Course announcement

▪ Solution of Midterm 1 will be posted today.

 The Gravitational Field
▪ It’s convenient to describe gravitation in terms
of a gravitational field that results from the
presence of mass and that exists at all points
in space:
 A massive object creates a gravitational field
in its vicinity and other objects respond to
the field at their immediate locations.
 The gravitational field can be visualized with
a set of vectors giving its strength (in N/k g;
equivalently, m/s2) and its direction.
𝐺𝑀
𝑔Ԧ = − 2 𝑟Ƹ
𝑟
 Gravity beyond Newton’s law

▪ Albert Einstein developed the theory

of general relativity between 1907
and 1915.
▪ The mass of an object “bends” the
space-time war the object. The other
objects’(even light) trajectory looks
curved when travels through the
space-time.
▪ The resultant trajectory is equal to
Newton’s law of gravity.
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vity#/media/File:Cassini-science-br.jpg
 Special effect due to general relativity

▪ Gravitation lensing
▪ Black hole

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_g https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole
eneral_relativity#/media/File:Einstein_cross.jp
 Gravitational wave

▪ The merge of two black

holes can generate large
gravitational wave to be
detected.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole
 GENERAL PHYSICS B1
MANY PARTICLES MOTION &
ROTATION
Center of Mass and Linear Momentum
2024/10/15
Reading: Wolfson Chapter 9
 Motion of objects in the real world
Up to now, we simplified the motion of an object to a single point. In real
world, we have many particles or objects with finite volume.

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 Today’s topic

▪ Center of Mass
▪ Application of impulse and momentum: collision
▪ Momentum and energy in collision
 The Center of Mass (COM)

▪ The center of mass of a system of particles is the point

that represents the motion of the system.
▪ The center of mass moves as though (1) all of the
system’s mass were concentrated there (but it doesn’t
have to be inside the system) and (2) all external forces
were applied there.
▪ Every single particles can have relative motion respect to
the center of mass.
The center of mass in a many particles system
We can further extend this equation to a more general
situation in which n particles in three dimension. Then the
total mass is M = m1 + m2 + … + mn, and the location of the
center of mass is
𝑛
1
𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑚 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
𝑀
𝑖=1
 The center of mass in a continuous system
An ordinary object contains so many particles (atoms) that we
can best treat it as a continuous distribution of matter. The
“particles” then become differential mass elements dm, the
sums become integrals, and the coordinates of the center of
mass are defined as
1
𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑚 = න 𝑥𝑑𝑚
𝑀
1 1
𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑚 = න 𝑟Ԧ 𝑑𝑚 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑚 = න 𝑦𝑑𝑚
𝑀 𝑀
1
𝑧𝑐𝑜𝑚 = න 𝑧𝑑𝑚
𝑀
 Think about it…

▪ The CM lies outside the semicircular wire but which point

is it?
 Think about it…

▪ The CM lies outside the semicircular wire but which point

is it? A
 Example: Center of mass of a triangle
▪ A supersonic aircraft wing is an isosceles
triangle of length L, width w, and negligible
thickness. It has mass M, distributed
uniformly over the wing. Where’s its center
of mass?
 Example: Center of mass of a triangle
▪ Express the mass element d m in terms of
the geometrical variable x:
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑑𝑚 = total mass
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑥
𝑊𝑑𝑥 2𝑀𝑥𝑑𝑥
=𝑀 𝐿 =
1 𝐿2
𝑊𝐿
2
 Example: Center of mass of a triangle
▪ Express the mass element d m in terms of
the geometrical variable x:
2𝑀𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑚 =
𝐿2

▪ Evaluate the integral:

 Newton’s second law for COM
▪ The motion of the center of mass of any system of
particles with constant mass is governed by Newton’s
second law for a system of particles, which is
𝐹𝑁𝐸𝑇 = 𝑀𝑎𝐶𝑂𝑀
▪ Here 𝐹𝑁𝐸𝑇 is the net force of all the external forces acting
on the system, M is the total mass of the system, and
𝑎𝐶𝑂𝑀 is the acceleration of the system’s center of mass.
Example: Explosion

