TISSUES

DEFINITION

A group of cells similar in structure that

work together to perform a particular
function are called tissues.
• The tissues are of different types
depending on the functions of the organism,
they are mainly of two categories PLANT
TISSUES and ANIMAL TISSUES.
 PLANT TISSUES
Plants perform functions which are different
from animals and also their structure is different
, hence they have tissues which are different
from animals. They are further classified into
many sub categories which is shown in the
table below:
• Meristems
• Simple (Ground) Tissue: – frequently the site of storage,
sometimes support
• Vascular Tissue: conduction of water and materials used in synthesis
• Dermal Tissue: – protection and interface with the environment
• Secretory Tissue: protection against herbivores and pathogens and
attraction of pollinators
 Primary and
Secondary Growth
 Plant Growth
1st year – all primary
growth

Primary growth – plant

growth that produces an
increase in length and
new structures
Secondary growth
– plant growth that produces an
increase in diameter in existing
plant parts in the second and
any subsequent growing
seasons

2nd year – only secondary

growth, in blue.
2nd year primary (in
green) and
secondary (in blue)
growth
3rd year’s growth,
showing both primary
(black) and secondary
(red) growth
Woody dicot stem cross section showing
growth rings
Apparent increase in limb height on many
trees is due to loss of lower limbs
 MERISTEMATIC TISSUE
Meristems: - Permanent regions of active cell division
- (undifferentiated plant tissue)
= plant “stem cells”

• The main characteristic of this

tissue is that it is responsible for the
growth of plants.
• The cells of this tissue continuously
divide and later differentiate ( i.e. get
converted ) into permanent tissue.
Characteristics of the cells/ tissue
• The cells are made of thin & elastic cell
wall made of cellulose.
• The cells may be round , oval, polygonal
or rectangular in shape.
• They are compact, having no intercellular
space.
• There is a large nucleus and abundant
cytoplasm.
• The protoplasm contains very few or no
vacuoles at all.
Tissue occurs at specific regions of the plant body
• This is so because in
plant body growth
occurs only at these
regions.
• Hence , on the basis
of this there are 3
types of meristem :
1. APICAL MERISTEM
2. INTERCALARY
MERISTEM
3. LATERAL
MERISTEM
APICAL MERISTEM

As the name suggests this

tissue is present at the
apex of the main & lateral
shoots and roots.
This tissue gives the plant
body a linear growth.

Primary Meristems
» Protoderm
» Ground Meristem
» Procambium
LATERAL MERISTEM

This tissue lies on the sides

of the plant body.
It lies under the bark of the
plant in form of cork
cambium.
Produce tissues that increase
the girth of roots and stems
(Involved in Secondary
Growth)
INTERCALARY MERISTEM

This tissue is present at

the base of the nodes,
internodes, leaves etc.
They are also present in
between the permanent
tissue.
They give the plant growth
in length.
 Name Location Function

Apical Growing tips Elongation

meristems (Apex) of roots
and stems
Lateral Beneath the Increase in
meristems bark, in vascular diameter
(Cambium) bundles of dicot
stems
Intercalary Base of the Increase of
meristems leaves / length
internode
 PERMANENT TISSUE

• These tissues arise from the

meristematic tissue.
• The cells of this tissue gradually loose
their power to divide and acquire a
definite shape, size and function.
• These tissues may be living or dead.
There are 2 types of permanent tissues
1. Simple permanent tissue
2. Complex permanent tissue.
 SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUE

