UNIT -4

Ultrasonic Machining
Ultrasonic machining (USM) is the removal of hard and brittle materials using an axially
oscillating tool at ultrasonic (US) frequency (18–20 kHz). During that oscillation, the abrasive
slurry of B4C or SiC is continuously fed into the machining zone, between a soft tool (brass or
steel) and the workpiece. The abrasive particles are, therefore, hammered into the workpiece
surface and cause chipping of fine particles from it. The oscillating tool, at amplitude ranging
from 10 to 40 μm, imposes a static pressure on the abrasive grains and feeds down as the
material is removed to form the required tool shape.
Material removal process
Under the effect of the static feed force and the US vibration, the abrasive particles are
hammered into the workpiece surface causing mechanical chipping of minute particles.
Mechanical abrasion by localized direct hammering of the abrasive grains stuck between the
vibrating tool and adjacent work surface. The microchipping by free impacts of particles that
fly across the machining gap and strike the workpiece at random locations.
The machining system is composed mainly of the

• Magnetostricter,
• Mechanical amplifier
• Tool
• Slurry feeding arrangement.
Magnetostricter: The magnetostricter has a high frequency winding on a magnetostricter core
and a special polarizing winding around an armature. A magnetic field undergoing US
frequencies causes corresponding changes in a ferromagnetic object placed within its region of
influence. This effect is used to oscillate the USM tool, mounted at the end of a magnetostricter.
Mechanical amplifier: The elongation obtained at the resonance frequency is too small for
practical machining applications. The vibration amplitude is used to increase the resonance
frequency by fitting an amplifier into the output end of the magnetostricter.
Tools: Tool tips must have high wear resistance and high fatigue strength. For machining glass
and tungsten carbide, copper and chromium silver steel tools are recommended. Silver and
chromium nickel steel tools are used for machining sintered carbides.
Abrasive slurry: The abrasive slurry is usually composed of 50% (by volume) fine abrasive
grains (100–800 grit) of boron carbide (B4C), aluminium oxide (Al2O3), or silicon carbide (SiC)
in 50% water. The abrasive slurry is circulated between the oscillating tool and workpiece
through a nozzle close to the tool-workpiece interface.
Factors Affecting Material Removal Rate
Tool oscillation: The material removal rate increases with the rise in the amplitude of tool
vibration. The vibration amplitude determines the velocity of the abrasive particles at the
interface between the tool and workpiece. The kinetic energy rises at larger amplitudes, which
enhances the mechanical chipping action and consequently increases the removal rate. Greater
vibration amplitudes may lead to the occurrence of splashing, which causes a reduction of the
number of active abrasive grains and results in the decrease of the metal removal rate.
Abrasive grains: Due to its higher hardness, B4C achieves higher removal rates than silicon
carbide (SiC) when machining the same workpiece. Water is commonly used as the abrasive-
carrying liquid for the abrasive slurry, although benzene, glycerol, and oils are alternatives.
The increase of slurry viscosity reduces the removal rate. The improved flow of slurry results
in an enhanced machining rate.
Tool shape: The machining rate is affected by the tool shape and area. The increase of tool
area decreases the machining rate due to the inadequately/non homogenous distributing the
abrasive slurry over the entire machining zone.
Applications, Advantages, Disadvantages
 Abrasive Jet Machining
In abrasive jet machining (AJM), a focused stream of abrasive grains of Al2O3 or SiC carried
by high pressure gas or air at high velocity is made to impinge on the work surface through a
nozzle. The workpiece material is removed by the abrasion action of the high-velocity abrasive
particles. AJM machining is best suited for machining holes in super-hard materials. It is
typically used to cut, clean, peen, deburr, and etch glass, ceramics, or hard metals.
A gas such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or air is used for AJM. Oxygen should never be used
because it causes a violent chemical reaction with the workpiece chips or the abrasives.
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and SiC powders are used for heavy cleaning, cutting, and
deburring. Magnesium carbonate is recommended for light cleaning and etching. Sodium
bicarbonate is used for fine cleaning and cutting of soft materials. It is not practical to reuse the
abrasive powder because contaminations and worn grit cause a decline in the machining rate.