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 Linear momentum
▪ For a single particle, we define a quantity 𝑝Ԧ called its linear
momentum as
𝑝Ԧ = 𝑚𝑣Ԧ
which is a vector quantity that has the same direction as the
particle’s velocity. We can write Newton’s second law in terms of this
momentum:
𝑑 𝑝Ԧ
𝐹𝑁𝐸𝑇 =
𝑑𝑡
▪ For a system of particles these relations become
𝑑 𝑟Ԧ𝑖 𝑑 𝑑
𝑃 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟Ԧ𝑖 = 𝑀𝑟Ԧ𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 𝑀𝑣𝐶𝑂𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑃
and 𝐹𝑁𝐸𝑇 =
𝑑𝑡
 Conservation of linear momentum
▪ Conservation law of momentum: If a system is closed and
isolated so that no net external force acts on it, then the
linear momentum 𝑃 must be constant even if there are
internal changes:
𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (closed, isolated system)
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
 Comparison to Conservation of Energy
▪ Conservation of mechanical energy: Considering there is
only a conservative force 𝐹𝑐 doing work 𝑊𝑐 on an object,
then we have:
𝑊𝑐 = −∆𝑈 = − 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 𝐾2 − 𝐾1
𝐾1 + 𝑈1 = 𝐾2 + 𝑈2 ≡ 𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐
▪ Conservation of energy:
Work done by non-conservative force = change of
mechanical energy
▪ 𝑊𝑛𝑐 = ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈
 Example: Radioactive decay
▪ A lithium-5 nucleus (5Li) is moving at 1.6Mm/s when it
decays in to a proton(1H, or p) and an alpha particle(4He,
or α). The alpha particle is detected moving at 1.4Mm/s,
at 33° to the original velocity of 5Li nucleus. What are the
magnitude and direction of the proton’s velocity?
 Example: Radioactive decay
▪ Since there is no net external force acting on the system during
decay, we have conservation of momentum. We have: 𝑚𝐿𝑖 𝑣𝐿𝑖 =
𝑚𝑝 𝑣𝑝 + 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼
▪ Thus, x-component: 𝑚𝐿𝑖 𝑣𝐿𝑖 = 𝑚𝑝 𝑣𝑝𝑥 + 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼𝑥
y-component: 0 = 𝑚𝑝 𝑣𝑝𝑦 + 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼𝑦
1.4𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝐿𝑖 𝑣𝐿𝑖 −𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼𝑥 (5.0𝑢)(1.6𝑀𝑚/𝑠)− 4.0𝑢 𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑠33°
▪ 𝑣𝑝𝑥 = = = 3.30𝑀m/s
𝑚𝑝 (1.0𝑢)
𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛33°
▪ 𝑣𝑝𝑦 = − = −3.05𝑀𝑚/𝑠
𝑚𝑝
 Example: Radioactive decay
▪ 𝑣𝑝𝑥 = 3.30𝑀m/s
▪ 𝑣𝑝𝑦 = −3.05𝑀𝑚/𝑠

▪ The proton’s speed is 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑣𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑝𝑦 2 = 4.5𝑀𝑚/𝑠.

−1 𝑣𝑝𝑦
▪ The direction is 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = −43°
𝑣𝑝𝑥
 Impulse and Momentum

▪ Like our derivation to energy (integral EOM respect to

displacement), we integral EOM respect to time:
න 𝐹𝑁𝐸𝑇 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑝Ԧ 𝑡𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑝Ԧ 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = ∆𝑝Ԧ

Where we define impulse as 𝐽Ԧ = ‫𝑡𝑑 𝑇𝐸𝑁𝐹 ׬‬

and we have 𝐽Ԧ = ∆𝑝Ԧ
 Example: Car-wall collision
A race car driver as his car collides with the racetrack wall.
Just before the collision, he is traveling at speed vi = 70 m/s
along a straight line at 30° from the wall. Just after the
collision, he is traveling at speed vf = 50 m/s along a
straight line at 10° from the wall. His mass m is 80 kg.
 Example: Car-wall collision
(a)What is the impulse on the driver due to the collision?

We know that:
𝐽Ԧ = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 )

𝐽𝑥 = 𝑝𝑓𝑥 − 𝑝𝑖𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠10° − 𝑣𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠30° = −910(𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚/𝑠)

𝐽𝑦 = 𝑝𝑓𝑦 − 𝑝𝑖𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛10° − 𝑣𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛30° = −3495(𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚/𝑠)
𝐽Ԧ = −910𝑖Ƹ − 3495𝑗Ƹ
 Example: Car-wall collision
(b)The collision lasts for 14 ms. What is the magnitude of
the average force on the driver during the collision?