• This tissue comprises of same type of

cells which perform the same function and
all arise from the same origin. There are
three categories of simple permanent
tissues: Parenchyma, Collenchyma, &
Sclerenchyma.
THE THREE SIMPLE PERMANENT
TISSUES
PARENCHYMA
Characteristics:
a) The cells are living.
b) The cells are thin walled.
c) There may or may not be
intercellular spaces.
d) They are the most
unspecialized cells.
e) No depositions are seen,
the cell wall consists only of
cellulose.
f) There is a prominent
nucleus, cytoplasm &
vacuoles.
• There are some special types of parenchyma
tissues :
• Storage parenchyma : The cells enlarge to
store nutrients & water.
• Aerenchyma : Air cavities are present in the
parenchyma tissue to provide buoyancy to the
aquatic plants.
• Chlorenchyma : These parenchyma cells
have presence of chlorophyll & hence can
perform the function of photosynthesis.
Parenchyma tissue is found generally in all
parts of the plant body. It forms the Ground
tissue in leaves, stem, roots & fruits etc.
Functions of parenchyma :
a) To store materials such as starch, proteins,
hormones etc and waste products such as
gum, tannin, resin etc.
b) Parenchyma cells perform the metabolic
activities of the plant.
c) Forms the packaging tissue between the
specialized tissue.
d) By providing turgidity , they provide
mechanical strength.
e) Chlorenchyma helps in performing
photosynthesis.
COLLENCHYMA
 • Characteristics: • Functions :
a) It has cells which are a) Providing mechanical
somewhat elongated. strength is the primary
b) The cell walls are thin function.
except at the angular b) Provide flexibility.
region ( where the cells c) Photosynthesis, as they
join). The thickenings are contain chlorophyll.
caused due to deposition
of cellulose or pectin.
They are present below
c) There is no or less the epidermis in dicot
intercellular space. stems and leaves.
d) The cells are living, have They absent in dicot
distinct nucleus & dense roots and all parts of
protoplasm. monocot plants.
e) They often contain
chlorophyll.
SCLERENCHYMA
• Cells with thick, tough, secondary walls
• Normally impregnated with lignin.
• < Flexible & stronger than collenchyma

• Fx = mechanical (support ) & food storage.

2 TYPES OF CELLS (based on cell-shape)

– Sclerids - Stone Cells
– Fibers - Contain Lumen
 Scleroids

• Found in
– nut shells
– the hard part of
seeds
– flexible floating leaf
blades of water
plants.
 Sclerenchyma fibres
• Elongated &
thick-walled with
flattened ends.
• E.g. Fibres from flax
and hemp are used
to make fabric and
rope.
• The fibres also store
food like starch for
the plant
 Simple permanent tissue

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Location Soft parts of Below the In stem around
plat – Cortex epidermis vascular bundle,
of root, of dicot roots, veins of
ground stem and leaves, hard
tissues in petiole covering of seeds
stem, (Absent in and nuts
mesophyll of monocot)
leaves
Nature • Cells are isodiametric • The cells are • The cells are long,
i.e. equally expanded on elongated and are narrow, thick and
all sides circular, oval or lignified, usually pointed
• They may be oval, polygonal in at both ends
round, polygonal or cross-section • The cell wall is evenly
elongated ∙ Cell wall is thickened with lignin and
• Nucleus is present and unevenly sometimes is so thick that
hence living thickened with the cell cavity or lumen is
• The cell walls are thin cellulose at the absent
and made of cellulose corners against ∙ Nucleus is absent and
∙ Cytoplasm is dense with the intercellular hence the tissue is made
a single large vacuole spaces up of dead cells
∙ Intercellular spaces may ∙ Nucleus is present ∙ They have simple, often
be present and hence the oblique pits in the walls
∙ May contain chlorophyll. tissue is living • The middle lamella i.e.
Parenchyma which • Vacuoles are the wall between adjacent
contain chlorophyll are small cells is conspicuous
called chlorenchyma. ∙ Intercellular
spaces are
generally absent
• If they contain
chlorophyll they
are known as
chlorenchyma
Function
∙ Store and assimilate ∙ Provide mechanical Gives mechanical
food support to the stem support to the
∙ Give mechanical ∙ Allows easy bending in plant by giving
strength by various parts of the rigidity, flexibility
maintaining plant without actually and elasticity to
turgidity breaking it the plant body.
∙ Prepare food if
chlorophyll is
present
∙ Store waste
products like tanin,
gum, crystals and
resins
 Meristematic tissue Permanent tissue
Cells devide repeatedly Cells are derived from
meristematic tissue &
normally do not devide
Undifferentiated Fully differentiate
Small Variable in shape and
size
Intercellular spaces Intercellular spaces are
generally absent present
Vacuole absent Large vacuoles in mature
cells
 Complex Tissue
• Complex tissues since they include 2 or more
kinds of cells. cells.All these co-ordinate to
perform a common function. Complex tissues
transport water,mineral salts(nutrients) & food
material to various parts of plant body.