Working Principle
Compressed air or inert gases (such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide) are used as the carrier
medium. The gas is supplied at high pressure, typically between 2 to 10 bar. Abrasive particles
(commonly aluminium oxide, silicon carbide, or glass beads) are introduced into the air/gas
stream using a feeding mechanism. The particle size usually ranges from 10 to 50 microns.
These abrasive particles are mixed with the air/gas in a mixing chamber before being
accelerated through a nozzle. The mixture of gas and abrasive particles is expelled through the
nozzle, usually made of tungsten carbide or sapphire, at high velocities ranging from 150 to
300 m/s. The nozzle directs the jet onto the workpiece, where the high-velocity abrasive jet
removes material through a combination of erosion and brittle fracture. The impact of the
abrasive particles breaks off small chips or fragments from the material's surface. Abrasive Jet
Machining (AJM) is typically used for fine and precise machining tasks such as cutting,
drilling, etching, or deburring.
Effects on Material Removal Rate
Abrasive flow rate: At a particular pressure, the volumetric removal rate increases with the
abrasive flow rate up to an optimum value and then decreases with a further increase in the
flow rate. This is mainly due to the fact that the mass flow rate of the gas decreases with the
increase of the abrasive flow rate. The mixing ratio increases, causing a decrease in the removal
rate because of the decreasing flow velocity and the kinetic energy available for material
removal.
Nozzle standoff distance: The decrease of nozzle distance improves the process accuracy by
decreasing the width of the kerf. It also reduces the taper of the machined grooves. Large nozzle
standoff distances are suitable for cleaning surfaces.

AJM Process Characteristics

Applications
• Drilling holes, cutting slots, cleaning hard surfaces, deburring, and polishing.
• Deburring of cross holes, slots, and threads in small precision parts that require a burr-
free finish, such as hydraulic valves, aircraft fuel systems, and medical appliances
• Machining intricate shapes or holes in sensitive, brittle, and thin or difficult-to-machine
materials
• Frosting glass and trimming of circuit boards, hybrid circuit resistors, capacitors,
silicon, and gallium
Advantages
• Best suited for machining brittle and heat-sensitive materials like glass, quartz,
sapphire, and ceramics.
• Machining superalloys, ceramics, glass, and refractory materials.
• Not reactive with any workpiece material.
• No tool changes are required.
• Intricate parts of sharp corners can be machined.
• Workpiece material does not experience hardening.
• Material utilization is high.
• It can machine thin materials.
Limitations

• Slow removal rate.

• Stray cutting cannot be avoided (low accuracy G0.1 mm).
• Tapering effect may occur, especially when drilling in metals.
• Abrasive may get impeded in the work surface.
• Suitable dust collecting systems should be provided.
• Soft materials cannot be machined by the process.
• Silica dust may be a health hazard.
• Ordinary shop air should be filtered to remove moisture and oil.

Abrasive flow machining

Abrasive flow machining (AFM) finishes surfaces and edges by extruding viscous abrasive
media through or across the workpiece. Abrasion occurs only where the flow of the media is
restricted. AFM operates on the principle of using a semi-solid abrasive-laden polymer (called
a "media") to abrade the surface of a workpiece. The abrasive media is a mixture of a polymer
(often a viscoelastic compound) and abrasive particles (such as silicon carbide, aluminium
oxide, or boron carbide). The consistency of the media is crucial as it determines the flow
characteristics and abrasive action.
Working principle
The workpiece is securely clamped between two opposing fixtures that have the necessary
openings or passages through which the abrasive media can flow. The abrasive media is
extruded through the workpiece passages under controlled pressure. As the media flows
through, the abrasive particles grind against the surfaces, removing material and improving the
surface finish. The media can be pushed and pulled back and forth through the workpiece
multiple times to achieve the desired finish. Material is removed from the workpiece surfaces
through the abrasive action of the particles embedded in the media. This is a low-force, high-
precision material removal process. After the process, the workpiece is cleaned to remove any
remaining abrasive media, ensuring a high-quality surface finish.

Advantages of AFM

• AFM is capable of producing very smooth and precise surfaces.

• It is especially useful for finishing internal passages, complex shapes, and difficult-to-
reach areas that are challenging for traditional machining processes.
• The process can be applied to a wide range of materials, including metals, ceramics,
and some polymers, making it suitable for various industries.
• The amount of material removed can be finely controlled by adjusting process
parameters such as media viscosity, abrasive particle size, and flow rate.
• AFM is highly effective in removing burrs from difficult-to-access internal features,
improving the overall quality and performance of components.
Disadvantages of AFM

• The equipment and media used in AFM are expensive

• AFM is generally slower compared to other finishing methods
• The process is primarily for fine finishing and deburring
• The abrasive media must be carefully handled and maintained, as it can degrade over
time, leading to inconsistent results.
Applications of AFM

• AFM is used for finishing turbine blades, fuel system components, and other high-
precision parts that require smooth surfaces to enhance performance and reduce
friction.
• It is employed in finishing critical components like fuel injectors, hydraulic systems,
and transmission parts to ensure reliable operation and longevity.
• The process is used to refine the surfaces of cutting tools, dies, and punches, improving
their wear resistance and cutting performance.
• AFM is used to polish and deburr moulds and dies, ensuring that the produced parts
have high surface quality and dimensional accuracy.
• AFM is used to finish surgical instruments, implants, and other medical devices that
require ultra-smooth surfaces to prevent contamination and enhance biocompatibility.

