Faculty of Applied Arts

Textile Department

Pre-Master

Subject /
English discussions in textile

Modern Techniques of
Synthetic Fiber Manufacturing

Submitted to:
Ph.D. Mohamed Sabry

Prepared by:
Engr. Mohamed Bakry
 ABSTRACT:
The first artificial fibers were made toward the end of nineteenth century on the Basis
of natural polymers: cellulose and casein. The knowledge of fully synthetic Polymers
was at that time still highly inadequate. These natural polymers do not melt - they
decompose at elevated temperature. (1)
This simple fact dictated the first methods of fiber formation. The polymers, or their
modifications, could. However, be dissolved. In solution form the shape of the materials
could be changed, and by subsequent solvent removal the shape could be fixed. On
these principles were based the first patents protecting fiber Format. Cellulose does not
dissolve easily in any of the commonly used solvents of that Time. Later, the choice of
solvents for cellulose was extended by the addition of Cup ammonium - a substance
not very pleasant to work with. The realities of difficult Solubility led to the
development of another way to prepare solutions: namely through formation of
cellulose derivatives: nitrocellulose and cellulose xanthate - a product of reaction
between cellulose and carbon disulfide. In the case of xanthates, immediately after
shaping the solution into fibers xanthate was regenerated back to cellulose. This became
known as the rayon process, which, with many refinements, is still in commercial use.
There are two applicable ways to remove the solvent: evaporation or extraction. Thus
the processes which today are referred to as dry spinning and wet spinning, or more
correctly as dry or wet fiber formation, were born. In the former, the solvent is removed
through evaporation, while in the latter the solvent is removed through extraction, with
or without a chemical reaction taking place simultaneously. In both of the methods
diffusion plays the key role. The rayon process involved a chemical reaction to
regenerate the cellulose, thus it was limited to a wet treatment for the sake of the
reaction, as well as for an extraction of the byproducts. With continuing progress in
the area of synthetic polymers, thermoplastic polymers eventually came under
consideration for fiber formation. (1)
The thermoplastic nature of the polymers allowed the omitance of solvents as a
processing aide, but Extrusion and further processing of the highly viscous melt brought
new problems. These were reflected primarily in new demands on hardware. The higher
viscosity of polymer melts and larger emphasis on the attenuation of the fiber diameters
necessitated the involvement of the science of rheology; problems connected with fiber
formation became for rheology an important field of research. In the past the three
methods of fiber formation - dry, wet, and melt spinning - were treated as entirely
different processes having very little in common. From an operational point of view.
This opinion may be justified to some extent. Indeed, from theoretical and technological
points of view, these processes are very similar. Schematic representation of fiber
formation by all three main variants of the process is given in Figure 1-1. To begin with,
the dry polymer is either melted or dissolved, possibly after a modifying reaction. While
the polymer melting is continuous in screw smelters or extruders, or fed directly from
continuous polymerization units, dissolution is performed in batches. In the old days
melting was accomplished on grill heaters located closely to the spinning blocks. In any
of the cases, the polymer solution or melt is transported to spinning blocks. The
necessary pressure is delivered either by extruder, as in contemporary melt spinning, or
by compressed gas (nitrogen), as in spinning from solution or grill heater melted
polymer. (1)

Fig 1
Introduction:
The manufacture of synthetic fibers represents a huge industry, both in the United States
and worldwide. In 1990, the dollar value of synthetic fibers was roughly $17 Billion in
the U.S. and $70 billion worldwide. Natural fibers, consisting mainly of cotton and
wool, but also including silk, yielded total dollar values only slightly higher. We
sometimes forget how much of these fibers we consume, especially since the appeal of
"natural" fibers of cotton and wool has grown in recent years. Despite Questions of
aesthetics and taste, there should continue to be a significant demand for Synthetic
fibers, in large part because these fibers can be tailor-made to provide specific
properties that natural fibers cannot provide. (2)
Technical textiles are finding an increasing number of applications that include some
areas that have not previously been considered as potential for textile use. Applications
considered, in this review to be typical for technical (as opposed to, e.g., fashion apparel
or furnishing) products, include military fabrics and protective clothing, transport, civil
engineering and structural fabrics and other industrial applications. Combinations of
properties, which are unique to textile structures, are made possible by their fibrous
nature and the way in which yarns and fabrics are structured. Their fundamental
characteristics which include fiber molecular orientation for high linear strength, very
high fiber surface area within the structures, low fabric density (high proportion air
content) and ease of relative internal movement, manifest in properties such as
absorbing capacity, conformability and high strength to weight ratio especially tensile
and tear. The wide range of fiber types, fiber and yarn form and fabric constructions,
which allow such desirables as high directional and adhesion properties, offer textiles
as powerful substrate tools for the composite design engineer. A classification table on
the major fiber types is shown (Fig 2). (3)