• Xylem
• Phloem
Xylem & phloem are both conducting tissues
& also known as vascular tissues; together
both of them constitute vascular bundles.
 Xylem
• similar to straws
• dead at functional maturity
• vessels – composed of vessel elements (cells);
uniform tubes, open at both ends, relatively large
diameter, may be relatively short
• tracheids – tapered at both ends, numerous pits
rather than large openings between adjacent cells
• conducts water and minerals upwards
Functions-
i. The main function of xylem is to carry water &
minerals salts upward from the root to different
parts of shoots.
ii. Since walls of tracheids, vessels & sclerenchyma of
xylem are lignified, they give mechanical strength to
the plant body.
Xylem
 Phloem
• alive at functional maturity
• consist of sieve tube members and companion
cells
Sieve tube members – cylindrical, conduct organic
molecules up and down through plant
Companion cells – regulate activity of sieve tube
members
Functions-phloem transport photosynthetically
prepared food materials from the leaves to the
storage organs & later from storage organs to the
growing regions of the plant body.
Phloem
Phloem

Xylem
Dicot Stem
Epidermis
Cork (or
phellem)

Epidermis

Cork
CORK
• As plants grow older,the outer protective tissue undergoes
certain changes.A strip of secondary meristem,called
phellogen or cork cambium replaces epidermis of stem.
• Cork cambium is a simple tissue having only one type of
cells.The cells of cork cambium are rectangular & their
protoplasts are vacuolated & contain tannins &
chloroplasts.
• Cork cambium gives off new cells on its both
sides,thus,forming cork on the outer side & the secondary
cortex or phelloderm on the inner side.
• The layer of cells which is cut by cork cambium on the
outer side ultimately becomes several layered thick cork or
the bark of trees.
• Cells of cork are dead & compactly arranged
without intercellular spaces.
• The walls of cork cells are heavily thickened by
deposition of an organic substance, called suberin.
• Suberin makes these cells impermeable to water &
gases. The cork cells do not contain protoplasm
but are filled with resin or tannins.
• In case of onion bulb too, in the skin of onion the
cell walls become thick & water proof due to
addition of suberin.
• Cork is protective in function.
• Cork cells prevent desiccation,infection &
mechanical injury.
Dermal Tissue

• Epidermis – covers primary growth, single

layer of cells; often secretes cutin (lipid)
forming cuticle (reduces transpiration and
protection from pathogens)
• Periderm – covers secondary growth,
many cell layers; becomes impregnated
with lipids (suberin)
Epidermis (cont.)

• Root hairs - single cell extensions from the

epidermis near root tips

• greatly increase surface area in contact

with soil and thereby enhance water and
mineral absorption
 Stomata
• openings in epidermis

• surrounded by Guard Cells that regulate

opening
Stomata from a epidermal peel of Commelina communis by Dr. J.
Weyers
Stomate

Guard Cells
 Lenticels
• regions of loosely packed cells in the
periderm

• promote gas exchange with tissues below

Secretory Tissue

• produce a variety of products

• nectar in flowers
• oils in citrus and mints
• latex
• resins
• opium
• mucilage – e.g. for trapping insects
 Plant Tissue Systems
• Cells of a plant organized into THREE
tissue systems:

