STRUCTURED COMPUTER

ORGANIZATION
SIXTH EDITION

BY:ANDREW S. TANENB

Submitted by:Darrel N. Mape Submittedto:Maria CristinaMagnaye

 STRUCTURED
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

SIXTH EDITION

ANDREW S. TANENBAUM
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
The Netherlands

TODD AUSTIN
University of Michigan Ann Arbor
Michigan, UNITED States
CONTENTS

PREFACE xix
1 INTRODUCTION
2 STRUCTURED COMPUTER ORGANIZATION 2
3 MILESTONES IN COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE 13

4 THE COMPUTER ZOO 28

5 EXMAPLE COMPUTER FAMILIES
6COMPUTER SYSTEMS

7 THE DIGITAL LOGIC LEVEL

8 THE MICROARCHITECTURE LEVEL

9 THE INSTRUCTION SET

10 THE OPERATING SYSTEM

11 THE ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE LEVEL

12 PARALLEL COMPUTER ARCHITECTURES

BIBLIOGRAPHY
659

BINARY NUMBERS
INTRODUCTION
A digital computer is a machine that can do work for people by carrying out instructions given
to it. A sequence of instructions describing how to perform a certain task is called a program. The
electronic circuits of each computer can rec- ognize and directly execute a limited set of simple
instructions into which all its programs must be converted before they can be executed. These
basic instructions are rarely much more complicated than
Add two numbers.
Check a number to see if it is zero.
Copy a piece of data from one part of the computer’s memory to another

Together, a computer’s primitive instructions form a language in which people can

communicate with the computer. Such a language is called a machine lan- guage. The people
designing a new computer must decide what instructions to in- clude in its machine language.
Usually, they try to make the primitive instructions as simple as possible consistent with the
computer’s intended use and performance requirements, in order to reduce the complexity and cost
of the electronics needed. Because most machine languages are so simple, it is difficult and tedious
for peo- ple to use them.
This simple observation has, over the course of time, led to a way of structur- ing computers as
a sequence of abstractions, each abstraction building on the one below it. In this way, the
complexity can be mastered and computer systems can be designed in a systematic, organized way.
We call this approach structured computer organization and have named the book after it. In the
next section we will describe what we mean by this term. After that we will look at some historical
developments, the state of the art, and some important examples
STRUCTURED COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

As mentioned above, there is a large gap between what is convenient for peo-
ple and what is convenient for computers. People want to do X, but computers
can only do Y. This leads to a problem. The goal of this book is to explain how
this problem can be solved

COMPUTER SYSTEMS

This textbook covers digital design, fundamentals of computer architecture,

and assembly language. The book starts by introducing basic number systems,
character coding, basic knowledge in digital design, and components of a
computer. The book goes on to discuss information representation in
computing; Boolean algebra and logic gates; sequential logic; input/output;
and CPU performance. The author also covers ARM architecture, ARM
instructions and ARM assembly language which is used in a variety of devices
such as cell phones, digital TV, automobiles, routers, and switches

THE DIGITAL LOGIC LEVEL

A logic level is defined by a band of voltage levels from a minimum to
a maximum level, representing either a logic 0 or a logic 1 in digital
circuits. It ensures the correct voltages appear at specific nodes in
the in the circuit at the appropriate times.