Fig 2
In this review, textile/polymer combination products are included which demonstrate
new potential for three dimensional textile structures, to, e.g., encapsulate the polymer
in various ways, as an interesting addition to the more conventional approach of
encapsulating fiber or fabric in polymer matrix. This technology is particularly covered
in Section 10.3 on novel polymer utilization. Dimensional textile structures, to, e.g.,
encapsulate the polymer in various ways, as an interesting addition to the more
conventional approach of encapsulating fiber or fabric in polymer matrix. This
technology is particularly covered in Section 10.3 on novel polymer utilization. Having
said that, there is growing interest currently in some natural fibers, especially bast type
such as jute and leaf type such as sisal (38, 137, and 187) for composite materials. Such
products are environmentally compatible being of renewable resource and
biodegradable. Flax, for instance (314) is of potential interest for its low extensibility.
Further enhancement and specific designing of end product properties is achieved by
the marriage of textile substrates with an ever growing variety and sophistication of
non-fibrous polymeric materials.(1)
The application method, type of distribution and disposition of polymer on and within
the textile, and choice of polymer will determine the imparted modification of
properties. Continuing development and commercial availability of more sophisticated
and high performing polymers with a wide selection of supplied form and functionality
are drawing increasing attention to textile/polymer combination products as a means of
survival for textile manufacturers and combiners as well as benefiting the polymer
industry. Industrial application processes exist for a whole range of polymer
modification effects. Distribution effects possible include continuous phase matrices
within the fabric structure, discontinuous phases as in coverage of fibers or filaments
(which will largely maintain the Essential textile characteristics) and other forms of
particulate polymer, and less integrated forms; extreme cases of which are
textile/polymer membrane lamination and transfer coating. The applied polymer in
application may be in the form of melt, plastisol, powder, granule, foam, film, solution,
dispersion, emulsion and smaller molecules for in situ polymerization. Holmes reviews
some of these forms (293), for use in lamination and bonding processes to textiles. In
this review he describes how the current use of granules, films, webs and powders has
reduced the environmental Undesirables by moving away from solvent based adhesives
and flame lamination. The review extends to the sophisticated designs now available
such as the React bond products, which include a molten state for application of
thermoplastics and crosslinking subsequently to impart toughness, durability and
reduced thermos plasticity in the finished product. The article also refers to other
innovative developments in polymer modification of textiles and typifies the huge
potential these products have for the textile and polymer industries. (1)

Processes of Synthetic Fiber Manufacturing:-

 Polymerization
 Spinning
 Drawing
 Texturization
 Twisting
 Polymerization methods:

With respect to the equipment and the conditions followed, the polymerization step in
polyesters is similar to that of polyamides. On comparison, the formation of high
molecular weight in polyesters differs to some extent. The chemical equilibrium
favours the polyamide formation, whereas the equilibrium is much less favoured in
polyester; stoichiometric equivalenceis easily achieved by the use of salts in polyamides
whereas due to the nonachieve in polyesters; and the amide interchange reactions are
slow, when compared to polyesters. (4)

o Step-growth polycondensation:

Polyester is formed by step-growth polycondensation from dicarboxylic acid or its

diester and diol. The by-products produced are water (or) methanol depending upon the
reactant used namely dicarboxylic acid or its dimethyl ester. A number of catalysts are
used for the polycondensation reactions such as compounds on antimony, germanium,
titanium, aluminum, etc. Antimony based catalysts are used at a dosage level of 300
ppm whereas titanium based catalysts are used at about 20 ppm dosage level. As a
result polyesters prepared from titanium based catalysts contain lesser amounts of
residual catalyst. Germanium catalyst is expensive and widely preferred in Japan.
Enzyme protease from Bacillus lichenformis can also be used as a catalyst for the trans
esterification of DMT and diol in the synthesis of aromatic polyesters in anhydrous
tetrahydrofuran (THF). (4)

o Ring-opening polymerization:

Polyesters can be prepared by ring-opening polymerization (ROP) (Jerome and

Teyssie, 1989; Penczek and Slomkowski, 1989) using cyclic oligomers and
polymerization could be achieved at temperatures well below the melting point of the
final polymer. Unlike polycondensation reaction, this method does not require removal
of any by-products and high molecular weight of >100 000 can be achieved in a matter
of minutes. Using this method, PET and PBT can be prepared using the corresponding
cyclic oligomers. The limitations of this technique are that one has to synthesize cyclic
oligomer using diol and diacid chloride and that a solvent and catalyst are required. (4)

o Polyaddition reaction:

Alternatively, polyesters can be prepared by polyaddition reaction of diepoxides to

diacids (Madec and Marechal, 1985). This reaction is catalyzed by amines, quaternary
ammonium, antimony trioxide, antimony pentachloride, Ph3As. A comprehensive
review is reported elsewhere (Madec and Marechal, 1985). Polyaddition reaction is
accompanied by the numerous side reactions, which limits its use, where linear
polyesters are required. The important side reactions are opening of epoxy ring by
water to give hydroxyl pendant groups, which in turn can react with carboxyl end group
(or) epoxy ring. These polyesters are used as composites, blends, laminates and
biodegradable polymers. (4)
o Recycling:

Polyesters can be recycled either by physical (or) chemical methods. In the physical
recycling method, post-consumer recycled PET flakes are remelted in an extruder for
pelletization into chips or direct melt processing into value-added products. Chemical
recycling is versatile because it is capable of removing any additive contamination and
any type of PET waste can be used. In chemical recycling method, hydrolysis (Pitat,
1959) or methanolysis (Anon, 1959) or glycolysis (MacDowell, 1965) is used.
Hydrolysis is carried out under high pressure water or steam or aqueous sodium
hydroxide solution at 180–250°C under pressures of 1.4–2 MPa or strong inorganic
acid such as nitric acid, sulphuric acid at 85–150°C. Methanolysis involves DE
polymerization of PET waste in a large quantity of methanol in the presence of catalyst
at high pressure and temperature for 3–5 hours (Vaidya, 1988). The DE polymerization
of PET in the presence of significant excess of glycols such as MEG at elevated
temperatures (180–250°C) is termed glycolysis. Post-consumer recycled PET flakes are
depolymerized into either the monomers namely PTA or DEG, MEG or into oligomers,
then these monomers or oligomers are reconverted into PET by polycondensation
reaction or to unsaturated polyesters by polyaddition reaction. Recycled PET is used
for making coarse denier staple fibers for carpets, needle-punched non-wovens, tennis
ball covers, etc. and for making hollow fibers or as geotextiles for soil stabilization, silt
fencing, rail-bed stabilization, etc., hollow fibers for filling, partially oriented yarns,
dope dyed fibers or filament yarns and strappings for packaging. The use of recycled
PET in producing film and sheet products is limited to those applications where clarity,
transparency and colour are not of prime importance. (4)

 Spinning methods:

 Traditional methods as : Melt, Dry and Wet Spinning

 Modern / Under Development: Electro spinning.