a) Dermal Tissue System

(Epidermis)
a) Ground Tissue System
b) Vascular Tissue System
 Dermal Tissue System
In nonwoody plants, the dermal tissue system
consists of the epidermis
• Epidermis - Single layer of tightly packed cells (one
or more)
• Covers and protects entire body ("skin" of the plant)
• Secretes a waxy coating called cuticle to help retain
water (adaptation)
• Specialized Epidermis - Example: epidermal hairs to
trap or poison insects
• Ex: root hairs
• In woody plants, protective tissues called periderm
replace the epidermis in older regions of stems and
roots
• Trichomes are outgrowths of the shoot epidermis
and can help with insect defense
 Vascular Tissue System
• Responsible for transporting water,
mineral nutrients, and organic molecules
between roots and shoots
• Located in the centres of roots
• In stems, arranged in strands called
vascular bundles
Monocots Dicots
- Long tissue strands -Long tissue strands called
called vascular bundles vascular bundles
scattered through stems arranged in rings within
stem, to form a cylinder
 Two types of vascular tissue:
1) Xylem – transports water and dissolved
minerals UPWARD
2) Phloem – transports food made in leaves
DOWNWARD to roots and to other parts
of shoot system
• The vascular tissue of a stem or root is
collectively called the stele
• In angiosperms the stele of the root is a
solid central vascular cylinder
• The stele of stems and leaves is divided
into vascular bundles, strands of xylem
and phloem
 Ground Tissue System
• Filling spaces between the dermal and vascular tissues.
Ground tissue internal to the vascular tissue is pith; ground
tissue external to the vascular tissue is cortex
• Ground tissue includes cells specialized for storage,
photosynthesis, and support (Responsible for metabolic
functions)
• Consists of:
– Parenchyma cells (majority) …and Pith
– Collenchyma cells
– Sclerenchyma cells
 Ground Tissue: Parenchyma
• Living ground tissue that makes up the bulk of the plant
body
– Have thin and flexible primary walls
– Lack secondary walls
– Are the least specialized
– Perform the most metabolic functions
– Retain the ability to divide and differentiate

• Parenchyma not only sounds cool to say, it does

cool things like:
- Photosynthesis
- Storage of nutrients, carbs and H2O
- heals wounds and regenerates plant parts
…..and Pith

• Pith is the tissue in the center of roots

and stems
• Contains spongy parenchyma and also
functions to store nutrients and carbs and
water
 Ground Tissue: Collenchyma
- is also made of living cells
- Strengthens the plant
- Supports the plants primary growth
regions
• They have thicker and uneven cell walls
• They lack secondary walls
• These cells provide flexible support
without restraining growth
 Sclerenchyma
• Have you ever eaten a pear and found
that parts of it were really gritty to
chew?
• You were chewing sclerenchyma!

What is it? Ground tissue whose mature

cells are dead, have thick walls
composed of cellulose……even when
dead, they perform their function!
This is good for hardness of nuts and
cactus spines.
• Sclerenchyma cells are rigid because of
thick secondary walls strengthened with lignin
• They are dead at functional maturity
• There are two types:
– Sclereids are short and irregular in shape and
have thick lignified secondary walls
– Fibers are long and slender and arranged in
threads
 Vessel Tracheids 100 µm

Pits

Tracheids and vessels

(colorized SEM)
Perforation
plate
Vessel
element

Vessel elements, with

perforated end walls Tracheid
s
 Water-Conducting Cells of the Xylem
• The two types of water-conducting cells,
tracheids and vessel elements, are dead at
maturity
• Tracheids are found in the xylem of all vascular
plants
• Vessel elements are common to most
angiosperms and a few gymnosperms
• Vessel elements align end to end to form long
micropipes called vessels
 Sieve-tube elements:
3 µm longitudinal view (LM)

Sieve plate
Sieve-tube element (left) Companio
and companion cell: n
cross section (TEM) cells

Sieve-tube
elements

Plasmodesma

Sieve
plate 30 µm

10 µm
Nucleus of
companio
n
cells

Sieve-tube elements:
longitudinal view Sieve plate with pores (SEM)
Sugar-Conducting Cells of the Phloem

• Sieve-tube elements are alive at functional

maturity, though they lack organelles
• Sieve plates are the porous end walls that
allow fluid to flow between cells along the sieve
tube
• Each sieve-tube element has a companion
cell whose nucleus and ribosomes serve both
cells
Plant Growth
Plant Growth
• Plants can go through
two different types of
growth
– Primary Growth-
elongates the axis of a
plant (growth in length)
– Secondary Growth-
increases the girth of a
plant (growth in width)
 Plant Growth
• Plant growth occurs at specific tissues called meristems
– Apical Meristem: are located at the tips of roots and
shoots and at the axillary buds of shoots. These extend
the length of the shoot or root
– Lateral Meristems: These extend the girth of a stem or
root, a process called secondary growth
Intercalary Meristems
These are regions of growth situated between two
regions
of mature (non-growing) tissue
Why grass grows upward after it is
mowed.
This is all we will say about intercalary
meristems…….

intercalary
meristem
Primary Tissues
result from primary growth

which are derived from apical meristems.

