end-effector in production time by using the throughout a work shift. The task
soldering iron’s control system robot for selective soldering. was to position a number of metal
ensures both the temperature and reinforcement plates at points
The task to be automated may
timing of the soldering operation along the frame prior to inserting
not even need to be a complete
are within set parameters the frame into an automated
operation to prove economically
(Figure 6). With the first units welding station. However, the
beneficial. For example, the BMW
of a production run, the human strain of repeatedly performing
Group has integrated a robotic
operator sets the soldering this otherwise simple task of
arm into its existing workflow for
parameters and trains the robot positioning resulted in increased
the production of reinforced side
arm on the movement sequence. errors and reduced throughput as
members in automobiles simply
Operators then help position the day wore on.
to relieve the human operator
the pc board and components
from a repetitive task requiring
for robotic soldering during the

Figure 6: Robotic arms can provide the steady hand and precision positioning needed for applications such as selective soldering
in pc board production. (Image source: KUKA Robotics Corp.)

62
BMW inserted the robotic arm Conclusion integrate into an existing, human-
into this operation specifically centric workflow—without the
to take on the task of properly Industrial robots have traditionally need for physical barriers—such
positioning the plates once the been associated with large robots are able to gracefully join
human operator had counted out industrial facilities, mainly due the workforce without disruption.
the right number of plates and to cost, complexity, and safety. Now, industrial automation is no
provided them to the robot. No However, an ever widening longer just for large, high-volume
other changes to the workflow array of repetitive tasks, from operations with deep pockets:
were required. But by assuming simple positioning to painting small shop operations can also
the precision placement portion complex shapes, are becoming incorporate a robotic hand.
of the operator's task, the robot economically feasible for
reduced fatigue-induced errors compact industrial robots.
and ensured sustained production
With their modest space
throughput throughout an entire
requirements, simplified
shift. The robot's safety features
programming, falling costs,
allowed it to work alongside the
and ability to readily and safely
human operator without a need to
modify the workspace.

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63
Fundamentals
of pneumatic grippers
for industrial applications
By Jeff Shepard
Contributed By DigiKey's North American Editors

64
 Complemented by the last several Jaw pneumatic grippers rely
decades’ worth of advancement on compressed air for their
in controls, sensors, and feedback operation. Upon some command
connectivity, pneumatic gripper signal, valves allow air to travel
motions (primarily for grasping through internal channels and
and releasing) typically coordinate activate mechanical linkages —
with those of the machine axis or which in turn open and close the
robotic arm to which they mount. gripper fingers. Supporting this
primary set of subcomponents
are pneumatic hoses, control
Pneumatic gripper subcomponents and wiring,
operation mounting flanges for attachment
to machines and robots, failsafe
Pneumatic grippers are far and
mechanisms, and a housing that
away the most common gripper
encloses these components.
type for industrial applications
involving robotic pick-and- Though the released position (held
place, machine tools, workpiece by a mechanical compression
machining, and assembly tasks. spring) is usually the default,
Figure 1: Shown here is a two-finger
Though some pneumatic grippers gripper designs that default to
pneumatic gripper on the end of a
robotic arm. The jaw fingers make take the form of bladder-type grasping are also available on the
physical contact with the object to be and suction-cup end effectors, market. Where a closed (gripping)
grasped and are what allow the gripper pneumatic grippers with fingers or position is the default, a spring
to hold and release objects. (Image jaws are the most prevalent and provides the gripping force … and
source: Kazakov • Getty Images)
those generally assumed when no allowing compressed air into the
other context is given. gripper serves to open the jaws.
In fact, certain grippers rely on
Pneumatic grippers are
compressed air for both grasping
electromechanical devices used in
and releasing force.
industrial applications for grasping
and lifting, holding, rotating, and
placing objects into set locations.
These grippers typically install Figure 2: Parallel, three-finger,
on the furthest reaches of either and angled grippers are the three
most common gripper types
workpiece-processing machines
in industrial applications. The
or six-axis, Cartesian, or selective three-finger pneumatic gripper
compliance articulated robot shown here has fingers offset by
arm (SCARA) robotic arms 120° to gently stretch O-rings and
as end effectors to execute mount them onto recipient shafts.
(Image source: Schunk)
various material-handling tasks.