The term spinning defines the extrusion process through bored devices (spinnerets) of
fluid polymer masses which are able to solidify in a continuous flow. The spinning
process is sometimes designated as “chemical or primary spinning” to distinguish it
from the “textile or mechanical or secondary spinning”. The polymer processing from
the solid to the fluid state can take place with two methods:
1. by melting: this method can be applied on thermoplastic polymers which show stable
performances at the processing temperatures (this method is used by 70% of the fibers)
2. by solution: the polymer is solved in variable concentrations according to the kind of
polymer and of solvent, anyhow such as to produce a sufficiently viscous liquid (dope)
(this method is used by 30% of the fibers).
Spinning via melting is definitely preferable as it entails a simple transformation of the
physical state, however it can be applied only to polymer having a melting temperature
(PA 6 an Pa 6.6, PES, PP), whereas spinning by solution is used in case that the
polymers attain a thermal degradation at a temperature lower than melting temperature
(cellulose fibers, PAN). This last method is evidently more complicated than melt
spinning, owing on one hand to the necessity of dissolving the polymer in a proper
solvent, and on the other to the necessity of removing and recovering the polymer after
extrusion. In the case of melt spinning, the extruded polymer, owing to its fast cooling,
is transformed directly into a filament while keeping substantially unchanged the form
of the cross-section resulting from the filament geometry; on the contrary, in the case
of solution spinning the extruded filaments are subject to considerable structural
changes brought about by the process for solvent extraction from the polymer mass.

o Melt Spinning:

In the spinning of molten polymers, such as nylon, polyester, and polypropylene, melt
spinning begins with a cooling of the molten filament after it leaves the spinneret. At
the same time, the filament is pulled downwards towards the take-up section and this
resulting tension in the molten filament provides a stretching action in the molten
filament itself. In most melt spinning operations the degree of stretch is of the order of
3x, which means that the velocity of the initially cooled, or solid, fiber is about three
times the average velocity of the melt coming out of the spinneret. For some filaments,
this initial stretch is very important in helping to establish properties in the polymer,
which depend on whether one deals with the properties in the fiber axis direction or in
the fiber radius direction. This directional dependence of properties is called anisotropy
and the usual example is
that of a slab of wood, in
which strength and fracture
properties along the grain
are quite different from
properties across the grain.
(With many fibers,
however, these properties
are controlled downstream,
where the fibers are
reheated, stretched further,
and cooled again.) In any
case, the polymer melt, once
it comes out of the spinneret
hole, starts to cool down and
also starts to stretch out.
Because the "apparent
viscosity" of the melt
increases rapidly as the melt
cools, most of the stretching
takes place in a region
relatively close to the
spinneret hole whereas
"most" of the cooling takes
place well away from this
hole. But these terms and
descriptions are not exact and are not easily quantified. The Real advantage in using
these descriptions is that it permits us to make a simplifying Assumption as we analyze
the melt spinning process. The assumption is: We can separate the stretching and
cooling operations into two separate distinct regions, with the first occurring relative
close to the spinneret (say, within 10% of the distance to the first take-up, or speed-
control roll), and the second over the remaining distance to the first take-up roll. If need
be, we could return later to this assumption to determine its degree of accuracy, but let
us accept it for the moment. The stretching region, within which the relatively long
polymer molecules become aligned along the filament axis, might be characterized by
very complex rheology. Within the field of polymer processing, rheology deals with
the relationship between Stress and the history of strain; for Newtonian fluids, you can
recall that the fluid stress is proportional to the instantaneous rate of strain (the shear
rate). We are not really too concerned with the polymer melt rheology here, however,
since it will not likely be important in determining the power required for the first drive
or take-up roll. Frictional and interfacial stresses are likely to be far more important.
Therefore, in terms of design considerations, we can probably ignore that part of the
melt-spinning process in which the initial, post-spinneret stretching of the polymer melt
occurs and focus instead on the cooling step of the melt spinning operation.(2)

Key elements that you have learned in this section include:

• Difference and relationship between Lagrangian and Eulerian perspective.
• Existence of unsteady-state heat conduction charts.
• Heat transfer resistance within objects relative to resistance outside these objects.
• Value of dedimensionalization as a means to obtain more general solutions to complex
equations.
• A typical heat transfer correlation for heat transfer coefficient, h.
• Spinning of synthetic fibers with a melt spinning process is conceptually simple
involving little more that the extrusion of molten polymer through
fine holes and solidification of the resulting filaments by cooling.
(3)

o Dry Spinning:
Unlike melt spinning, both dry and wet spinning use solvents in
which the polymer dissolves, see Fig. 4-3. The resulting solution
or suspension is a viscous "spin dope." This process necessarily
introduces another species, which is subsequently removed, and
therefore is more expensive than conventional melt spinning
processes. It is used in cases where the polymer may degrade
thermally if attempts to melt it are used or in cases where certain
surface characteristics of the filaments are desired—melt
spinning produces filaments with smooth surfaces and dry
spinning produces filaments with rough surfaces. The rougher
surface may be desirable for improved dyeing steps or for special
yarn characteristics. The term "dry spinning" is a bit misleading,
since the polymer is certainly wet by a solvent. Presumably, the
intent here was to distinguish the two methods of solvent
removal for the two cases of dry and wet spinning. The solvent in dry spinning is a
volatile organic species and this solvent starts to evaporate after the filament is
formed, which is immediately downstream of the spinneret. Whereas melt spinning
involved solidification by cooling, dry spinning produces solidification of the polymer
by solvent removal. Several commercial fibers, including acrylic fibers such as
Orlon™, are made by a dry spinning process. You may recall that these acrylic fibers
are popular as substitutes for wool fibers. In any case, the spinning step which
defines, in large part, the spinning process is that of solvent removal from the
filaments. In the case of Orlon, the polymer, polyacrylonitrile, is dissolved to a
polymer concentration of 20 to 30 wt% in a dimethylformamide solvent. Warm gases
(air? — probably not, on account of the need for solvent recovery) are passed through
the fiber bundle in the region just downstream of the spinneret. This begins to look
very much like the cooling cross flow in melt spinning. The solvent encounters both a
diffusional resistance within the fiber and a convective resistance in moving from the
surface of the filament to the cross flow gases. Within the filament, the material
property of greatest importance is DAB, the diffusivity of the solvent A through the
filament B. (2)

Key elements learned in this section include:

• Equivalence of fundamental equations for heat transfer and mass diffusion.
• Similarity (and difference?) between convective equations for heat transfer and those
for mass transfer.
• Manufacture of synthetic fibers by volatilization of solvent from fibers produced as
Spin "dope" is extruded through small holes. (3)

o Wet Spinning:

Fibers produced by wet spinning include rayon and Kevlar™. Rayon was originally
developed as a synthetic substitute for silk and Kevlar was produced as a high strength
fiber for use in various aerospace and specialty-use applications. Furthermore, many
commercial acrylic fibers are also produced by wet spinning. (2)
As with dry spinning, the polymer is dissolved or suspended in a solvent, to form
a viscous "spin dope" and filaments are formed by extrusion through tiny holes in a
spinneret plate. Kevlar, for example, will degrade thermally if attempts are made to
melt it, and thus a solvent must be used. The term wet spinning more accurately depicts
the process than doe's dry spinning, because the solvent is extracted or, perhaps more
appropriately, leached, from the filaments by another liquid. In most cases, the second
liquid is aqueous. (2)
A major difference between wet spinning and either melt or dry spinning is that one is
spinning into a fluid (liquid) with a much higher viscosity. Because this higher
Viscosity can translate into high shearing stresses on the surfaces of the filaments, the
Tension in the filaments can become quite high. For example, towing a buoy by a long
line behind a boat can produce very high tensions in the line when compared with
towing the same buoy by a short line. For long baths, the tension can become
sufficiently high that the filaments might break, as their tensile strength is exceeded. To
avoid this danger, much lower spinning speeds must be used. Whereas melt spinning
may utilize spinning speeds of 2,000 yards per minute (80 mph), spinning speeds in wet
spinning are usually less than 300 ypm.
Another difference with dry spinning is the capability of using many more spinneret
holes in the case of wet spinning. The total number can approach 60,000 in a single
spinneret plate, if the spinning is done directly into a coagulating or extracting liquid.
Because the liquid is present, the filament forms a type of skin almost immediately and
the potential for the filaments to touch and fuse is practically eliminated, compared with
dry or melt spinning. (2)
In the case of Kevlar the spin dope is relatively warm, about 100°C, and forms a
viscous, liquid crystal. The solvent is sulfuric acid, at a concentration of about 80 wt%
(20 wt% polymer). These liquid crystals are easily oriented by a stretching motion, but
they can lose their orientation, presumably by Brownian motion, once the stretching is
stopped. Therefore, during the spinning process, the filaments are first extruded through
an air gap, where the filaments undergo strains of 2 to 3x, which produces a high degree
of molecular orientation in the filaments, and then they are suddenly “quenched.” This
air gap is of the order of one inch. It also allows the spinneret plate to be warm (100°C)
while the extraction bath can be cool (CA 15°C). The hot filaments then strike the
cooling bath where the filaments are quenched and much of the orientation is locked in
by the rapid cooling action. Subsequent to the quench step, the solvent is extracted,
which requires a relatively long bath contact
time. But the initial quenching step is crucial,
since it allows for the oriented molecules to
be "frozen" into position. This orientation is
particularly important to the high-strength
properties of Kevlar—the filaments, on a
weight basis, are significantly stronger that
steel. If one attempts to use the same process
to produce Kevlar filaments of large diameter,
the core of the filaments can lose its
orientation, because the quench time to reach
the core will increase with the square of the
filament radius. The filament skin, or the
outer part of the filaments, however, will have
the orientation locked in and a high degree of
orientation will exist there. This produces a
So-called "skin-core" effect, in which the
average properties of the filaments, expressed
as tensile strength per unit cross-sectional
area, will decline on account of a decreased
average orientation. (2)
Kevlar, with its focus on strength development via "air-gap" wet spinning, is somewhat
unique within the process of wet spinning. As with melt- and dry- spinning, the
controlling part of the process is associated with development of the filament structure,
either by cooling of the filament or by removal of the solvent. The equations for
diffusion in wet spinning are identical to those for dry spinning, with the exception that
the fluid passing outside the filaments is a liquid and not a gas. Also, the flow may not
be across the filaments, but even, partially, along the filaments. Therefore, the
correlations and nature of the flow surrounding the filaments will result in different
values for the surface mass transfer coefficient. Whether this will change the relative
resistance dramatically will depend on the particular fiber to be produced and its
dimensions and properties. Note that the same graphical solutions described earlier can
be used. To design a wet-spinning process, it may be necessary to predict the transport
of momentum, heat, and mass in the region adjacent to the filament just downstream of
the spinneret. One can use a so-called "boundary-layer" analysis to do this. Treatment
of such an analysis is beyond the scope of the present discussion of fiber spinning, but
a brief description of the analysis is appropriate. One form of boundary-layer analysis
involves von Karman integral boundary-layer techniques. The boundary layer starts at
zero thickness at the first point where the fiber contacts the extracting liquid, and grows
gradually radially outwards from each filament as one proceeds downstream. The
velocity profile inside the boundary layer is assumed and all of the velocity change
between the filament and the surrounding fluid is contained within this "momentum"
boundary layer. Similarly, thermal and diffusional boundary layers contain all the
changes in temperature and concentration, respectively. Based upon approximations of
these velocity profiles, frequently assumed to be turbulent, the variation in filament
drag with position can be predicted, along with local heat and mass transfer coefficients.
The student is referred to the text Transport Phenomena, by Bird, Stewart, and
Lightfoot, Wiley, New York (1960) for additional details of such integral boundary-
layer techniques. (2)

Key elements of the wet spinning process include:

• Similarity of governing equations to melt and dry spinning.

• Lower spinning speeds in wet spinning.
• Structure development in air-gap spinning of Kevlar and skin-core effects.
• Qualitative introduction to boundary-layer concepts. (3)
o Electro spinning:

The electro spinning process uses high voltage to create an electric field between a
droplet of polymer solution at the tip of a needle and a collector plate (see Figure 1&2).
One electrode Of the voltage source is placed into the solution and the other is
connected to the collector. This creates an electrostatic force. As the voltage is

increased, the electric field intensifies causing a force to build up on the pendant drop
of polymer solution at the tip of the needle. This Force acts in a direction opposing the
surface tension of the drop. The increasing electrostatic Force causes the drop to
elongate forming a conical shape known as a Taylor cone. When the electrostatic force
overcomes the surface tension of the drop, a charged, continuous jet of solution is
ejected from the cone. The jet of solution accelerates towards the collector, whipping
and bending wildly. As the solution moves away from the needle and toward the
collector, the jet rapidly thins and dries as the solvent evaporates. On the surface of the
grounded collector, a nonwoven mat of randomly oriented solid Nano fibers is
deposited. Some important applications for these Nano fibers include, but are not
limited to, catalytic substrates, photonics, filtration, protective clothing, cell
scaffolding, and drug delivery and wound healing. Different applications may require
the fibers to possess different properties. For instance, one application might require
the Nano fibers to be hydrophobic or hydrophilic; another may need the fiber to be
biodegradable or biocompatible. It will, therefore, be extremely important to
completely understand the process by which these fibers are produced. Despite the
attractive features of Nano fibrous scaffolds for cell attachment in tissue-engineering
(TE) applications, impeded cell in growth has been reported in electro spun scaffolds.
Previous findings have shown that the scaffold can function as a sieve, keeping cells on
the scaffold surface, and that cell migration into the scaffold does not occur in Time.
Because fiber diameter is directly related to the pore size of an electro spun scaffold,
the Objective of this study was to systematically evaluate how cell delivery can be
optimized by tailoring the fiber diameter of electro spun poly (e-caprolactone) (PCL)
scaffolds. Five groups of electro spun PCL scaffolds with increasing average fiber
diameters (3.4–12.1 mm) were seeded with human venous my fibroblasts. Cell
distribution was analyzed after 3 days of culture. Cell penetration increased
proportionally with increasing fiber diameter. Unobstructed delivery of cells was
observed exclusively in the scaffold with the largest fiber diameter (12.1 mm). This
scaffold was subsequently evaluated in a 4-week TE experiment and compared with a
poly (glycolic acid) - Poly (4-hydroxybutyrate) scaffold, a standard scaffold used
successfully in cardiovascular tissue engineering applications. The PCL constructs
showed homogeneous tissue formation and sufficient matrix deposition. In conclusion,
fiber diameter is a crucial parameter to allow for homogeneous cell delivery in electro
spun scaffolds. The optimal electro spun scaffold geometry, however, is not generic
and should be adjusted to cell size. (5)

 Drawing:

The polymer extruded by the spinnerets in form of filaments has not yet the properties
which are typical of a textile fiber: in fact the polymer mass (solidified through cooling
or solvent removal) is characterized by a mass of disorderly placed molecular chains
(in amorphous state) which provides the material with poor thermal and chemical
stability, low resistance to ageing, high plasticity and deformability and consequently
insufficient physical/textile properties. (6)
If we take natural fibers as models, we need to orientate the molecular chains
(orientation phase) in the direction of the fiber axis and at the same time or successively
activate or increase the ordered arrangement of the intermolecular structure
(crystallization phase). This process can be partly activated during spinning by
increasing the ratio between the take-up speed and the extrusion speed (spinning ratio)
but, excepted the case of high speed spinning of continuous filament yarns, the process
needs to be completed by an additional operation of mechanical drawing. (6)
The process entails winding the yarns on rollers or cylinders running at high speed and
can be carried out continuously on filaments coming from the spinning room (single-
phase process) or on filaments coming from a phase subsequent to spinning (two-phase
process). The speed ratio between the delivery or drawing rollers and the feeding rollers
is the draft ratio. The mechanical configuration of the rotating devices and the filament
path are designed in order to ensure the equivalence of fiber speed with the speed of
contact organs. (6)
Draft ratio levels are variable and depend on the fiber typology, on the production
process and on the end-use characteristics: they can fluctuate between values slightly
higher than 1 (≈ 1, 2 for traditional cellulose fibers) and max. 10 (for acrylic fibers).
Usual ratios for thermoplastic fibers are situated between 3 and 5; higher values identify
fibers for technical applications. Optimal conditions for fiber drawing are attained
when the molecular
chains show high
mobility and creep;
this result is in
practice attained by
increasing
temperature to levels
higher than glass
transition and by
introducing
plasticizers which
can make the
structure more
deformable and can reduce glass transition temperature (generally by acting upon the
system water / humidity or using spinning solvents). From an operational point of view,
the draft zone can operate at room temperature (cold drawing) or at heated conditions
(warm drawing) and consists of rollers, contact plates, heated air chambers or steam
chambers and of immersion baths. In order to provide the drawn fibers with thermal
stability, usually these fibers undergo also a treatment at temperature higher than
drawing temperature, under controlled tensions or in a free state, with the objective of
eliminating internal tensions through readjustment of intermolecular chemical links and
of the crystallization degree. (6)