Primary Plant Growth and Development
In mature tissues, cells are arrested in
interphase
Primary growth is a product of

Cell
division

Cell elongation
Ending with cell/tissue
differentiation-maturation
In primary growth, cell division isn’t entirely restricted to
the
apical meristem proper. Cell division continues in the
derived
immature tissues behind the apical meristem. These
tissues are
called the primary meristematic tissues.
Protoderm matures to form the
epidermis
Ground Meristem matures to form the ground
tissue
Procambium matures to form the vascular
tissue
 Undifferentiated Cells of Apical
Meristem

Protoderm Ground Meristem Procambium

Ground Tissue Vascular Tissue

Epidermis
 Primary Growth- in Roots
• In roots, primary growth
occurs in 3 different zones
– Zone of Cell Division
(contains root apical
meristem)
– Zone of Elongation
– Zone of Maturation
• Simpler than in the shoot as there are no nodes or
internodes
• Always includes a root cap. The apical meristem of the
root
encompasses some of the area of the root cap
Zone of Cell Division

• Lots of mitosis
occurring in the cells
here
• Contains the newest
cells (newly divided)
Zone of Elongation
• Cells get longer to
push the root tip into
the soil
• Cells start
developing their
specialized functions
Zone of Maturation

• Cells become fully

specialized
• Considered mature
cells
Primary Meristematic
Meristems in a Root Tip

Protoderm = outer layer of cells

Procambium = inner core of cells

Ground Meristem = everything else

Root Cap

• Root cap
protects the root
apical meristem
as root pushes
through the soil
– Like a helmet for
the root cells
 Primary Growth- Stems
Is more complex because it
generates both leaf and stem
tissue along with the axillary
buds at the internodes.
• Growth occurs at the shoot
apical meristems
• Shoot apical meristems are
located at the tips of buds
• Plants grow from the top, not the
bottom of the stem
Apical
Meristem
of the Shoot
Apical meristems of the Shoot
are more complex than that of the root.
Leaf
Primordium
Three primary meristmatic tissues
Protoderm
Procambium
Ground
Meristem
Vascular Strands
Leaf
Traces
Gross Morphology
Leaf
Gaps
 Secondary Growth
• Growth in width of stems and
roots
• Degree of secondary growth
varies– some plants barely
have any, others have
extensive secondary growth.
• Results in the formation of
wood and bark
• Results from activity in the
lateral meristems
– Vascular Cambium
– Cork Cambium
 Primary growth in stems

Epidermis
Cortex
Shoot tip (shoot Primary phloem
apical meristem
and young leaves) Primary xylem
Pith
Lateral meristems:
Vascular cambium Secondary growth in stems
Cork cambium
Axillary bud Periderm
meristem Cork
cambium

Cortex

Pith Primary
phloem
Primary
Root apical xylem Secondary
meristems Secondary phloem
xylem
Vascular cambium
(a) Primary and secondary
growth
in a two-year-old stem

Epidermis
Pith
Cortex
Primary
Primary xyle
Vascular cambium Epidermis
phloem m
Primary phloem Cortex
Vascular
cambiu
m
Primary wth
xylem Gro
Vascular
Pith ray

Primary
xylem
Secondary
xylem
Vascular
Secondary cambiu
m
phloem
Primary phloem
First cork cambium Cork

Periderm
(mainly cork wth
cambia Gro
and cork)
Secondary Bark
Vascular phloem
Primary Late woodcambiu Cork
Secondary m cambiu
phloem xylem Early wood Periderm
m
Secondary Cork
phloem Secondary
Xylem (two
Vascular years of