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Fundamentals of pneumatic grippers for industrial applications

First commercially available in

the 1970s, pneumatic two-finger
grippers are the most widely
applied today — accounting for
more than half of all pneumatic
gripper applications. The fingers
in these designs slide or swing on
pivot points to close like a gate or
lobster claw around target objects.
They can employ either parallel
jaw action or angled finger action.

Pneumatic grippers with parallel

jaw action: In parallel grippers,
the two fingers slide inward and
Video 1: In one common variation, the pneumatic gripper connects via a specialty
hose to a compressed air system. The force of compressed air displaces a piston outward — in straight-line motion
that in turn (through some gear, toggle, or slide linkage) causes the external jaws to — on the same axis along tracks in
actuate through their range of stroke. (Video source: Schunk) the upper gripper body. Typically,
the inward sliding action is what
Control of air into a pneumatic grasps the workpieces or other
gripper is often reliant on objects. However, applications
preprogrammed grasp-release abound in which the two fingers
cycles … or (in more sophisticated slide outward to secure hollow
applications) feedback from or open workpieces (such as
sensors that detect held objects. O-rings or cylinders, for example)
from their inner diameters.
Benefits of these dead-simple
Types of pneumatic grippers abound. The various
grippers subcomponents for such grippers
are simpler to manufacture than
Jaw and finger pneumatic grippers
others, making these grippers very
are classified by their:
cost-effective. In addition, there
■ Kinematic arrangement, number
is one steady gripping force over
of fingers, action, and type of
the entire finger stroke — which
mounting
simplifies the work associated
■ Physical size and maximum
with applications involving
gripping force Figure 3: Two-finger parallel grippers
delicate or otherwise pressure-
■ Jaw and housing construction
in Schunk’s PGN-plus series deliver
long jaw strokes and include seals, sensitive workpieces. Finally,
— including level of ingress
dirt-resistant round linear guides, and parallel grippers can be designed
protection high-strength aluminum-alloy housings to close and open quite wide —
Connectivity to common to survive dirty industrial environments. even to a couple feet or more.
■

industrial control networks (Image source: Schunk)

66
Pneumatic grippers with angled applications. Their higher level Jaw and finger pneumatic grippers
finger action: In these grippers, the of applicability comes at a cost, can take the form of single and
actuated ends of the fingers are but three-fingered grippers can double-action grip types as well.
pinned to a fixed pivot point. Upon grasp workpieces and other items In single-acting grippers, the force
application of pneumatic power, with more complex or challenging of compressed air generates the
a piston action and mechanical geometry. So-called self-centering gripping motion and force. Once
wedge element cause the fingers three-finger pneumatic grippers the supply is shut off, the fingers
to swing closed (or in other include a trio of fingers even spaced return to and stay in their original
variations, open) like French doors. (120° apart on a machine chuck) position thanks to the action of
In the open position, the jaws that necessitate finger swap-outs a simple compression spring. In
wing outward beyond the gripper for an operation change. These contrast, double-acting grippers
body or project straight out. In the close inward to grip workpieces at a require compressed air actuation for
closed (typically grasping) position, center point. In contrast, so-called both the grip and release motions. In
the tips of the gripper fingers tilt adaptive three-finger pneumatic fact, double-acting grippers may be
inward to close into a tapered grippers set two fingers together capable of both internal and external
grasping shape. One design caveat and the third to oppose them like a gripping as described above.
when using these grippers is that, thumb. Most common on mobile
unlike parallel-finger types, angled robotics, such grippers can pick
fingers have limited strokes and up objects in several ways to
Common pneumatic-
generate a gripping force that’s accommodate variations on a given gripper applications
variable along the actuation stroke. workpiece geometry.
Pneumatic grippers are widely
That said, angled finger grippers
used in industrial settings
under direct piston action can have
Internal gripping — especially for automated
exceptionally high gripping force —
workcells, assembly and
up to 2,300 N or higher. and double acting
production lines, machine tending
Though the majority of pneumatic associated with advanced
Higher finger Counts: three grippers are used for grasping or manufacturing, hazardous
cradling parts around their exterior plant areas, and logistics as
and four-finger grippers
(contacting outer object surfaces) well as automated warehousing
Where two-finger pneumatic internal gripping operations are operations. A small but
grippers are inappropriate to essential to many assembly growing array of commercial,
handle an operation’s workpieces, applications. Here, the gripper recreational, and consumer
three and four-finger grippers fingers open to grasp objects with robotics applications (including
(and even five-finger grippers in hollow geometries from within. mobility bionics) also make use of
specialty humanoid-type robotics In some cases, grippers can be pneumatic grippers.
applications) can provide better tasked with both external and
Consider pneumatic grippers
gripping support and stability. To be internal gripping operations —
for material handling in food
clear, though: all such grippers are though must be designed to have
and beverage processing and
far less common than two-finger both capabilities.
packaging equipment. Here, the
grippers … and only three-finger
clean operation of pneumatics
grippers are common in industrial