Abrasive Water Jet Machining

Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) is a non-traditional machining process that uses a high-
velocity jet of water mixed with abrasive particles to cut, shape, or machine materials. It is an
extension of water jet machining (WJM), which uses only water for cutting, and is particularly
useful for materials that are difficult to cut with traditional methods.
Working Principle
Water is pressurized up to 4000-6000 bar (and sometimes even higher) using a high-pressure
pump. The high-pressure water is then forced through a small orifice, typically made of
sapphire or diamond, creating a high-velocity jet of water. This jet is then passed through a
mixing chamber where abrasive particles are mixed with the water. The mixture of water and
abrasive particles exits through a nozzle at high velocity (around 300-900 m/s), creating a
powerful jet that can cut through a wide variety of materials. When the abrasive jet strikes the
material, it removes the material through a combination of erosion (by the high-speed abrasive
particles) and shear forces. The jet can cut intricate shapes, holes, or grooves depending on the
motion of the nozzle.
Advantages of AWJM

• AWJM can cut almost any material, including metals, ceramics, composites, glass,
and polymers.
• Since there is no heat generated during the cutting process, there is no thermal
distortion which is common in processes like laser cutting or EDM.
• The tool (nozzle) does not come into direct contact with the material, so wear and tear
are minimal compared to conventional machining tools.
• The process does not produce harmful fumes or gases, and the waste materials are
often water-soluble or inert, making disposal easier.
• AWJM can achieve very tight tolerances, typically in the range of ±0.1 mm, and can
produce smooth edges without burrs.
• The process is well-suited for cutting complex geometries and shapes, including
internal features and contours.
Disadvantages of AWJM

• The equipment and maintenance costs are relatively high, particularly the cost of the
high-pressure pump and abrasive materials.
• Compared to other machining processes like laser cutting, AWJM is slower, especially
for thick materials.
• The process requires a significant amount of water, which needs to be managed,
filtered, and possibly recycled, increasing operational complexity.
Applications of AWJM

• AWJM is used for cutting hard materials like titanium and composites, often found in
aircraft components.
• It is used for cutting and shaping parts such as brake components, dashboards, and
insulation panels.
• AWJM is ideal for cutting intricate shapes in glass and ceramic materials, which are
difficult to machine using traditional methods.
• It is widely used for cutting metal sheets, plates, and complex components in the
metal fabrication industry.
• AWJM is employed in the manufacture of medical implants and surgical instruments,
particularly for cutting materials like titanium and stainless steel.
• The process is also used in non-metal applications, such as cutting textiles, leather,
and foams in the garment and footwear industries.
• AWJM is popular for creating intricate designs in materials like stone, tile, and metal
for architectural and artistic applications.

Differences in AJM, WJM, AFM, and USM

Feature Abrasive Jet Water Jet Abrasive Abrasive Ultrasonic
Machining (AJM) Machining Flow Water Jet Machining
(WJM) Machining Machining (USM)
(AFM) (AWJM)
Mechanism High-velocity High-pressure Semi-solid High- High-
stream of abrasive stream of pure abrasive- pressure frequency
particles in gas water laden media stream of ultrasonic
flows around water mixed vibrations
the with in abrasive
workpiece abrasives slurry
Abrasive Abrasive particles Pure water Abrasive Water mixed Abrasive
Medium mixed with gas particles with abrasive slurry (fine
mixed with particles particles
polymer suspended
in water)
Nozzle 2 to 10 bar (30 to 4000 to 6000 20 to 100 bar 4000 to 6000 Low
Pressure 150 psi) bar (58,000 to (290 to 1450 bar (58,000 pressure
87,000 psi) psi) to 87,000 (slurry and
psi) ultrasonic
waves)
Material Hard, brittle Wide range of Various Wide range Hard and
Compatibility materials (e.g., materials (e.g., materials of materials, brittle
glass, ceramics) metals, (e.g., metals, including materials
plastics) ceramics) very hard (e.g.,
ones ceramics,
glass)
Cutting Speed Generally slow Generally Low material Faster Moderate,
slower for removal rate, cutting depends on
thick materials focused on speeds for frequency
finishing hard and
 thick and
materials material
Surface Finish Fine finish, though Clean cuts, but Ultra-smooth Smooth cuts, Smooth
rougher compared the surface surface finish surface
to some methods finish may be finishes (0.05 influenced finish,
rougher to 0.1 by abrasive often used
microns Ra) type for precise
machining
Applications Micro-machining, Metal cutting, Polishing, Cutting Precision
etching, deburring, stone cutting, deburring, metals, machining,
cleaning glass cutting, and finishing ceramics, drilling,
food complex composites engraving
parts
Advantages Precision, no Versatile, no High Effective for High
thermal effects, HAZ, minimal precision, no hard precision,
minimal tool wear burr formation tool wear, materials, fine detail,
smooth high- no thermal
finishes precision distortion
Disadvantages Slow cutting High costs, Low material High costs, Slower
speed, limited to water removal rate, nozzle wear, compared
brittle materials management nozzle wear water to some
issues, slow management methods,
for thick issues limited to
materials hard/brittle
materials