Ԧ
|𝐽| 𝐽𝑥2 + 𝐽𝑦2
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 2.583 × 105 𝑁
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
Collision of two particles
 Collision of two particles
▪ The total linear momentum of the system cannot change
for a collision of two particles because there is no net
external force to change the system.
▪ If the total kinetic energy happens to be unchanged by
the collision, then the kinetic energy of the system is
conserved (it is the same before and after the collision).
Such a collision is called an elastic collision.
▪ If the kinetic energy of the system is not conserved, such
a collision is called an inelastic collision.
 Collision of two particles
▪ Conservation of linear momentum:
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓
▪ Elastic collision(conservation of kinetic energy)
1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
▪ Inelastic collision
1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 ≠ 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
Case 1: completely Inelastic collision
 Case 1: completely Inelastic collision
▪ In a completely inelastic collision the
two particles will stick together: the
final velocities are the same
▪ Conservation of linear momentum:
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = (𝑚1 +𝑚2 )𝑉

▪ If 𝑣2𝑖 = 0, we will have

𝑚1
𝑉= 𝑣1𝑖
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
 Example of completely inelastic collision

The ballistic pendulum was used to measure

the speeds of bullets before electronic timing
devices were developed. A large block of
wood of mass M = 5.4 kg, hanging from two
long cords. A bullet of mass m = 9.5 g is fired
into the block, coming quickly to rest. The
block + bullet then swing upward, their center
of mass rising a vertical distance h = 6.3 cm
What is the speed of the bullet just prior to
the collision?
 Example of completely inelastic collision

There are two events: 1. collision of bullet

and block. 2. swinging of bullet and block.
▪ Collision of bullet and block: a completely
inelastic collision:
𝑚1
𝑉= 𝑣1𝑖
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
▪ Swing of bullet and block: conservation of
energy
1
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )(𝑉)2 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑔ℎ
2
 Example of completely inelastic collision

Therefore, we have:
2
1 𝑚1
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑣1𝑖 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑔ℎ
2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
And we can get:
𝑣1𝑖 = 630𝑚/𝑠
 Case 2: Elastic collision
In an elastic collision, (1)total momentum is conserved (2)
the kinetic energy of each colliding body may change, but
the total kinetic energy of the system does not change.
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓
1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
 Case 2: Elastic collision
After rearrange, we can get final velocities of each particles
in terms of initial velocities:
𝑚1 − 𝑚2 2𝑚2
𝑣1𝑓 = 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑣2𝑖
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
2𝑚1 𝑚1 − 𝑚2
𝑣2𝑓 = 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑣2𝑖
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
 Case 2: Elastic collision
One special case: if m1=m2, we will have
𝑣1𝑓 = 𝑣2𝑖
𝑣2𝑓 = 𝑣1𝑖
as if these two particles exchange their velocity.
 Example of elastic collision
A block 1 approaches a line of two stationary blocks with a
velocity of v1i = 10 m/s. It collides with block 2, which then
collides with block 3, which has mass m3 = 6.0 kg. After the
second collision, block 2 is again stationary and block 3 has
velocity v3f = 5.0 m/s. Assume that the collisions are elastic.
What are the masses of blocks 1 and 2? What is the final
velocity v1f of block 1?
 Example of elastic collision

Let’s think the second elastic collision first. Since initial velocity
of m3 is 0. we have
𝑚2 −𝑚3
𝑣2𝑓 = 𝑣2𝑖
𝑚2 +𝑚3

Since the final velocity of m2 is 0, the only way to have this is

𝑚2 = 𝑚3 = 6𝑘𝑔
 Example of elastic collision
We also have
2𝑚2
𝑣3𝑓 = 𝑣2𝑖 and we know 𝑣3𝑓 = 𝑣2𝑖 = 5𝑚/𝑠
𝑚2 +𝑚3
 Example of elastic collision

Now we come back in the first collision and we know that

2𝑚1
𝑣2𝑓 = 𝑣1𝑖
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
Where 𝑣2𝑓 = 5𝑚/𝑠, 𝑣1𝑖 = 10𝑚/𝑠, and 𝑚2 = 6𝑘𝑔
Thus we know 𝑚1 = 2𝑘𝑔
 Example of elastic collision

And finally we can find out that

𝑚1 − 𝑚2
𝑣1𝑓 = 𝑣1𝑖 = −5𝑚/𝑠
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
 Summary
▪ A composite system behaves as though its mass is concentrated at
𝑛
the COM: 𝑟
1
= ෍𝑚 𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑚 𝑖 𝑖
𝑀
𝑖=1

▪ The COM obeys Newton’s laws, so

𝑑𝑃𝐶𝑂𝑀
𝐹𝑁𝐸𝑇 = 𝑀𝑎𝐶𝑂𝑀 =
𝑑𝑡
▪ In the absence of a net external force, a system’s linear momentum is
conserved, regardless of what happens internally to the system.
▪ Collisions are brief, intense, interactions that conserve momentum:
 Elastic collisions also conserve kinetic energy.
 Totally inelastic collisions occur when colliding objects join to make
a single composite object.