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Fundamentals of pneumatic grippers for industrial applications

in assembly or sorting and Of course, pneumatic grippers

selecting, they’re often supported do have some drawbacks and
by sensor or even machine-vision limitations. These are primarily
systems to direct their actions. related to the operational cost
Otherwise, Hall Effect and and complexity of pneumatic
proximity sensors in the gripper designs and compressed-air
can provide sufficient feedback. systems in general. Initial setup
of such systems can be costly
and complicated. That said,
Advantages and limitations there is economy of scale where
of pneumatic grippers an industrial operation already
makes use of compressed-air
One key benefit of pneumatic
systems elsewhere.
grippers over other gripper
types is that they’re available in
numerous sizes and grip forces, Pneumatic gripper
ranging from a few Newtons to
selection criteria
several kilo-Newtons, and can be
Figure 3: Two-finger parallel grippers adapted for different applications Sizing and specifying pneumatic
in Schunk’s PGN-plus series deliver — even those requiring thousands grippers for a given material-
long jaw strokes and include seals,
of repetitions per hour. Industrial handling application should start
dirt-resistant round linear guides, and
high-strength aluminum-alloy housings pneumatic grippers also offer with the clear definition of key
to survive dirty industrial environments. unrivaled repeatability for design parameters.
(Image source: Schunk) precision automation tasks. In
Size and gripping force:
addition, pneumatic grippers:
Pneumatic grippers should open
■ Are cost and power effective

is an asset — and pneumatically enough to accommodate the

to run
actuated finger grippers objects being handled. Required
■ Are lightweight and compact

complement the use of other pneumatic-gripper finger force

— especially when compared
air-powered bladder and suction depends on the weight of objects
to certain motor and hydraulic-
gripper types to handle everything being handled as well as the
based options
from boxes and wine bottles finger-to-object coefficient of
to eggs and bags of candy. In Unlike their hydraulic and electric friction, area of finger-to-object
contrast, grippers in machine- counterparts, pneumatic grippers contact, and force to counteract
tool applications are typically are largely unaffected by their that of the opposing fingers.
designed for just one workpiece working environments. That’s Highly engineered gripper-
type — and in some cases, are in contrast with electrically finger materials and coatings
even tasked with holding those actuated grippers with sensitive can boost the finger-to-object
workpieces as machining or other electronics than can malfunction coefficient of friction. Of course,
processes are performed. Where in moist environments. the jaws of pneumatic grippers
pneumatic grippers are involved for use in food or pharmaceutical

68
applications must be made from specific gripping points on these Conclusion
or coated with FDA-approved objects. The cost savings of
materials. two-finger grippers can often Pneumatic grippers are robotic
justify their use wherever this end effectors that are essential to
There is wide variability in the material handling on production
solution satisfies the operation’s
ratio of the handled part size and lines. These grippers hold, orient,
requirements.
weight — with lightweight yet bulky and place workpieces and other
items often posing the greatest Operating environment: objects for processing, assembly
gripper design challenges. Pneumatic gripper bearings, with other parts, or rejection
internal mechanical elements, — as off a conveyor through a
Part geometry: Handled objects
and housings abound to satisfy quality-control station. Despite
with complex geometries can
clean and contaminated operating the drawbacks of compressed-air
often necessitate pneumatic
environments. Especially important systems necessary for pneumatic
grippers with three instead of
are pneumatic gripper temperature gripper operation, these are often
two fingers. That’s especially true
ratings (that stipulate ranges within the cleanest, fastest, and most
where a series of workpieces may
which a gripper will optimally suitable choice for parts handling.
have slightly varying geometries.
function) as well as IP ratings
But where workpieces are
that define the level of particulate
consistent, two-finger grippers can
matter and moisture a given
incorporate customized surfaces
gripper can resist before ingress.
and shapes to accommodate

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