2
3 control unit exist at this level,
hence it is sometime called
the control level.
4 The internal organization of
the parts that make up a
processor is referred to
5 as the micro-architecture of
the processor
6 he level above the digital
logic level is the
microarchitecture level. The
7 control unit exist at this level,
hence it is sometime called
the control level.
8 The internal organization of
the parts that make up a
processor is referred to
9 as the micro-architecture of
the processor
10 he level above the digital
logic level is the
microarchitecture level. The
11 control unit exist at this level,
hence it is sometime called
the control level.
12 The internal organization of
the parts that make up a
processor is referred to
13 as the micro-architecture of
the processor
14 he level above the digital
logic level is the
microarchitecture level. The
15 control unit exist at this level,
hence it is sometime called
the control level.
16 The internal organization of
the parts that make up a
processor is referred to
17 as the micro-architecture of
the processor
18 he level above the digital
logic level is the
microarchitecture level. The
19 control unit exist at this level,
hence it is sometime called
the control level.
20 The internal organization of
the parts that make up a
processor is referred to
21 as the micro-architecture of
the processor
22 he level above the digital
logic level is the
microarchitecture level. The
23 control unit exist at this level,
hence it is sometime called
the control level.
24 The internal organization of
the parts that make up a
processor is referred to
25 as the micro-architecture of
the processor
26 he level above the digital
logic level is the
microarchitecture level. The
27 control unit exist at this level,
hence it is sometime called
the control level.
28 The internal organization of
the parts that make up a
processor is referred to
29 as the micro-architecture of
the processor
30 he level above the digital
logic level is the
microarchitecture level. The
31 control unit exist at this level,
hence it is sometime called
the control level.
32 The internal organization of
the parts that make up a
processor is referred to
33 as the micro-architecture of
the processor
34 he level above the digital
logic level is the
microarchitecture level. The
35 control unit exist at this level,
hence it is sometime called
the control level.
36 The internal organization of
the parts that make up a
processor is referred to
37 as the micro-architecture of
the processor
38 he level above the digital
logic level is the
microarchitecture level. The
39 control unit exist at this level,
hence it is sometime called
the control level.
40 The internal organization of
the parts that make up a
processor is referred to
41 as the micro-architecture of
the processor
42 he level above the digital
logic level is the
microarchitecture level. The
43 control unit exist at this level,
hence it is sometime called
the control level.
44 The internal organization of
the parts that make up a
processor is referred to
 45 as the micro-architecture of
the processor
46 he level above the digital
logic level is the
microarchitecture level. The
47 control unit exist at this level,
hence it is sometime called
the control level.
48 The internal organization of
the parts that make up a
processor is referred to
49 as the micro-architecture of
the processor
THE MICROARCHITECTURE LEVEL
Microarchitecture refers to the design and organization of a
computer processor, including the implementation of instructions
and the management of data and control flow. It encompasses
various techniques, such as single-cycle, multicycle, and pipelined
processors, as well as advanced techniques like superscalar and out-
of-order processing

THE INSTRUCTION SET

An instruction set is a group of commands for a central processing
unit (CPU) in machine language. The term can refer to all possible
instructions for a CPU or a subset of instructions to enhance its
performance in certain situations.
THE OPERATING SYSTEM
The document summarizes key concepts around process
synchronization, including critical sections, race conditions, mutual
exclusion, semaphores, and classical synchronization problems like
the bounded buffer, readers-writers, and dining philosophers
problems. Process synchronization ensures orderly execution of
cooperating processes to avoid inconsistent data from concurrent
access to shared resources. Techniques like semaphores use atomic
wait and signal operations to control access to critical sections.
THE ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE LEVEL
An assembly language is a type of low-level programming language
that is intended to communicate directly with a computer’s
hardware. Unlike machine language, which consists of binary and
hexadecimal characters, assembly languages are designed to be
readable by humans.

PARALLEL COMPUTER ARCHITECTURES

the term “parallel processing” designates the simultaneous execution of
multiple processors to solve a single computational problem cooperatively.
Parallel processing has the potential for making difficult computational
problems tractable by significantly increasing computer performance. Two
basic kinds of computational problems are encouraging research in parallel
processing through their need for orders-of-magnitude improvements in
computer processing speed. First, problems characterized by inordinate size
and complexity that often require hours or days of conventional processing

BIBLIOGRAPHY
bibliography, Broadly, the systematic study and
description of books. The word can refer to the listing
of books according to some system (called descriptive,
or enumerative, bibliography), to the study of books as
tangible objects (called critical, or analytical,
bibliography), or to the product of those activities. The
purpose of bibliography is to organize information
about materials on a given subject so that students of
the subject may have access to it. A descriptive
bibliography may take the form of information about a
particular author’s works or about works on a given
subject or on a particular nation or period.
BINARY NUMBERS
A binary number system is one of the four types of number
system. In computer applications, where binary numbers are
represented by only two symbols or digits, i.e. 0 (zero) and
1(one). The binary numbers here are expressed in the base-2
numeral system. For example, (101)2 is a binary number.
Each digit in this system is said to be a bit