 Texturization:

Texturing is probably the most typical example of innovative process tightly connected
with the production of continuous filaments, the properties and uses of which it has
deeply modified. As to world consumption of man-made fibers, it is estimated that
continuous filaments amount to about 18 million tons (55% of total consumption in
2002), divided among apparel (45%), upholstery (31%), industrial uses (13%), carpets
and floorcovering (11%). (6)
Textured yarns account for a large part of processed filament yarns. The texturing
process makes up for the inherent deficiencies of a flat continuous filament yarn, both
parallel and twisted, by varying its original textile character and imparting new
properties as bulkiness covering power, elasticity, soft touch, “natural” aspect,
hygroscopicity and easier processing. In other words flat yarn, which structure can be
compared to iron wires, gains properties which make it similar to a traditional cotton or
woolen yarn. (6)
A textured yarn can be defined as “a yarn characterized by effective or latent crimps,
waves, loops of single filaments which, after suitable treatment, can originate properties
as bulkiness and/or elasticity”. (6)
In the course of time several processes based on different principles were developed;
only a limited number is at the moment interesting for industrial applications; the
process which is by far the most important is false-twist texturing, whereas the air-jet
and compression-chamber systems are aimed at more specific uses. Following scheme
shows a general classification of the various processes. (6)

Textured yarns are in general defined according to their production process.

With the twist-texturing process following yarns can be obtained:

 Highly elastic yarns (stretch yarns), characterized by high crimp elongation

(extensibility) and high crimp contraction; in the case of false-twist process, they
are produced by means of an oven and are named FT (False-twist) yarns.

 Set yarns (bulked yarns), characterized by low crimp elongation and low crimp
contraction; in the case of false-twist process, they are produced with two ovens
and are named FTF (False-twist Fixed) yarns. (6)

 Twisting:

The scope of this operation is the insertion of twists into already formed yarns.
In the case of mono- and multifilament yarns, twisting is applied both on the single
components (ends) and on several components doubled
together; in the case of yarns, it is referred only to yarns
with 2 or more components (throwing), as twist insertion
into single yarns is an operation automatically involved
in yarn formation (spinning). The term twist defines the
helicoidally or spiral configuration originated by the
rotation of a yarn or of a fiber bundle around its
longitudinal axis. The properties related to twist are:
o Twist intensity or twist level, which is the twist
number per length unit and is usually expressed in
turns/meter (t/m) (6)
o Twist direction, which indicates the inclination of the filaments in respect to the
Longitudinal axis and is expressed as follows:
- Type S twist: filament inclination from top left to bottom right.
- Type Z twist: filament inclination from top right to bottom left.(6)

Reference:
1) K. Walczak, Zbigniew – Processes of Fiber Formation –
ELSEVIER Pub-(AMSTERDAM / LONDON / NEWYORK /
OXFORD / PARIS / SHANNON / TOKYO) - 2002.
2) B. Weinberger, Charles - Synthetic Fiber Manufacturing -
Drexel University - August 30, 1996.
3) Buckley, R.W - Polymer Enhancement of Technical Textiles -
Volume 14, Number 9, 2003.
4) Krishna, P.santhanagopla - textile institute no. 71- part 1
polyester and polyamide fundamentals - Polyester resins -
Future Polyesters Ltd, Chennai, India.
5) KD Scientific - Inflowmation Chronicles - Issue 1001 - spring
2009.
6) Andreoli, Cesare & Freti, Fabrizio - REFRENCE BOOK FOR
MAN MADE FIBERS - ITALY - March 2004