0.5 mm
cambium
production)
Secondary Vascular
xylem cambiu Bark
Secondary m
Primary phloem Layers of Vascular ray Growth ring
Most recent
xylem cork cambium Cork periderm (b) Cross section of a three-year-
old Tilia (linden) stem (LM)
Pith 0.5 mm
• Secondary xylem accumulates as wood, and
consists of tracheids, vessel elements (only in
angiosperms), and fibers
• Early wood, formed in the spring, has thin cell
walls to maximize water delivery
• Late wood, formed in late summer, has
thick-walled cells and contributes more to stem
support
• In temperate regions, the vascular cambium of
perennials is dormant through the winter
• As a tree or woody shrub ages, the older layers
of secondary xylem, the heartwood, no longer
transport water and minerals
• The outer layers, known as sapwood, still
transport materials through the xylem
• Older secondary phloem sloughs off and does
not accumulate
 Vascular Cambium
• Divides into
– Secondary Xylem
• On the side closer to the center of the stem/root
– Secondary Phloem
• On the side closer to the outside of the
stem/root
– As the vascular cambium divides, it continues to
push older cells farther away.
Vascular cambium Growth
Vascular
X X C P P cambium
Secondary
Secondary
X X C P phloem
xylem

X C P
C
C

C C C X C

C
After one year After two years
C C C
of growth of growth
Cork Cambium

• As the secondary phloem

grows, it breaks the outer
layer of the stems and root
(epidermis)
• Secondary phloem on the
very outside becomes cork
cambium
• Cork cambium grows into
cork
• Cork cells contain suberin to
protect from water loss,
physical damage and
harmful substances.
Types of wood
• Heartwood
– Older secondary
xylem
– Cells get clogged
stop conducting water
– Darker in color
• Sapwood
– Newer secondary
xylem
– Still actively
conducting water (and
minerals)
– Lighter in color
 Growth
ring
Vascular
ray

Heartwood
Secondary
xylem Sapwood

Vascular cambium

Secondary phloem
Bark
Layers of
periderm
Annual Rings in Wood
• The age of a tree can be
determined by looking at the
number of rings that it has.
• Wood = secondary xylem
• What forms the rings?
– Spring: water most available,
water transport cells are large
and have thin walls
– Summer: less water available,
water transport cells have
thicker walls and are darker
 Cortex Vascular cylinder

Epidermis
Key
to labels
Zone of
Root hair differentiation
Dermal
Ground
Vascular

Zone of
elongation

Apical
meristem Zone of cell
division
Root cap

100 µm
 Epidermis

Cortex

Endodermi
s

Vascular
cylinder

Pericycle

Core of
parenchyma
cells

Xylem
100 µm
Phloem
(a) Root with xylem and phloem in the center 100 µm
(typical of eudicots)
(b) Root with parenchyma in the center (typical of
monocots)

Endodermi Key
s to labels
Pericycle
Dermal
Ground
Vascular
Xylem

Phloem

50 µm
Lateral roots arise from within the pericycle, the
outermost cell layer in the vascular cylinder
100 µm Epidermis
Emerging
lateral Lateral root
root

Cortex
1 Vascular 2 3
cylinder
Shoot apical meristem Leaf primordia

Young
leaf

Developin
g
vascular
strand

Axillary bud
meristems

0.25 mm
 Phloem Xylem

Sclerenchyma Ground
Ground tissue
(fiber cells) tissue
connecting
pith to cortex

Pith Epidermis

Key
to labels

Epidermis Cortex Vascular

Dermal bundles
Vascular
bundle Ground
1 mm Vascular 1 mm
(a) Cross section of stem with vascular bundles forming (b) Cross section of stem with scattered vascular bundles
a ring (typical of eudicots) (typical of monocots)
Tissue Organization of Leaves

• The epidermis in leaves is interrupted by

stomata, which allow CO2 exchange between
the air and the photosynthetic cells in a leaf
• Each stomatal pore is flanked by two guard
cells, which regulate its opening and closing
• The ground tissue in a leaf, called mesophyll,
is sandwiched between the upper and lower
epidermis
 Guard
cells
Key
to labels
Stomatal

50 µm
pore
Dermal
Epidermal
Ground
Cuticle Sclerenchyma cell
Vascular fibers
Stoma (b) Surface view of a spiderwort
(Tradescantia) leaf (LM)

Upper
epidermis

Palisade
mesophyll

Bundle- Spongy
sheath mesophyll
cell

100 µm
Lower
epidermis
Cuticle
Xylem
Phloem Vein
Guard Vein Air spaces Guard cells
(a) Cutaway drawing of leaf tissues cells (c) Cross section of a lilac
(Syringa)) leaf (LM)